example for qualitative research

18 Qualitative Research Examples

Qualitative research is an approach to scientific research that involves using observation to gather and analyze non-numerical, in-depth, and well-contextualized datasets.

It serves as an integral part of academic, professional, and even daily decision-making processes (Baxter & Jack, 2008).

Methods of qualitative research encompass a wide range of techniques, from in-depth personal encounters, like ethnographies (studying cultures in-depth) and autoethnographies (examining one’s own cultural experiences), to collection of diverse perspectives on topics through methods like interviewing focus groups (gatherings of individuals to discuss specific topics).

Qualitative Research Examples

1. ethnography.

Definition: Ethnography is a qualitative research design aimed at exploring cultural phenomena. Rooted in the discipline of anthropology , this research approach investigates the social interactions, behaviors, and perceptions within groups, communities, or organizations.

Ethnographic research is characterized by extended observation of the group, often through direct participation, in the participants’ environment. An ethnographer typically lives with the study group for extended periods, intricately observing their everyday lives (Khan, 2014).

It aims to present a complete, detailed and accurate picture of the observed social life, rituals, symbols, and values from the perspective of the study group.

Example of Ethnographic Research

Title: “ The Everyday Lives of Men: An Ethnographic Investigation of Young Adult Male Identity “

Citation: Evans, J. (2010). The Everyday Lives of Men: An Ethnographic Investigation of Young Adult Male Identity. Peter Lang.

Overview: This study by Evans (2010) provides a rich narrative of young adult male identity as experienced in everyday life. The author immersed himself among a group of young men, participating in their activities and cultivating a deep understanding of their lifestyle, values, and motivations. This research exemplified the ethnographic approach, revealing complexities of the subjects’ identities and societal roles, which could hardly be accessed through other qualitative research designs.

Read my Full Guide on Ethnography Here

2. Autoethnography

Definition: Autoethnography is an approach to qualitative research where the researcher uses their own personal experiences to extend the understanding of a certain group, culture, or setting. Essentially, it allows for the exploration of self within the context of social phenomena.

Unlike traditional ethnography, which focuses on the study of others, autoethnography turns the ethnographic gaze inward, allowing the researcher to use their personal experiences within a culture as rich qualitative data (Durham, 2019).

The objective is to critically appraise one’s personal experiences as they navigate and negotiate cultural, political, and social meanings. The researcher becomes both the observer and the participant, intertwining personal and cultural experiences in the research.

Example of Autoethnographic Research

Title: “ A Day In The Life Of An NHS Nurse “

Citation: Osben, J. (2019). A day in the life of a NHS nurse in 21st Century Britain: An auto-ethnography. The Journal of Autoethnography for Health & Social Care. 1(1).

Overview: This study presents an autoethnography of a day in the life of an NHS nurse (who, of course, is also the researcher). The author uses the research to achieve reflexivity, with the researcher concluding: “Scrutinising my practice and situating it within a wider contextual backdrop has compelled me to significantly increase my level of scrutiny into the driving forces that influence my practice.”

Read my Full Guide on Autoethnography Here

3. Semi-Structured Interviews

Definition: Semi-structured interviews stand as one of the most frequently used methods in qualitative research. These interviews are planned and utilize a set of pre-established questions, but also allow for the interviewer to steer the conversation in other directions based on the responses given by the interviewee.

In semi-structured interviews, the interviewer prepares a guide that outlines the focal points of the discussion. However, the interview is flexible, allowing for more in-depth probing if the interviewer deems it necessary (Qu, & Dumay, 2011). This style of interviewing strikes a balance between structured ones which might limit the discussion, and unstructured ones, which could lack focus.

Example of Semi-Structured Interview Research

Title: “ Factors influencing adherence to cancer treatment in older adults with cancer: a systematic review “

Citation: Puts, M., et al. (2014). Factors influencing adherence to cancer treatment in older adults with cancer: a systematic review. Annals of oncology, 25 (3), 564-577.

Overview: Puts et al. (2014) executed an extensive systematic review in which they conducted semi-structured interviews with older adults suffering from cancer to examine the factors influencing their adherence to cancer treatment. The findings suggested that various factors, including side effects, faith in healthcare professionals, and social support have substantial impacts on treatment adherence. This research demonstrates how semi-structured interviews can provide rich and profound insights into the subjective experiences of patients.

4. Focus Groups

Definition: Focus groups are a qualitative research method that involves organized discussion with a selected group of individuals to gain their perspectives on a specific concept, product, or phenomenon. Typically, these discussions are guided by a moderator.

During a focus group session, the moderator has a list of questions or topics to discuss, and participants are encouraged to interact with each other (Morgan, 2010). This interactivity can stimulate more information and provide a broader understanding of the issue under scrutiny. The open format allows participants to ask questions and respond freely, offering invaluable insights into attitudes, experiences, and group norms.

Example of Focus Group Research

Title: “ Perspectives of Older Adults on Aging Well: A Focus Group Study “

Citation: Halaweh, H., Dahlin-Ivanoff, S., Svantesson, U., & Willén, C. (2018). Perspectives of older adults on aging well: a focus group study. Journal of aging research .

Overview: This study aimed to explore what older adults (aged 60 years and older) perceived to be ‘aging well’. The researchers identified three major themes from their focus group interviews: a sense of well-being, having good physical health, and preserving good mental health. The findings highlight the importance of factors such as positive emotions, social engagement, physical activity, healthy eating habits, and maintaining independence in promoting aging well among older adults.

5. Phenomenology

Definition: Phenomenology, a qualitative research method, involves the examination of lived experiences to gain an in-depth understanding of the essence or underlying meanings of a phenomenon.

The focus of phenomenology lies in meticulously describing participants’ conscious experiences related to the chosen phenomenon (Padilla-Díaz, 2015).

In a phenomenological study, the researcher collects detailed, first-hand perspectives of the participants, typically via in-depth interviews, and then uses various strategies to interpret and structure these experiences, ultimately revealing essential themes (Creswell, 2013). This approach focuses on the perspective of individuals experiencing the phenomenon, seeking to explore, clarify, and understand the meanings they attach to those experiences.

Example of Phenomenology Research

Title: “ A phenomenological approach to experiences with technology: current state, promise, and future directions for research ”

Citation: Cilesiz, S. (2011). A phenomenological approach to experiences with technology: Current state, promise, and future directions for research. Educational Technology Research and Development, 59 , 487-510.

Overview: A phenomenological approach to experiences with technology by Sebnem Cilesiz represents a good starting point for formulating a phenomenological study. With its focus on the ‘essence of experience’, this piece presents methodological, reliability, validity, and data analysis techniques that phenomenologists use to explain how people experience technology in their everyday lives.

6. Grounded Theory

Definition: Grounded theory is a systematic methodology in qualitative research that typically applies inductive reasoning . The primary aim is to develop a theoretical explanation or framework for a process, action, or interaction grounded in, and arising from, empirical data (Birks & Mills, 2015).

In grounded theory, data collection and analysis work together in a recursive process. The researcher collects data, analyses it, and then collects more data based on the evolving understanding of the research context. This ongoing process continues until a comprehensive theory that represents the data and the associated phenomenon emerges – a point known as theoretical saturation (Charmaz, 2014).

Example of Grounded Theory Research

Title: “ Student Engagement in High School Classrooms from the Perspective of Flow Theory “

Citation: Shernoff, D. J., Csikszentmihalyi, M., Shneider, B., & Shernoff, E. S. (2003). Student engagement in high school classrooms from the perspective of flow theory. School Psychology Quarterly, 18 (2), 158–176.

Overview: Shernoff and colleagues (2003) used grounded theory to explore student engagement in high school classrooms. The researchers collected data through student self-reports, interviews, and observations. Key findings revealed that academic challenge, student autonomy, and teacher support emerged as the most significant factors influencing students’ engagement, demonstrating how grounded theory can illuminate complex dynamics within real-world contexts.

7. Narrative Research

Definition: Narrative research is a qualitative research method dedicated to storytelling and understanding how individuals experience the world. It focuses on studying an individual’s life and experiences as narrated by that individual (Polkinghorne, 2013).

In narrative research, the researcher collects data through methods such as interviews, observations , and document analysis. The emphasis is on the stories told by participants – narratives that reflect their experiences, thoughts, and feelings.

These stories are then interpreted by the researcher, who attempts to understand the meaning the participant attributes to these experiences (Josselson, 2011).

Example of Narrative Research

Title: “Narrative Structures and the Language of the Self”

Citation: McAdams, D. P., Josselson, R., & Lieblich, A. (2006). Identity and story: Creating self in narrative . American Psychological Association.

Overview: In this innovative study, McAdams et al. (2006) employed narrative research to explore how individuals construct their identities through the stories they tell about themselves. By examining personal narratives, the researchers discerned patterns associated with characters, motivations, conflicts, and resolutions, contributing valuable insights about the relationship between narrative and individual identity.

8. Case Study Research

Definition: Case study research is a qualitative research method that involves an in-depth investigation of a single instance or event: a case. These ‘cases’ can range from individuals, groups, or entities to specific projects, programs, or strategies (Creswell, 2013).

The case study method typically uses multiple sources of information for comprehensive contextual analysis. It aims to explore and understand the complexity and uniqueness of a particular case in a real-world context (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). This investigation could result in a detailed description of the case, a process for its development, or an exploration of a related issue or problem.

Example of Case Study Research

Title: “ Teacher’s Role in Fostering Preschoolers’ Computational Thinking: An Exploratory Case Study “

Citation: Wang, X. C., Choi, Y., Benson, K., Eggleston, C., & Weber, D. (2021). Teacher’s role in fostering preschoolers’ computational thinking: An exploratory case study. Early Education and Development , 32 (1), 26-48.

Overview: This study investigates the role of teachers in promoting computational thinking skills in preschoolers. The study utilized a qualitative case study methodology to examine the computational thinking scaffolding strategies employed by a teacher interacting with three preschoolers in a small group setting. The findings highlight the importance of teachers’ guidance in fostering computational thinking practices such as problem reformulation/decomposition, systematic testing, and debugging.

Read about some Famous Case Studies in Psychology Here

9. Participant Observation

Definition: Participant observation has the researcher immerse themselves in a group or community setting to observe the behavior of its members. It is similar to ethnography, but generally, the researcher isn’t embedded for a long period of time.

The researcher, being a participant, engages in daily activities, interactions, and events as a way of conducting a detailed study of a particular social phenomenon (Kawulich, 2005).

The method involves long-term engagement in the field, maintaining detailed records of observed events, informal interviews, direct participation, and reflexivity. This approach allows for a holistic view of the participants’ lived experiences, behaviours, and interactions within their everyday environment (Dewalt, 2011).

Example of Participant Observation Research

Title: Conflict in the boardroom: a participant observation study of supervisory board dynamics

Citation: Heemskerk, E. M., Heemskerk, K., & Wats, M. M. (2017). Conflict in the boardroom: a participant observation study of supervisory board dynamics. Journal of Management & Governance , 21 , 233-263.

Overview: This study examined how conflicts within corporate boards affect their performance. The researchers used a participant observation method, where they actively engaged with 11 supervisory boards and observed their dynamics. They found that having a shared understanding of the board’s role called a common framework, improved performance by reducing relationship conflicts, encouraging task conflicts, and minimizing conflicts between the board and CEO.

10. Non-Participant Observation

Definition: Non-participant observation is a qualitative research method in which the researcher observes the phenomena of interest without actively participating in the situation, setting, or community being studied.

This method allows the researcher to maintain a position of distance, as they are solely an observer and not a participant in the activities being observed (Kawulich, 2005).

During non-participant observation, the researcher typically records field notes on the actions, interactions, and behaviors observed , focusing on specific aspects of the situation deemed relevant to the research question.

This could include verbal and nonverbal communication , activities, interactions, and environmental contexts (Angrosino, 2007). They could also use video or audio recordings or other methods to collect data.

Example of Non-Participant Observation Research

Title: Mental Health Nurses’ attitudes towards mental illness and recovery-oriented practice in acute inpatient psychiatric units: A non-participant observation study

Citation: Sreeram, A., Cross, W. M., & Townsin, L. (2023). Mental Health Nurses’ attitudes towards mental illness and recovery‐oriented practice in acute inpatient psychiatric units: A non‐participant observation study. International Journal of Mental Health Nursing .

Overview: This study investigated the attitudes of mental health nurses towards mental illness and recovery-oriented practice in acute inpatient psychiatric units. The researchers used a non-participant observation method, meaning they observed the nurses without directly participating in their activities. The findings shed light on the nurses’ perspectives and behaviors, providing valuable insights into their attitudes toward mental health and recovery-focused care in these settings.

11. Content Analysis

Definition: Content Analysis involves scrutinizing textual, visual, or spoken content to categorize and quantify information. The goal is to identify patterns, themes, biases, or other characteristics (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005).

Content Analysis is widely used in various disciplines for a multitude of purposes. Researchers typically use this method to distill large amounts of unstructured data, like interview transcripts, newspaper articles, or social media posts, into manageable and meaningful chunks.

When wielded appropriately, Content Analysis can illuminate the density and frequency of certain themes within a dataset, provide insights into how specific terms or concepts are applied contextually, and offer inferences about the meanings of their content and use (Duriau, Reger, & Pfarrer, 2007).

Example of Content Analysis

Title: Framing European politics: A content analysis of press and television news .

Citation: Semetko, H. A., & Valkenburg, P. M. (2000). Framing European politics: A content analysis of press and television news. Journal of Communication, 50 (2), 93-109.

Overview: This study analyzed press and television news articles about European politics using a method called content analysis. The researchers examined the prevalence of different “frames” in the news, which are ways of presenting information to shape audience perceptions. They found that the most common frames were attribution of responsibility, conflict, economic consequences, human interest, and morality.

Read my Full Guide on Content Analysis Here

12. Discourse Analysis

Definition: Discourse Analysis, a qualitative research method, interprets the meanings, functions, and coherence of certain languages in context.

Discourse analysis is typically understood through social constructionism, critical theory , and poststructuralism and used for understanding how language constructs social concepts (Cheek, 2004).

Discourse Analysis offers great breadth, providing tools to examine spoken or written language, often beyond the level of the sentence. It enables researchers to scrutinize how text and talk articulate social and political interactions and hierarchies.

Insight can be garnered from different conversations, institutional text, and media coverage to understand how topics are addressed or framed within a specific social context (Jorgensen & Phillips, 2002).

Example of Discourse Analysis

Title: The construction of teacher identities in educational policy documents: A critical discourse analysis

Citation: Thomas, S. (2005). The construction of teacher identities in educational policy documents: A critical discourse analysis. Critical Studies in Education, 46 (2), 25-44.

Overview: The author examines how an education policy in one state of Australia positions teacher professionalism and teacher identities. While there are competing discourses about professional identity, the policy framework privileges a  narrative that frames the ‘good’ teacher as one that accepts ever-tightening control and regulation over their professional practice.

Read my Full Guide on Discourse Analysis Here

13. Action Research

Definition: Action Research is a qualitative research technique that is employed to bring about change while simultaneously studying the process and results of that change.

This method involves a cyclical process of fact-finding, action, evaluation, and reflection (Greenwood & Levin, 2016).

Typically, Action Research is used in the fields of education, social sciences , and community development. The process isn’t just about resolving an issue but also developing knowledge that can be used in the future to address similar or related problems.

The researcher plays an active role in the research process, which is normally broken down into four steps: 

• developing a plan to improve what is currently being done
• implementing the plan
• observing the effects of the plan, and
• reflecting upon these effects (Smith, 2010).

Example of Action Research

Title: Using Digital Sandbox Gaming to Improve Creativity Within Boys’ Writing

Citation: Ellison, M., & Drew, C. (2020). Using digital sandbox gaming to improve creativity within boys’ writing. Journal of Research in Childhood Education , 34 (2), 277-287.

Overview: This was a research study one of my research students completed in his own classroom under my supervision. He implemented a digital game-based approach to literacy teaching with boys and interviewed his students to see if the use of games as stimuli for storytelling helped draw them into the learning experience.

Read my Full Guide on Action Research Here

14. Semiotic Analysis

Definition: Semiotic Analysis is a qualitative method of research that interprets signs and symbols in communication to understand sociocultural phenomena. It stems from semiotics, the study of signs and symbols and their use or interpretation (Chandler, 2017).

In a Semiotic Analysis, signs (anything that represents something else) are interpreted based on their significance and the role they play in representing ideas.

This type of research often involves the examination of images, sounds, and word choice to uncover the embedded sociocultural meanings. For example, an advertisement for a car might be studied to learn more about societal views on masculinity or success (Berger, 2010).

Example of Semiotic Research

Title: Shielding the learned body: a semiotic analysis of school badges in New South Wales, Australia

Citation: Symes, C. (2023). Shielding the learned body: a semiotic analysis of school badges in New South Wales, Australia. Semiotica , 2023 (250), 167-190.

Overview: This study examines school badges in New South Wales, Australia, and explores their significance through a semiotic analysis. The badges, which are part of the school’s visual identity, are seen as symbolic representations that convey meanings. The analysis reveals that these badges often draw on heraldic models, incorporating elements like colors, names, motifs, and mottoes that reflect local culture and history, thus connecting students to their national identity. Additionally, the study highlights how some schools have shifted from traditional badges to modern logos and slogans, reflecting a more business-oriented approach.

15. Qualitative Longitudinal Studies

Definition: Qualitative Longitudinal Studies are a research method that involves repeated observation of the same items over an extended period of time.

Unlike a snapshot perspective, this method aims to piece together individual histories and examine the influences and impacts of change (Neale, 2019).

Qualitative Longitudinal Studies provide an in-depth understanding of change as it happens, including changes in people’s lives, their perceptions, and their behaviors.

For instance, this method could be used to follow a group of students through their schooling years to understand the evolution of their learning behaviors and attitudes towards education (Saldaña, 2003).

Example of Qualitative Longitudinal Research

Title: Patient and caregiver perspectives on managing pain in advanced cancer: a qualitative longitudinal study

Citation: Hackett, J., Godfrey, M., & Bennett, M. I. (2016). Patient and caregiver perspectives on managing pain in advanced cancer: a qualitative longitudinal study.  Palliative medicine ,  30 (8), 711-719.

Overview: This article examines how patients and their caregivers manage pain in advanced cancer through a qualitative longitudinal study. The researchers interviewed patients and caregivers at two different time points and collected audio diaries to gain insights into their experiences, making this study longitudinal.

Read my Full Guide on Longitudinal Research Here

16. Open-Ended Surveys

Definition: Open-Ended Surveys are a type of qualitative research method where respondents provide answers in their own words. Unlike closed-ended surveys, which limit responses to predefined options, open-ended surveys allow for expansive and unsolicited explanations (Fink, 2013).

Open-ended surveys are commonly used in a range of fields, from market research to social studies. As they don’t force respondents into predefined response categories, these surveys help to draw out rich, detailed data that might uncover new variables or ideas.

For example, an open-ended survey might be used to understand customer opinions about a new product or service (Lavrakas, 2008).

Contrast this to a quantitative closed-ended survey, like a Likert scale, which could theoretically help us to come up with generalizable data but is restricted by the questions on the questionnaire, meaning new and surprising data and insights can’t emerge from the survey results in the same way.

Example of Open-Ended Survey Research

Title: Advantages and disadvantages of technology in relationships: Findings from an open-ended survey

Citation: Hertlein, K. M., & Ancheta, K. (2014). Advantages and disadvantages of technology in relationships: Findings from an open-ended survey.  The Qualitative Report ,  19 (11), 1-11.

Overview: This article examines the advantages and disadvantages of technology in couple relationships through an open-ended survey method. Researchers analyzed responses from 410 undergraduate students to understand how technology affects relationships. They found that technology can contribute to relationship development, management, and enhancement, but it can also create challenges such as distancing, lack of clarity, and impaired trust.

17. Naturalistic Observation

Definition: Naturalistic Observation is a type of qualitative research method that involves observing individuals in their natural environments without interference or manipulation by the researcher.

Naturalistic observation is often used when conducting research on behaviors that cannot be controlled or manipulated in a laboratory setting (Kawulich, 2005).

It is frequently used in the fields of psychology, sociology, and anthropology. For instance, to understand the social dynamics in a schoolyard, a researcher could spend time observing the children interact during their recess, noting their behaviors, interactions, and conflicts without imposing their presence on the children’s activities (Forsyth, 2010).

Example of Naturalistic Observation Research

Title: Dispositional mindfulness in daily life: A naturalistic observation study

Citation: Kaplan, D. M., Raison, C. L., Milek, A., Tackman, A. M., Pace, T. W., & Mehl, M. R. (2018). Dispositional mindfulness in daily life: A naturalistic observation study. PloS one , 13 (11), e0206029.

Overview: In this study, researchers conducted two studies: one exploring assumptions about mindfulness and behavior, and the other using naturalistic observation to examine actual behavioral manifestations of mindfulness. They found that trait mindfulness is associated with a heightened perceptual focus in conversations, suggesting that being mindful is expressed primarily through sharpened attention rather than observable behavioral or social differences.

Read my Full Guide on Naturalistic Observation Here

18. Photo-Elicitation

Definition: Photo-elicitation utilizes photographs as a means to trigger discussions and evoke responses during interviews. This strategy aids in bringing out topics of discussion that may not emerge through verbal prompting alone (Harper, 2002).

Traditionally, Photo-Elicitation has been useful in various fields such as education, psychology, and sociology. The method involves the researcher or participants taking photographs, which are then used as prompts for discussion.

For instance, a researcher studying urban environmental issues might invite participants to photograph areas in their neighborhood that they perceive as environmentally detrimental, and then discuss each photo in depth (Clark-Ibáñez, 2004).

Example of Photo-Elicitation Research

Title: Early adolescent food routines: A photo-elicitation study

Citation: Green, E. M., Spivak, C., & Dollahite, J. S. (2021). Early adolescent food routines: A photo-elicitation study. Appetite, 158 .

Overview: This study focused on early adolescents (ages 10-14) and their food routines. Researchers conducted in-depth interviews using a photo-elicitation approach, where participants took photos related to their food choices and experiences. Through analysis, the study identified various routines and three main themes: family, settings, and meals/foods consumed, revealing how early adolescents view and are influenced by their eating routines.

Features of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is a research method focused on understanding the meaning individuals or groups attribute to a social or human problem (Creswell, 2013).

Some key features of this method include:

• Naturalistic Inquiry: Qualitative research happens in the natural setting of the phenomena, aiming to understand “real world” situations (Patton, 2015). This immersion in the field or subject allows the researcher to gather a deep understanding of the subject matter.
• Emphasis on Process: It aims to understand how events unfold over time rather than focusing solely on outcomes (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). The process-oriented nature of qualitative research allows researchers to investigate sequences, timing, and changes.
• Interpretive: It involves interpreting and making sense of phenomena in terms of the meanings people assign to them (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011). This interpretive element allows for rich, nuanced insights into human behavior and experiences.
• Holistic Perspective: Qualitative research seeks to understand the whole phenomenon rather than focusing on individual components (Creswell, 2013). It emphasizes the complex interplay of factors, providing a richer, more nuanced view of the research subject.
• Prioritizes Depth over Breadth: Qualitative research favors depth of understanding over breadth, typically involving a smaller but more focused sample size (Hennink, Hutter, & Bailey, 2020). This enables detailed exploration of the phenomena of interest, often leading to rich and complex data.

Qualitative vs Quantitative Research

Qualitative research centers on exploring and understanding the meaning individuals or groups attribute to a social or human problem (Creswell, 2013).

It involves an in-depth approach to the subject matter, aiming to capture the richness and complexity of human experience.

Examples include conducting interviews, observing behaviors, or analyzing text and images.

There are strengths inherent in this approach. In its focus on understanding subjective experiences and interpretations, qualitative research can yield rich and detailed data that quantitative research may overlook (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011).

Additionally, qualitative research is adaptive, allowing the researcher to respond to new directions and insights as they emerge during the research process.

However, there are also limitations. Because of the interpretive nature of this research, findings may not be generalizable to a broader population (Marshall & Rossman, 2014). Well-designed quantitative research, on the other hand, can be generalizable.

Moreover, the reliability and validity of qualitative data can be challenging to establish due to its subjective nature, unlike quantitative research, which is ideally more objective.

Compare Qualitative and Quantitative Research Methodologies in This Guide Here

In conclusion, qualitative research methods provide distinctive ways to explore social phenomena and understand nuances that quantitative approaches might overlook. Each method, from Ethnography to Photo-Elicitation, presents its strengths and weaknesses but they all offer valuable means of investigating complex, real-world situations. The goal for the researcher is not to find a definitive tool, but to employ the method best suited for their research questions and the context at hand (Almalki, 2016). Above all, these methods underscore the richness of human experience and deepen our understanding of the world around us.

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Qualitative Research Methods: Types, Analysis + Examples

Qualitative research is based on the disciplines of social sciences like psychology, sociology, and anthropology. Therefore, the qualitative research methods allow for in-depth and further probing and questioning of respondents based on their responses. The interviewer/researcher also tries to understand their motivation and feelings. Understanding how your audience makes decisions can help derive conclusions in market research.

What is qualitative research?

Qualitative research is defined as a market research method that focuses on obtaining data through open-ended and conversational communication .

This method is about “what” people think and “why” they think so. For example, consider a convenience store looking to improve its patronage. A systematic observation concludes that more men are visiting this store. One good method to determine why women were not visiting the store is conducting an in-depth interview method with potential customers.

For example, after successfully interviewing female customers and visiting nearby stores and malls, the researchers selected participants through random sampling . As a result, it was discovered that the store didn’t have enough items for women.

So fewer women were visiting the store, which was understood only by personally interacting with them and understanding why they didn’t visit the store because there were more male products than female ones.

Gather research insights

Types of qualitative research methods with examples

Qualitative research methods are designed in a manner that helps reveal the behavior and perception of a target audience with reference to a particular topic. There are different types of qualitative research methods, such as in-depth interviews, focus groups, ethnographic research, content analysis, and case study research that are usually used.

The results of qualitative methods are more descriptive, and the inferences can be drawn quite easily from the obtained data .

Qualitative research methods originated in the social and behavioral research sciences. Today, our world is more complicated, and it is difficult to understand what people think and perceive. Online research methods make it easier to understand that as it is a more communicative and descriptive analysis .

The following are the qualitative research methods that are frequently used. Also, read about qualitative research examples :

1. One-on-one interview

Conducting in-depth interviews is one of the most common qualitative research methods. It is a personal interview that is carried out with one respondent at a time. This is purely a conversational method and invites opportunities to get details in depth from the respondent.

One of the advantages of this method is that it provides a great opportunity to gather precise data about what people believe and their motivations . If the researcher is well experienced, asking the right questions can help him/her collect meaningful data. If they should need more information, the researchers should ask such follow-up questions that will help them collect more information.

These interviews can be performed face-to-face or on the phone and usually can last between half an hour to two hours or even more. When the in-depth interview is conducted face to face, it gives a better opportunity to read the respondents’ body language and match the responses.

2. Focus groups

A focus group is also a commonly used qualitative research method used in data collection. A focus group usually includes a limited number of respondents (6-10) from within your target market.

The main aim of the focus group is to find answers to the “why, ” “what,” and “how” questions. One advantage of focus groups is you don’t necessarily need to interact with the group in person. Nowadays, focus groups can be sent an online survey on various devices, and responses can be collected at the click of a button.

Focus groups are an expensive method as compared to other online qualitative research methods. Typically, they are used to explain complex processes. This method is very useful for market research on new products and testing new concepts.

3. Ethnographic research

Ethnographic research is the most in-depth observational research method that studies people in their naturally occurring environment.

This method requires the researchers to adapt to the target audiences’ environments, which could be anywhere from an organization to a city or any remote location. Here, geographical constraints can be an issue while collecting data.

This research design aims to understand the cultures, challenges, motivations, and settings that occur. Instead of relying on interviews and discussions, you experience the natural settings firsthand.

This type of research method can last from a few days to a few years, as it involves in-depth observation and collecting data on those grounds. It’s a challenging and time-consuming method and solely depends on the researcher’s expertise to analyze, observe, and infer the data.

4. Case study research

T he case study method has evolved over the past few years and developed into a valuable quality research method. As the name suggests, it is used for explaining an organization or an entity.

This type of research method is used within a number of areas like education, social sciences, and similar. This method may look difficult to operate; however , it is one of the simplest ways of conducting research as it involves a deep dive and thorough understanding of the data collection methods and inferring the data.

5. Record keeping

This method makes use of the already existing reliable documents and similar sources of information as the data source. This data can be used in new research. This is similar to going to a library. There, one can go over books and other reference material to collect relevant data that can likely be used in the research.

6. Process of observation

Qualitative Observation is a process of research that uses subjective methodologies to gather systematic information or data. Since the focus on qualitative observation is the research process of using subjective methodologies to gather information or data. Qualitative observation is primarily used to equate quality differences.

Qualitative observation deals with the 5 major sensory organs and their functioning – sight, smell, touch, taste, and hearing. This doesn’t involve measurements or numbers but instead characteristics.

Explore Insightfully Contextual Inquiry in Qualitative Research

Qualitative research: data collection and analysis

A. qualitative data collection.

Qualitative data collection allows collecting data that is non-numeric and helps us to explore how decisions are made and provide us with detailed insight. For reaching such conclusions the data that is collected should be holistic, rich, and nuanced and findings to emerge through careful analysis.

• Whatever method a researcher chooses for collecting qualitative data, one aspect is very clear the process will generate a large amount of data. In addition to the variety of methods available, there are also different methods of collecting and recording the data.

For example, if the qualitative data is collected through a focus group or one-to-one discussion, there will be handwritten notes or video recorded tapes. If there are recording they should be transcribed and before the process of data analysis can begin.

• As a rough guide, it can take a seasoned researcher 8-10 hours to transcribe the recordings of an interview, which can generate roughly 20-30 pages of dialogues. Many researchers also like to maintain separate folders to maintain the recording collected from the different focus group. This helps them compartmentalize the data collected.
• In case there are running notes taken, which are also known as field notes, they are helpful in maintaining comments, environmental contexts, environmental analysis , nonverbal cues etc. These filed notes are helpful and can be compared while transcribing audio recorded data. Such notes are usually informal but should be secured in a similar manner as the video recordings or the audio tapes.

B. Qualitative data analysis

Qualitative data analysis such as notes, videos, audio recordings images, and text documents. One of the most used methods for qualitative data analysis is text analysis.

Text analysis is a  data analysis method that is distinctly different from all other qualitative research methods, where researchers analyze the social life of the participants in the research study and decode the words, actions, etc. 

There are images also that are used in this research study and the researchers analyze the context in which the images are used and draw inferences from them. In the last decade, text analysis through what is shared on social media platforms has gained supreme popularity.

Characteristics of qualitative research methods

• Qualitative research methods usually collect data at the sight, where the participants are experiencing issues or research problems . These are real-time data and rarely bring the participants out of the geographic locations to collect information.
• Qualitative researchers typically gather multiple forms of data, such as interviews, observations, and documents, rather than rely on a single data source .
• This type of research method works towards solving complex issues by breaking down into meaningful inferences, that is easily readable and understood by all.
• Since it’s a more communicative method, people can build their trust on the researcher and the information thus obtained is raw and unadulterated.

Qualitative research method case study

Let’s take the example of a bookstore owner who is looking for ways to improve their sales and customer outreach. An online community of members who were loyal patrons of the bookstore were interviewed and related questions were asked and the questions were answered by them.

At the end of the interview, it was realized that most of the books in the stores were suitable for adults and there were not enough options for children or teenagers.

By conducting this qualitative research the bookstore owner realized what the shortcomings were and what were the feelings of the readers. Through this research now the bookstore owner can now keep books for different age categories and can improve his sales and customer outreach.

Such qualitative research method examples can serve as the basis to indulge in further quantitative research , which provides remedies.

When to use qualitative research

Researchers make use of qualitative research techniques when they need to capture accurate, in-depth insights. It is very useful to capture “factual data”. Here are some examples of when to use qualitative research.

• Developing a new product or generating an idea.
• Studying your product/brand or service to strengthen your marketing strategy.
• To understand your strengths and weaknesses.
• Understanding purchase behavior.
• To study the reactions of your audience to marketing campaigns and other communications.
• Exploring market demographics, segments, and customer care groups.
• Gathering perception data of a brand, company, or product.

LEARN ABOUT: Steps in Qualitative Research

Qualitative research methods vs quantitative research methods

The basic differences between qualitative research methods and quantitative research methods are simple and straightforward. They differ in:

• Their analytical objectives
• Types of questions asked
• Types of data collection instruments
• Forms of data they produce
• Degree of flexibility

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Qualitative research: methods and examples

Last updated

13 April 2023

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Qualitative research involves gathering and evaluating non-numerical information to comprehend concepts, perspectives, and experiences. It’s also helpful for obtaining in-depth insights into a certain subject or generating new research ideas. 

As a result, qualitative research is practical if you want to try anything new or produce new ideas.

There are various ways you can conduct qualitative research. In this article, you'll learn more about qualitative research methodologies, including when you should use them.

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• What is qualitative research?

Qualitative research is a broad term describing various research types that rely on asking open-ended questions. Qualitative research investigates “how” or “why” certain phenomena occur. It is about discovering the inherent nature of something.

The primary objective of qualitative research is to understand an individual's ideas, points of view, and feelings. In this way, collecting in-depth knowledge of a specific topic is possible. Knowing your audience's feelings about a particular subject is important for making reasonable research conclusions.

Unlike quantitative research , this approach does not involve collecting numerical, objective data for statistical analysis. Qualitative research is used extensively in education, sociology, health science, history, and anthropology.

• Types of qualitative research methodology

Typically, qualitative research aims at uncovering the attitudes and behavior of the target audience concerning a specific topic. For example,  “How would you describe your experience as a new Dovetail user?”

Some of the methods for conducting qualitative analysis include:

Focus groups

Hosting a focus group is a popular qualitative research method. It involves obtaining qualitative data from a limited sample of participants. In a moderated version of a focus group, the moderator asks participants a series of predefined questions. They aim to interact and build a group discussion that reveals their preferences, candid thoughts, and experiences.

Unmoderated, online focus groups are increasingly popular because they eliminate the need to interact with people face to face.

Focus groups can be more cost-effective than 1:1 interviews or studying a group in a natural setting and reporting one’s observations.

Focus groups make it possible to gather multiple points of view quickly and efficiently, making them an excellent choice for testing new concepts or conducting market research on a new product.

However, there are some potential drawbacks to this method. It may be unsuitable for sensitive or controversial topics. Participants might be reluctant to disclose their true feelings or respond falsely to conform to what they believe is the socially acceptable answer (known as response bias).

Case study research

A case study is an in-depth evaluation of a specific person, incident, organization, or society. This type of qualitative research has evolved into a broadly applied research method in education, law, business, and the social sciences.

Even though case study research may appear challenging to implement, it is one of the most direct research methods. It requires detailed analysis, broad-ranging data collection methodologies, and a degree of existing knowledge about the subject area under investigation.

Historical model

The historical approach is a distinct research method that deeply examines previous events to better understand the present and forecast future occurrences of the same phenomena. Its primary goal is to evaluate the impacts of history on the present and hence discover comparable patterns in the present to predict future outcomes.

Oral history

This qualitative data collection method involves gathering verbal testimonials from individuals about their personal experiences. It is widely used in historical disciplines to offer counterpoints to established historical facts and narratives. The most common methods of gathering oral history are audio recordings, analysis of auto-biographical text, videos, and interviews.

Qualitative observation

One of the most fundamental, oldest research methods, qualitative observation , is the process through which a researcher collects data using their senses of sight, smell, hearing, etc. It is used to observe the properties of the subject being studied. For example, “What does it look like?” As research methods go, it is subjective and depends on researchers’ first-hand experiences to obtain information, so it is prone to bias. However, it is an excellent way to start a broad line of inquiry like, “What is going on here?”

Record keeping and review

Record keeping uses existing documents and relevant data sources that can be employed for future studies. It is equivalent to visiting the library and going through publications or any other reference material to gather important facts that will likely be used in the research.

Grounded theory approach

The grounded theory approach is a commonly used research method employed across a variety of different studies. It offers a unique way to gather, interpret, and analyze. With this approach, data is gathered and analyzed simultaneously.  Existing analysis frames and codes are disregarded, and data is analyzed inductively, with new codes and frames generated from the research.

Ethnographic research

Ethnography  is a descriptive form of a qualitative study of people and their cultures. Its primary goal is to study people's behavior in their natural environment. This method necessitates that the researcher adapts to their target audience's setting. 

Thereby, you will be able to understand their motivation, lifestyle, ambitions, traditions, and culture in situ. But, the researcher must be prepared to deal with geographical constraints while collecting data i.e., audiences can’t be studied in a laboratory or research facility.

This study can last from a couple of days to several years. Thus, it is time-consuming and complicated, requiring you to have both the time to gather the relevant data as well as the expertise in analyzing, observing, and interpreting data to draw meaningful conclusions.

Narrative framework

A narrative framework is a qualitative research approach that relies on people's written text or visual images. It entails people analyzing these events or narratives to determine certain topics or issues. With this approach, you can understand how people represent themselves and their experiences to a larger audience.

Phenomenological approach

The phenomenological study seeks to investigate the experiences of a particular phenomenon within a group of individuals or communities. It analyzes a certain event through interviews with persons who have witnessed it to determine the connections between their views. Even though this method relies heavily on interviews, other data sources (recorded notes), and observations could be employed to enhance the findings.

• Qualitative research methods (tools)

Some of the instruments involved in qualitative research include:

Document research: Also known as document analysis because it involves evaluating written documents. These can include personal and non-personal materials like archives, policy publications, yearly reports, diaries, or letters.

Focus groups:  This is where a researcher poses questions and generates conversation among a group of people. The major goal of focus groups is to examine participants' experiences and knowledge, including research into how and why individuals act in various ways.

Secondary study: Involves acquiring existing information from texts, images, audio, or video recordings.

Observations:   This requires thorough field notes on everything you see, hear, or experience. Compared to reported conduct or opinion, this study method can assist you in getting insights into a specific situation and observable behaviors.

Structured interviews :  In this approach, you will directly engage people one-on-one. Interviews are ideal for learning about a person's subjective beliefs, motivations, and encounters.

Surveys:  This is when you distribute questionnaires containing open-ended questions

• What are common examples of qualitative research?

Everyday examples of qualitative research include:

Conducting a demographic analysis of a business

For instance, suppose you own a business such as a grocery store (or any store) and believe it caters to a broad customer base, but after conducting a demographic analysis, you discover that most of your customers are men.

You could do 1:1 interviews with female customers to learn why they don't shop at your store.

In this case, interviewing potential female customers should clarify why they don't find your shop appealing. It could be because of the products you sell or a need for greater brand awareness, among other possible reasons.

Launching or testing a new product

Suppose you are the product manager at a SaaS company looking to introduce a new product. Focus groups can be an excellent way to determine whether your product is marketable.

In this instance, you could hold a focus group with a sample group drawn from your intended audience. The group will explore the product based on its new features while you ensure adequate data on how users react to the new features. The data you collect will be key to making sales and marketing decisions.

Conducting studies to explain buyers' behaviors

You can also use qualitative research to understand existing buyer behavior better. Marketers analyze historical information linked to their businesses and industries to see when purchasers buy more.

Qualitative research can help you determine when to target new clients and peak seasons to boost sales by investigating the reason behind these behaviors.

• Qualitative research: data collection

Data collection is gathering information on predetermined variables to gain appropriate answers, test hypotheses, and analyze results. Researchers will collect non-numerical data for qualitative data collection to obtain detailed explanations and draw conclusions.

To get valid findings and achieve a conclusion in qualitative research, researchers must collect comprehensive and multifaceted data.

Qualitative data is usually gathered through interviews or focus groups with videotapes or handwritten notes. If there are recordings, they are transcribed before the data analysis process. Researchers keep separate folders for the recordings acquired from each focus group when collecting qualitative research data to categorize the data.

• Qualitative research: data analysis

Qualitative data analysis is organizing, examining, and interpreting qualitative data. Its main objective is identifying trends and patterns, responding to research questions, and recommending actions based on the findings. Textual analysis is a popular method for analyzing qualitative data.

Textual analysis differs from other qualitative research approaches in that researchers consider the social circumstances of study participants to decode their words, behaviors, and broader meaning. 

Learn more about qualitative research data analysis software

• When to use qualitative research

Qualitative research is helpful in various situations, particularly when a researcher wants to capture accurate, in-depth insights. 

Here are some instances when qualitative research can be valuable:

Examining your product or service to improve your marketing approach

When researching market segments, demographics, and customer service teams

Identifying client language when you want to design a quantitative survey

When attempting to comprehend your or someone else's strengths and weaknesses

Assessing feelings and beliefs about societal and public policy matters

Collecting information about a business or product's perception

Analyzing your target audience's reactions to marketing efforts

When launching a new product or coming up with a new idea

When seeking to evaluate buyers' purchasing patterns

• Qualitative research methods vs. quantitative research methods

Qualitative research examines people's ideas and what influences their perception, whereas quantitative research draws conclusions based on numbers and measurements.

Qualitative research is descriptive, and its primary goal is to comprehensively understand people's attitudes, behaviors, and ideas.

In contrast, quantitative research is more restrictive because it relies on numerical data and analyzes statistical data to make decisions. This research method assists researchers in gaining an initial grasp of the subject, which deals with numbers. For instance, the number of customers likely to purchase your products or use your services.

What is the most important feature of qualitative research?

A distinguishing feature of qualitative research is that it’s conducted in a real-world setting instead of a simulated environment. The researcher is examining actual phenomena instead of experimenting with different variables to see what outcomes (data) might result.

Can I use qualitative and quantitative approaches together in a study?

Yes, combining qualitative and quantitative research approaches happens all the time and is known as mixed methods research. For example, you could study individuals’ perceived risk in a certain scenario, such as how people rate the safety or riskiness of a given neighborhood. Simultaneously, you could analyze historical data objectively, indicating how safe or dangerous that area has been in the last year. To get the most out of mixed-method research, it’s important to understand the pros and cons of each methodology, so you can create a thoughtfully designed study that will yield compelling results.

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Home » Qualitative Research – Methods, Analysis Types and Guide

Qualitative Research – Methods, Analysis Types and Guide

Table of Contents

Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is a type of research methodology that focuses on exploring and understanding people’s beliefs, attitudes, behaviors, and experiences through the collection and analysis of non-numerical data. It seeks to answer research questions through the examination of subjective data, such as interviews, focus groups, observations, and textual analysis.

Qualitative research aims to uncover the meaning and significance of social phenomena, and it typically involves a more flexible and iterative approach to data collection and analysis compared to quantitative research. Qualitative research is often used in fields such as sociology, anthropology, psychology, and education.

Qualitative Research Methods

Qualitative Research Methods are as follows:

One-to-One Interview

This method involves conducting an interview with a single participant to gain a detailed understanding of their experiences, attitudes, and beliefs. One-to-one interviews can be conducted in-person, over the phone, or through video conferencing. The interviewer typically uses open-ended questions to encourage the participant to share their thoughts and feelings. One-to-one interviews are useful for gaining detailed insights into individual experiences.

Focus Groups

This method involves bringing together a group of people to discuss a specific topic in a structured setting. The focus group is led by a moderator who guides the discussion and encourages participants to share their thoughts and opinions. Focus groups are useful for generating ideas and insights, exploring social norms and attitudes, and understanding group dynamics.

Ethnographic Studies

This method involves immersing oneself in a culture or community to gain a deep understanding of its norms, beliefs, and practices. Ethnographic studies typically involve long-term fieldwork and observation, as well as interviews and document analysis. Ethnographic studies are useful for understanding the cultural context of social phenomena and for gaining a holistic understanding of complex social processes.

Text Analysis

This method involves analyzing written or spoken language to identify patterns and themes. Text analysis can be quantitative or qualitative. Qualitative text analysis involves close reading and interpretation of texts to identify recurring themes, concepts, and patterns. Text analysis is useful for understanding media messages, public discourse, and cultural trends.

This method involves an in-depth examination of a single person, group, or event to gain an understanding of complex phenomena. Case studies typically involve a combination of data collection methods, such as interviews, observations, and document analysis, to provide a comprehensive understanding of the case. Case studies are useful for exploring unique or rare cases, and for generating hypotheses for further research.

Process of Observation

This method involves systematically observing and recording behaviors and interactions in natural settings. The observer may take notes, use audio or video recordings, or use other methods to document what they see. Process of observation is useful for understanding social interactions, cultural practices, and the context in which behaviors occur.

Record Keeping

This method involves keeping detailed records of observations, interviews, and other data collected during the research process. Record keeping is essential for ensuring the accuracy and reliability of the data, and for providing a basis for analysis and interpretation.

This method involves collecting data from a large sample of participants through a structured questionnaire. Surveys can be conducted in person, over the phone, through mail, or online. Surveys are useful for collecting data on attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors, and for identifying patterns and trends in a population.

Qualitative data analysis is a process of turning unstructured data into meaningful insights. It involves extracting and organizing information from sources like interviews, focus groups, and surveys. The goal is to understand people’s attitudes, behaviors, and motivations

Qualitative Research Analysis Methods

Qualitative Research analysis methods involve a systematic approach to interpreting and making sense of the data collected in qualitative research. Here are some common qualitative data analysis methods:

Thematic Analysis

This method involves identifying patterns or themes in the data that are relevant to the research question. The researcher reviews the data, identifies keywords or phrases, and groups them into categories or themes. Thematic analysis is useful for identifying patterns across multiple data sources and for generating new insights into the research topic.

Content Analysis

This method involves analyzing the content of written or spoken language to identify key themes or concepts. Content analysis can be quantitative or qualitative. Qualitative content analysis involves close reading and interpretation of texts to identify recurring themes, concepts, and patterns. Content analysis is useful for identifying patterns in media messages, public discourse, and cultural trends.

Discourse Analysis

This method involves analyzing language to understand how it constructs meaning and shapes social interactions. Discourse analysis can involve a variety of methods, such as conversation analysis, critical discourse analysis, and narrative analysis. Discourse analysis is useful for understanding how language shapes social interactions, cultural norms, and power relationships.

Grounded Theory Analysis

This method involves developing a theory or explanation based on the data collected. Grounded theory analysis starts with the data and uses an iterative process of coding and analysis to identify patterns and themes in the data. The theory or explanation that emerges is grounded in the data, rather than preconceived hypotheses. Grounded theory analysis is useful for understanding complex social phenomena and for generating new theoretical insights.

Narrative Analysis

This method involves analyzing the stories or narratives that participants share to gain insights into their experiences, attitudes, and beliefs. Narrative analysis can involve a variety of methods, such as structural analysis, thematic analysis, and discourse analysis. Narrative analysis is useful for understanding how individuals construct their identities, make sense of their experiences, and communicate their values and beliefs.

Phenomenological Analysis

This method involves analyzing how individuals make sense of their experiences and the meanings they attach to them. Phenomenological analysis typically involves in-depth interviews with participants to explore their experiences in detail. Phenomenological analysis is useful for understanding subjective experiences and for developing a rich understanding of human consciousness.

Comparative Analysis

This method involves comparing and contrasting data across different cases or groups to identify similarities and differences. Comparative analysis can be used to identify patterns or themes that are common across multiple cases, as well as to identify unique or distinctive features of individual cases. Comparative analysis is useful for understanding how social phenomena vary across different contexts and groups.

Applications of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research has many applications across different fields and industries. Here are some examples of how qualitative research is used:

• Market Research: Qualitative research is often used in market research to understand consumer attitudes, behaviors, and preferences. Researchers conduct focus groups and one-on-one interviews with consumers to gather insights into their experiences and perceptions of products and services.
• Health Care: Qualitative research is used in health care to explore patient experiences and perspectives on health and illness. Researchers conduct in-depth interviews with patients and their families to gather information on their experiences with different health care providers and treatments.
• Education: Qualitative research is used in education to understand student experiences and to develop effective teaching strategies. Researchers conduct classroom observations and interviews with students and teachers to gather insights into classroom dynamics and instructional practices.
• Social Work : Qualitative research is used in social work to explore social problems and to develop interventions to address them. Researchers conduct in-depth interviews with individuals and families to understand their experiences with poverty, discrimination, and other social problems.
• Anthropology : Qualitative research is used in anthropology to understand different cultures and societies. Researchers conduct ethnographic studies and observe and interview members of different cultural groups to gain insights into their beliefs, practices, and social structures.
• Psychology : Qualitative research is used in psychology to understand human behavior and mental processes. Researchers conduct in-depth interviews with individuals to explore their thoughts, feelings, and experiences.
• Public Policy : Qualitative research is used in public policy to explore public attitudes and to inform policy decisions. Researchers conduct focus groups and one-on-one interviews with members of the public to gather insights into their perspectives on different policy issues.

How to Conduct Qualitative Research

Here are some general steps for conducting qualitative research:

• Identify your research question: Qualitative research starts with a research question or set of questions that you want to explore. This question should be focused and specific, but also broad enough to allow for exploration and discovery.
• Select your research design: There are different types of qualitative research designs, including ethnography, case study, grounded theory, and phenomenology. You should select a design that aligns with your research question and that will allow you to gather the data you need to answer your research question.
• Recruit participants: Once you have your research question and design, you need to recruit participants. The number of participants you need will depend on your research design and the scope of your research. You can recruit participants through advertisements, social media, or through personal networks.
• Collect data: There are different methods for collecting qualitative data, including interviews, focus groups, observation, and document analysis. You should select the method or methods that align with your research design and that will allow you to gather the data you need to answer your research question.
• Analyze data: Once you have collected your data, you need to analyze it. This involves reviewing your data, identifying patterns and themes, and developing codes to organize your data. You can use different software programs to help you analyze your data, or you can do it manually.
• Interpret data: Once you have analyzed your data, you need to interpret it. This involves making sense of the patterns and themes you have identified, and developing insights and conclusions that answer your research question. You should be guided by your research question and use your data to support your conclusions.
• Communicate results: Once you have interpreted your data, you need to communicate your results. This can be done through academic papers, presentations, or reports. You should be clear and concise in your communication, and use examples and quotes from your data to support your findings.

Examples of Qualitative Research

Here are some real-time examples of qualitative research:

• Customer Feedback: A company may conduct qualitative research to understand the feedback and experiences of its customers. This may involve conducting focus groups or one-on-one interviews with customers to gather insights into their attitudes, behaviors, and preferences.
• Healthcare : A healthcare provider may conduct qualitative research to explore patient experiences and perspectives on health and illness. This may involve conducting in-depth interviews with patients and their families to gather information on their experiences with different health care providers and treatments.
• Education : An educational institution may conduct qualitative research to understand student experiences and to develop effective teaching strategies. This may involve conducting classroom observations and interviews with students and teachers to gather insights into classroom dynamics and instructional practices.
• Social Work: A social worker may conduct qualitative research to explore social problems and to develop interventions to address them. This may involve conducting in-depth interviews with individuals and families to understand their experiences with poverty, discrimination, and other social problems.
• Anthropology : An anthropologist may conduct qualitative research to understand different cultures and societies. This may involve conducting ethnographic studies and observing and interviewing members of different cultural groups to gain insights into their beliefs, practices, and social structures.
• Psychology : A psychologist may conduct qualitative research to understand human behavior and mental processes. This may involve conducting in-depth interviews with individuals to explore their thoughts, feelings, and experiences.
• Public Policy: A government agency or non-profit organization may conduct qualitative research to explore public attitudes and to inform policy decisions. This may involve conducting focus groups and one-on-one interviews with members of the public to gather insights into their perspectives on different policy issues.

Purpose of Qualitative Research

The purpose of qualitative research is to explore and understand the subjective experiences, behaviors, and perspectives of individuals or groups in a particular context. Unlike quantitative research, which focuses on numerical data and statistical analysis, qualitative research aims to provide in-depth, descriptive information that can help researchers develop insights and theories about complex social phenomena.

Qualitative research can serve multiple purposes, including:

• Exploring new or emerging phenomena : Qualitative research can be useful for exploring new or emerging phenomena, such as new technologies or social trends. This type of research can help researchers develop a deeper understanding of these phenomena and identify potential areas for further study.
• Understanding complex social phenomena : Qualitative research can be useful for exploring complex social phenomena, such as cultural beliefs, social norms, or political processes. This type of research can help researchers develop a more nuanced understanding of these phenomena and identify factors that may influence them.
• Generating new theories or hypotheses: Qualitative research can be useful for generating new theories or hypotheses about social phenomena. By gathering rich, detailed data about individuals’ experiences and perspectives, researchers can develop insights that may challenge existing theories or lead to new lines of inquiry.
• Providing context for quantitative data: Qualitative research can be useful for providing context for quantitative data. By gathering qualitative data alongside quantitative data, researchers can develop a more complete understanding of complex social phenomena and identify potential explanations for quantitative findings.

When to use Qualitative Research

Here are some situations where qualitative research may be appropriate:

• Exploring a new area: If little is known about a particular topic, qualitative research can help to identify key issues, generate hypotheses, and develop new theories.
• Understanding complex phenomena: Qualitative research can be used to investigate complex social, cultural, or organizational phenomena that are difficult to measure quantitatively.
• Investigating subjective experiences: Qualitative research is particularly useful for investigating the subjective experiences of individuals or groups, such as their attitudes, beliefs, values, or emotions.
• Conducting formative research: Qualitative research can be used in the early stages of a research project to develop research questions, identify potential research participants, and refine research methods.
• Evaluating interventions or programs: Qualitative research can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of interventions or programs by collecting data on participants’ experiences, attitudes, and behaviors.

Characteristics of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is characterized by several key features, including:

• Focus on subjective experience: Qualitative research is concerned with understanding the subjective experiences, beliefs, and perspectives of individuals or groups in a particular context. Researchers aim to explore the meanings that people attach to their experiences and to understand the social and cultural factors that shape these meanings.
• Use of open-ended questions: Qualitative research relies on open-ended questions that allow participants to provide detailed, in-depth responses. Researchers seek to elicit rich, descriptive data that can provide insights into participants’ experiences and perspectives.
• Sampling-based on purpose and diversity: Qualitative research often involves purposive sampling, in which participants are selected based on specific criteria related to the research question. Researchers may also seek to include participants with diverse experiences and perspectives to capture a range of viewpoints.
• Data collection through multiple methods: Qualitative research typically involves the use of multiple data collection methods, such as in-depth interviews, focus groups, and observation. This allows researchers to gather rich, detailed data from multiple sources, which can provide a more complete picture of participants’ experiences and perspectives.
• Inductive data analysis: Qualitative research relies on inductive data analysis, in which researchers develop theories and insights based on the data rather than testing pre-existing hypotheses. Researchers use coding and thematic analysis to identify patterns and themes in the data and to develop theories and explanations based on these patterns.
• Emphasis on researcher reflexivity: Qualitative research recognizes the importance of the researcher’s role in shaping the research process and outcomes. Researchers are encouraged to reflect on their own biases and assumptions and to be transparent about their role in the research process.

Advantages of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research offers several advantages over other research methods, including:

• Depth and detail: Qualitative research allows researchers to gather rich, detailed data that provides a deeper understanding of complex social phenomena. Through in-depth interviews, focus groups, and observation, researchers can gather detailed information about participants’ experiences and perspectives that may be missed by other research methods.
• Flexibility : Qualitative research is a flexible approach that allows researchers to adapt their methods to the research question and context. Researchers can adjust their research methods in real-time to gather more information or explore unexpected findings.
• Contextual understanding: Qualitative research is well-suited to exploring the social and cultural context in which individuals or groups are situated. Researchers can gather information about cultural norms, social structures, and historical events that may influence participants’ experiences and perspectives.
• Participant perspective : Qualitative research prioritizes the perspective of participants, allowing researchers to explore subjective experiences and understand the meanings that participants attach to their experiences.
• Theory development: Qualitative research can contribute to the development of new theories and insights about complex social phenomena. By gathering rich, detailed data and using inductive data analysis, researchers can develop new theories and explanations that may challenge existing understandings.
• Validity : Qualitative research can offer high validity by using multiple data collection methods, purposive and diverse sampling, and researcher reflexivity. This can help ensure that findings are credible and trustworthy.

Limitations of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research also has some limitations, including:

• Subjectivity : Qualitative research relies on the subjective interpretation of researchers, which can introduce bias into the research process. The researcher’s perspective, beliefs, and experiences can influence the way data is collected, analyzed, and interpreted.
• Limited generalizability: Qualitative research typically involves small, purposive samples that may not be representative of larger populations. This limits the generalizability of findings to other contexts or populations.
• Time-consuming: Qualitative research can be a time-consuming process, requiring significant resources for data collection, analysis, and interpretation.
• Resource-intensive: Qualitative research may require more resources than other research methods, including specialized training for researchers, specialized software for data analysis, and transcription services.
• Limited reliability: Qualitative research may be less reliable than quantitative research, as it relies on the subjective interpretation of researchers. This can make it difficult to replicate findings or compare results across different studies.
• Ethics and confidentiality: Qualitative research involves collecting sensitive information from participants, which raises ethical concerns about confidentiality and informed consent. Researchers must take care to protect the privacy and confidentiality of participants and obtain informed consent.

Also see Research Methods

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Qualitative Research : Definition

Qualitative research is the naturalistic study of social meanings and processes, using interviews, observations, and the analysis of texts and images.  In contrast to quantitative researchers, whose statistical methods enable broad generalizations about populations (for example, comparisons of the percentages of U.S. demographic groups who vote in particular ways), qualitative researchers use in-depth studies of the social world to analyze how and why groups think and act in particular ways (for instance, case studies of the experiences that shape political views).   

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Chapter 1. Introduction

“Science is in danger, and for that reason it is becoming dangerous” -Pierre Bourdieu, Science of Science and Reflexivity

Why an Open Access Textbook on Qualitative Research Methods?

I have been teaching qualitative research methods to both undergraduates and graduate students for many years.  Although there are some excellent textbooks out there, they are often costly, and none of them, to my mind, properly introduces qualitative research methods to the beginning student (whether undergraduate or graduate student).  In contrast, this open-access textbook is designed as a (free) true introduction to the subject, with helpful, practical pointers on how to conduct research and how to access more advanced instruction.  

Textbooks are typically arranged in one of two ways: (1) by technique (each chapter covers one method used in qualitative research); or (2) by process (chapters advance from research design through publication).  But both of these approaches are necessary for the beginner student.  This textbook will have sections dedicated to the process as well as the techniques of qualitative research.  This is a true “comprehensive” book for the beginning student.  In addition to covering techniques of data collection and data analysis, it provides a road map of how to get started and how to keep going and where to go for advanced instruction.  It covers aspects of research design and research communication as well as methods employed.  Along the way, it includes examples from many different disciplines in the social sciences.

The primary goal has been to create a useful, accessible, engaging textbook for use across many disciplines.  And, let’s face it.  Textbooks can be boring.  I hope readers find this to be a little different.  I have tried to write in a practical and forthright manner, with many lively examples and references to good and intellectually creative qualitative research.  Woven throughout the text are short textual asides (in colored textboxes) by professional (academic) qualitative researchers in various disciplines.  These short accounts by practitioners should help inspire students.  So, let’s begin!

What is Research?

When we use the word research , what exactly do we mean by that?  This is one of those words that everyone thinks they understand, but it is worth beginning this textbook with a short explanation.  We use the term to refer to “empirical research,” which is actually a historically specific approach to understanding the world around us.  Think about how you know things about the world. [1] You might know your mother loves you because she’s told you she does.  Or because that is what “mothers” do by tradition.  Or you might know because you’ve looked for evidence that she does, like taking care of you when you are sick or reading to you in bed or working two jobs so you can have the things you need to do OK in life.  Maybe it seems churlish to look for evidence; you just take it “on faith” that you are loved.

Only one of the above comes close to what we mean by research.  Empirical research is research (investigation) based on evidence.  Conclusions can then be drawn from observable data.  This observable data can also be “tested” or checked.  If the data cannot be tested, that is a good indication that we are not doing research.  Note that we can never “prove” conclusively, through observable data, that our mothers love us.  We might have some “disconfirming evidence” (that time she didn’t show up to your graduation, for example) that could push you to question an original hypothesis , but no amount of “confirming evidence” will ever allow us to say with 100% certainty, “my mother loves me.”  Faith and tradition and authority work differently.  Our knowledge can be 100% certain using each of those alternative methods of knowledge, but our certainty in those cases will not be based on facts or evidence.

For many periods of history, those in power have been nervous about “science” because it uses evidence and facts as the primary source of understanding the world, and facts can be at odds with what power or authority or tradition want you to believe.  That is why I say that scientific empirical research is a historically specific approach to understand the world.  You are in college or university now partly to learn how to engage in this historically specific approach.

In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries in Europe, there was a newfound respect for empirical research, some of which was seriously challenging to the established church.  Using observations and testing them, scientists found that the earth was not at the center of the universe, for example, but rather that it was but one planet of many which circled the sun. [2]   For the next two centuries, the science of astronomy, physics, biology, and chemistry emerged and became disciplines taught in universities.  All used the scientific method of observation and testing to advance knowledge.  Knowledge about people , however, and social institutions, however, was still left to faith, tradition, and authority.  Historians and philosophers and poets wrote about the human condition, but none of them used research to do so. [3]

It was not until the nineteenth century that “social science” really emerged, using the scientific method (empirical observation) to understand people and social institutions.  New fields of sociology, economics, political science, and anthropology emerged.  The first sociologists, people like Auguste Comte and Karl Marx, sought specifically to apply the scientific method of research to understand society, Engels famously claiming that Marx had done for the social world what Darwin did for the natural world, tracings its laws of development.  Today we tend to take for granted the naturalness of science here, but it is actually a pretty recent and radical development.

To return to the question, “does your mother love you?”  Well, this is actually not really how a researcher would frame the question, as it is too specific to your case.  It doesn’t tell us much about the world at large, even if it does tell us something about you and your relationship with your mother.  A social science researcher might ask, “do mothers love their children?”  Or maybe they would be more interested in how this loving relationship might change over time (e.g., “do mothers love their children more now than they did in the 18th century when so many children died before reaching adulthood?”) or perhaps they might be interested in measuring quality of love across cultures or time periods, or even establishing “what love looks like” using the mother/child relationship as a site of exploration.  All of these make good research questions because we can use observable data to answer them.

What is Qualitative Research?

“All we know is how to learn. How to study, how to listen, how to talk, how to tell.  If we don’t tell the world, we don’t know the world.  We’re lost in it, we die.” -Ursula LeGuin, The Telling

At its simplest, qualitative research is research about the social world that does not use numbers in its analyses.  All those who fear statistics can breathe a sigh of relief – there are no mathematical formulae or regression models in this book! But this definition is less about what qualitative research can be and more about what it is not.  To be honest, any simple statement will fail to capture the power and depth of qualitative research.  One way of contrasting qualitative research to quantitative research is to note that the focus of qualitative research is less about explaining and predicting relationships between variables and more about understanding the social world.  To use our mother love example, the question about “what love looks like” is a good question for the qualitative researcher while all questions measuring love or comparing incidences of love (both of which require measurement) are good questions for quantitative researchers. Patton writes,

Qualitative data describe.  They take us, as readers, into the time and place of the observation so that we know what it was like to have been there.  They capture and communicate someone else’s experience of the world in his or her own words.  Qualitative data tell a story. ( Patton 2002:47 )

Qualitative researchers are asking different questions about the world than their quantitative colleagues.  Even when researchers are employed in “mixed methods” research ( both quantitative and qualitative), they are using different methods to address different questions of the study.  I do a lot of research about first-generation and working-college college students.  Where a quantitative researcher might ask, how many first-generation college students graduate from college within four years? Or does first-generation college status predict high student debt loads?  A qualitative researcher might ask, how does the college experience differ for first-generation college students?  What is it like to carry a lot of debt, and how does this impact the ability to complete college on time?  Both sets of questions are important, but they can only be answered using specific tools tailored to those questions.  For the former, you need large numbers to make adequate comparisons.  For the latter, you need to talk to people, find out what they are thinking and feeling, and try to inhabit their shoes for a little while so you can make sense of their experiences and beliefs.

Examples of Qualitative Research

You have probably seen examples of qualitative research before, but you might not have paid particular attention to how they were produced or realized that the accounts you were reading were the result of hours, months, even years of research “in the field.”  A good qualitative researcher will present the product of their hours of work in such a way that it seems natural, even obvious, to the reader.  Because we are trying to convey what it is like answers, qualitative research is often presented as stories – stories about how people live their lives, go to work, raise their children, interact with one another.  In some ways, this can seem like reading particularly insightful novels.  But, unlike novels, there are very specific rules and guidelines that qualitative researchers follow to ensure that the “story” they are telling is accurate , a truthful rendition of what life is like for the people being studied.  Most of this textbook will be spent conveying those rules and guidelines.  Let’s take a look, first, however, at three examples of what the end product looks like.  I have chosen these three examples to showcase very different approaches to qualitative research, and I will return to these five examples throughout the book.  They were all published as whole books (not chapters or articles), and they are worth the long read, if you have the time.  I will also provide some information on how these books came to be and the length of time it takes to get them into book version.  It is important you know about this process, and the rest of this textbook will help explain why it takes so long to conduct good qualitative research!

Example 1 : The End Game (ethnography + interviews)

Corey Abramson is a sociologist who teaches at the University of Arizona.   In 2015 he published The End Game: How Inequality Shapes our Final Years ( 2015 ). This book was based on the research he did for his dissertation at the University of California-Berkeley in 2012.  Actually, the dissertation was completed in 2012 but the work that was produced that took several years.  The dissertation was entitled, “This is How We Live, This is How We Die: Social Stratification, Aging, and Health in Urban America” ( 2012 ).  You can see how the book version, which was written for a more general audience, has a more engaging sound to it, but that the dissertation version, which is what academic faculty read and evaluate, has a more descriptive title.  You can read the title and know that this is a study about aging and health and that the focus is going to be inequality and that the context (place) is going to be “urban America.”  It’s a study about “how” people do something – in this case, how they deal with aging and death.  This is the very first sentence of the dissertation, “From our first breath in the hospital to the day we die, we live in a society characterized by unequal opportunities for maintaining health and taking care of ourselves when ill.  These disparities reflect persistent racial, socio-economic, and gender-based inequalities and contribute to their persistence over time” ( 1 ).  What follows is a truthful account of how that is so.

Cory Abramson spent three years conducting his research in four different urban neighborhoods.  We call the type of research he conducted “comparative ethnographic” because he designed his study to compare groups of seniors as they went about their everyday business.  It’s comparative because he is comparing different groups (based on race, class, gender) and ethnographic because he is studying the culture/way of life of a group. [4]   He had an educated guess, rooted in what previous research had shown and what social theory would suggest, that people’s experiences of aging differ by race, class, and gender.  So, he set up a research design that would allow him to observe differences.  He chose two primarily middle-class (one was racially diverse and the other was predominantly White) and two primarily poor neighborhoods (one was racially diverse and the other was predominantly African American).  He hung out in senior centers and other places seniors congregated, watched them as they took the bus to get prescriptions filled, sat in doctor’s offices with them, and listened to their conversations with each other.  He also conducted more formal conversations, what we call in-depth interviews, with sixty seniors from each of the four neighborhoods.  As with a lot of fieldwork , as he got closer to the people involved, he both expanded and deepened his reach –

By the end of the project, I expanded my pool of general observations to include various settings frequented by seniors: apartment building common rooms, doctors’ offices, emergency rooms, pharmacies, senior centers, bars, parks, corner stores, shopping centers, pool halls, hair salons, coffee shops, and discount stores. Over the course of the three years of fieldwork, I observed hundreds of elders, and developed close relationships with a number of them. ( 2012:10 )

When Abramson rewrote the dissertation for a general audience and published his book in 2015, it got a lot of attention.  It is a beautifully written book and it provided insight into a common human experience that we surprisingly know very little about.  It won the Outstanding Publication Award by the American Sociological Association Section on Aging and the Life Course and was featured in the New York Times .  The book was about aging, and specifically how inequality shapes the aging process, but it was also about much more than that.  It helped show how inequality affects people’s everyday lives.  For example, by observing the difficulties the poor had in setting up appointments and getting to them using public transportation and then being made to wait to see a doctor, sometimes in standing-room-only situations, when they are unwell, and then being treated dismissively by hospital staff, Abramson allowed readers to feel the material reality of being poor in the US.  Comparing these examples with seniors with adequate supplemental insurance who have the resources to hire car services or have others assist them in arranging care when they need it, jolts the reader to understand and appreciate the difference money makes in the lives and circumstances of us all, and in a way that is different than simply reading a statistic (“80% of the poor do not keep regular doctor’s appointments”) does.  Qualitative research can reach into spaces and places that often go unexamined and then reports back to the rest of us what it is like in those spaces and places.

Example 2: Racing for Innocence (Interviews + Content Analysis + Fictional Stories)

Jennifer Pierce is a Professor of American Studies at the University of Minnesota.  Trained as a sociologist, she has written a number of books about gender, race, and power.  Her very first book, Gender Trials: Emotional Lives in Contemporary Law Firms, published in 1995, is a brilliant look at gender dynamics within two law firms.  Pierce was a participant observer, working as a paralegal, and she observed how female lawyers and female paralegals struggled to obtain parity with their male colleagues.

Fifteen years later, she reexamined the context of the law firm to include an examination of racial dynamics, particularly how elite white men working in these spaces created and maintained a culture that made it difficult for both female attorneys and attorneys of color to thrive. Her book, Racing for Innocence: Whiteness, Gender, and the Backlash Against Affirmative Action , published in 2012, is an interesting and creative blending of interviews with attorneys, content analyses of popular films during this period, and fictional accounts of racial discrimination and sexual harassment.  The law firm she chose to study had come under an affirmative action order and was in the process of implementing equitable policies and programs.  She wanted to understand how recipients of white privilege (the elite white male attorneys) come to deny the role they play in reproducing inequality.  Through interviews with attorneys who were present both before and during the affirmative action order, she creates a historical record of the “bad behavior” that necessitated new policies and procedures, but also, and more importantly , probed the participants ’ understanding of this behavior.  It should come as no surprise that most (but not all) of the white male attorneys saw little need for change, and that almost everyone else had accounts that were different if not sometimes downright harrowing.

I’ve used Pierce’s book in my qualitative research methods courses as an example of an interesting blend of techniques and presentation styles.  My students often have a very difficult time with the fictional accounts she includes.  But they serve an important communicative purpose here.  They are her attempts at presenting “both sides” to an objective reality – something happens (Pierce writes this something so it is very clear what it is), and the two participants to the thing that happened have very different understandings of what this means.  By including these stories, Pierce presents one of her key findings – people remember things differently and these different memories tend to support their own ideological positions.  I wonder what Pierce would have written had she studied the murder of George Floyd or the storming of the US Capitol on January 6 or any number of other historic events whose observers and participants record very different happenings.

This is not to say that qualitative researchers write fictional accounts.  In fact, the use of fiction in our work remains controversial.  When used, it must be clearly identified as a presentation device, as Pierce did.  I include Racing for Innocence here as an example of the multiple uses of methods and techniques and the way that these work together to produce better understandings by us, the readers, of what Pierce studied.  We readers come away with a better grasp of how and why advantaged people understate their own involvement in situations and structures that advantage them.  This is normal human behavior , in other words.  This case may have been about elite white men in law firms, but the general insights here can be transposed to other settings.  Indeed, Pierce argues that more research needs to be done about the role elites play in the reproduction of inequality in the workplace in general.

Example 3: Amplified Advantage (Mixed Methods: Survey Interviews + Focus Groups + Archives)

The final example comes from my own work with college students, particularly the ways in which class background affects the experience of college and outcomes for graduates.  I include it here as an example of mixed methods, and for the use of supplementary archival research.  I’ve done a lot of research over the years on first-generation, low-income, and working-class college students.  I am curious (and skeptical) about the possibility of social mobility today, particularly with the rising cost of college and growing inequality in general.  As one of the few people in my family to go to college, I didn’t grow up with a lot of examples of what college was like or how to make the most of it.  And when I entered graduate school, I realized with dismay that there were very few people like me there.  I worried about becoming too different from my family and friends back home.  And I wasn’t at all sure that I would ever be able to pay back the huge load of debt I was taking on.  And so I wrote my dissertation and first two books about working-class college students.  These books focused on experiences in college and the difficulties of navigating between family and school ( Hurst 2010a, 2012 ).  But even after all that research, I kept coming back to wondering if working-class students who made it through college had an equal chance at finding good jobs and happy lives,

What happens to students after college?  Do working-class students fare as well as their peers?  I knew from my own experience that barriers continued through graduate school and beyond, and that my debtload was higher than that of my peers, constraining some of the choices I made when I graduated.  To answer these questions, I designed a study of students attending small liberal arts colleges, the type of college that tried to equalize the experience of students by requiring all students to live on campus and offering small classes with lots of interaction with faculty.  These private colleges tend to have more money and resources so they can provide financial aid to low-income students.  They also attract some very wealthy students.  Because they enroll students across the class spectrum, I would be able to draw comparisons.  I ended up spending about four years collecting data, both a survey of more than 2000 students (which formed the basis for quantitative analyses) and qualitative data collection (interviews, focus groups, archival research, and participant observation).  This is what we call a “mixed methods” approach because we use both quantitative and qualitative data.  The survey gave me a large enough number of students that I could make comparisons of the how many kind, and to be able to say with some authority that there were in fact significant differences in experience and outcome by class (e.g., wealthier students earned more money and had little debt; working-class students often found jobs that were not in their chosen careers and were very affected by debt, upper-middle-class students were more likely to go to graduate school).  But the survey analyses could not explain why these differences existed.  For that, I needed to talk to people and ask them about their motivations and aspirations.  I needed to understand their perceptions of the world, and it is very hard to do this through a survey.

By interviewing students and recent graduates, I was able to discern particular patterns and pathways through college and beyond.  Specifically, I identified three versions of gameplay.  Upper-middle-class students, whose parents were themselves professionals (academics, lawyers, managers of non-profits), saw college as the first stage of their education and took classes and declared majors that would prepare them for graduate school.  They also spent a lot of time building their resumes, taking advantage of opportunities to help professors with their research, or study abroad.  This helped them gain admission to highly-ranked graduate schools and interesting jobs in the public sector.  In contrast, upper-class students, whose parents were wealthy and more likely to be engaged in business (as CEOs or other high-level directors), prioritized building social capital.  They did this by joining fraternities and sororities and playing club sports.  This helped them when they graduated as they called on friends and parents of friends to find them well-paying jobs.  Finally, low-income, first-generation, and working-class students were often adrift.  They took the classes that were recommended to them but without the knowledge of how to connect them to life beyond college.  They spent time working and studying rather than partying or building their resumes.  All three sets of students thought they were “doing college” the right way, the way that one was supposed to do college.   But these three versions of gameplay led to distinct outcomes that advantaged some students over others.  I titled my work “Amplified Advantage” to highlight this process.

These three examples, Cory Abramson’s The End Game , Jennifer Peirce’s Racing for Innocence, and my own Amplified Advantage, demonstrate the range of approaches and tools available to the qualitative researcher.  They also help explain why qualitative research is so important.  Numbers can tell us some things about the world, but they cannot get at the hearts and minds, motivations and beliefs of the people who make up the social worlds we inhabit.  For that, we need tools that allow us to listen and make sense of what people tell us and show us.  That is what good qualitative research offers us.

How Is This Book Organized?

This textbook is organized as a comprehensive introduction to the use of qualitative research methods.  The first half covers general topics (e.g., approaches to qualitative research, ethics) and research design (necessary steps for building a successful qualitative research study).  The second half reviews various data collection and data analysis techniques.  Of course, building a successful qualitative research study requires some knowledge of data collection and data analysis so the chapters in the first half and the chapters in the second half should be read in conversation with each other.  That said, each chapter can be read on its own for assistance with a particular narrow topic.  In addition to the chapters, a helpful glossary can be found in the back of the book.  Rummage around in the text as needed.

Chapter Descriptions

Chapter 2 provides an overview of the Research Design Process.  How does one begin a study? What is an appropriate research question?  How is the study to be done – with what methods ?  Involving what people and sites?  Although qualitative research studies can and often do change and develop over the course of data collection, it is important to have a good idea of what the aims and goals of your study are at the outset and a good plan of how to achieve those aims and goals.  Chapter 2 provides a road map of the process.

Chapter 3 describes and explains various ways of knowing the (social) world.  What is it possible for us to know about how other people think or why they behave the way they do?  What does it mean to say something is a “fact” or that it is “well-known” and understood?  Qualitative researchers are particularly interested in these questions because of the types of research questions we are interested in answering (the how questions rather than the how many questions of quantitative research).  Qualitative researchers have adopted various epistemological approaches.  Chapter 3 will explore these approaches, highlighting interpretivist approaches that acknowledge the subjective aspect of reality – in other words, reality and knowledge are not objective but rather influenced by (interpreted through) people.

Chapter 4 focuses on the practical matter of developing a research question and finding the right approach to data collection.  In any given study (think of Cory Abramson’s study of aging, for example), there may be years of collected data, thousands of observations , hundreds of pages of notes to read and review and make sense of.  If all you had was a general interest area (“aging”), it would be very difficult, nearly impossible, to make sense of all of that data.  The research question provides a helpful lens to refine and clarify (and simplify) everything you find and collect.  For that reason, it is important to pull out that lens (articulate the research question) before you get started.  In the case of the aging study, Cory Abramson was interested in how inequalities affected understandings and responses to aging.  It is for this reason he designed a study that would allow him to compare different groups of seniors (some middle-class, some poor).  Inevitably, he saw much more in the three years in the field than what made it into his book (or dissertation), but he was able to narrow down the complexity of the social world to provide us with this rich account linked to the original research question.  Developing a good research question is thus crucial to effective design and a successful outcome.  Chapter 4 will provide pointers on how to do this.  Chapter 4 also provides an overview of general approaches taken to doing qualitative research and various “traditions of inquiry.”

Chapter 5 explores sampling .  After you have developed a research question and have a general idea of how you will collect data (Observations?  Interviews?), how do you go about actually finding people and sites to study?  Although there is no “correct number” of people to interview , the sample should follow the research question and research design.  Unlike quantitative research, qualitative research involves nonprobability sampling.  Chapter 5 explains why this is so and what qualities instead make a good sample for qualitative research.

Chapter 6 addresses the importance of reflexivity in qualitative research.  Related to epistemological issues of how we know anything about the social world, qualitative researchers understand that we the researchers can never be truly neutral or outside the study we are conducting.  As observers, we see things that make sense to us and may entirely miss what is either too obvious to note or too different to comprehend.  As interviewers, as much as we would like to ask questions neutrally and remain in the background, interviews are a form of conversation, and the persons we interview are responding to us .  Therefore, it is important to reflect upon our social positions and the knowledges and expectations we bring to our work and to work through any blind spots that we may have.  Chapter 6 provides some examples of reflexivity in practice and exercises for thinking through one’s own biases.

Chapter 7 is a very important chapter and should not be overlooked.  As a practical matter, it should also be read closely with chapters 6 and 8.  Because qualitative researchers deal with people and the social world, it is imperative they develop and adhere to a strong ethical code for conducting research in a way that does not harm.  There are legal requirements and guidelines for doing so (see chapter 8), but these requirements should not be considered synonymous with the ethical code required of us.   Each researcher must constantly interrogate every aspect of their research, from research question to design to sample through analysis and presentation, to ensure that a minimum of harm (ideally, zero harm) is caused.  Because each research project is unique, the standards of care for each study are unique.  Part of being a professional researcher is carrying this code in one’s heart, being constantly attentive to what is required under particular circumstances.  Chapter 7 provides various research scenarios and asks readers to weigh in on the suitability and appropriateness of the research.  If done in a class setting, it will become obvious fairly quickly that there are often no absolutely correct answers, as different people find different aspects of the scenarios of greatest importance.  Minimizing the harm in one area may require possible harm in another.  Being attentive to all the ethical aspects of one’s research and making the best judgments one can, clearly and consciously, is an integral part of being a good researcher.

Chapter 8 , best to be read in conjunction with chapter 7, explains the role and importance of Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) .  Under federal guidelines, an IRB is an appropriately constituted group that has been formally designated to review and monitor research involving human subjects .  Every institution that receives funding from the federal government has an IRB.  IRBs have the authority to approve, require modifications to (to secure approval), or disapprove research.  This group review serves an important role in the protection of the rights and welfare of human research subjects.  Chapter 8 reviews the history of IRBs and the work they do but also argues that IRBs’ review of qualitative research is often both over-inclusive and under-inclusive.  Some aspects of qualitative research are not well understood by IRBs, given that they were developed to prevent abuses in biomedical research.  Thus, it is important not to rely on IRBs to identify all the potential ethical issues that emerge in our research (see chapter 7).

Chapter 9 provides help for getting started on formulating a research question based on gaps in the pre-existing literature.  Research is conducted as part of a community, even if particular studies are done by single individuals (or small teams).  What any of us finds and reports back becomes part of a much larger body of knowledge.  Thus, it is important that we look at the larger body of knowledge before we actually start our bit to see how we can best contribute.  When I first began interviewing working-class college students, there was only one other similar study I could find, and it hadn’t been published (it was a dissertation of students from poor backgrounds).  But there had been a lot published by professors who had grown up working class and made it through college despite the odds.  These accounts by “working-class academics” became an important inspiration for my study and helped me frame the questions I asked the students I interviewed.  Chapter 9 will provide some pointers on how to search for relevant literature and how to use this to refine your research question.

Chapter 10 serves as a bridge between the two parts of the textbook, by introducing techniques of data collection.  Qualitative research is often characterized by the form of data collection – for example, an ethnographic study is one that employs primarily observational data collection for the purpose of documenting and presenting a particular culture or ethnos.  Techniques can be effectively combined, depending on the research question and the aims and goals of the study.   Chapter 10 provides a general overview of all the various techniques and how they can be combined.

The second part of the textbook moves into the doing part of qualitative research once the research question has been articulated and the study designed.  Chapters 11 through 17 cover various data collection techniques and approaches.  Chapters 18 and 19 provide a very simple overview of basic data analysis.  Chapter 20 covers communication of the data to various audiences, and in various formats.

Chapter 11 begins our overview of data collection techniques with a focus on interviewing , the true heart of qualitative research.  This technique can serve as the primary and exclusive form of data collection, or it can be used to supplement other forms (observation, archival).  An interview is distinct from a survey, where questions are asked in a specific order and often with a range of predetermined responses available.  Interviews can be conversational and unstructured or, more conventionally, semistructured , where a general set of interview questions “guides” the conversation.  Chapter 11 covers the basics of interviews: how to create interview guides, how many people to interview, where to conduct the interview, what to watch out for (how to prepare against things going wrong), and how to get the most out of your interviews.

Chapter 12 covers an important variant of interviewing, the focus group.  Focus groups are semistructured interviews with a group of people moderated by a facilitator (the researcher or researcher’s assistant).  Focus groups explicitly use group interaction to assist in the data collection.  They are best used to collect data on a specific topic that is non-personal and shared among the group.  For example, asking a group of college students about a common experience such as taking classes by remote delivery during the pandemic year of 2020.  Chapter 12 covers the basics of focus groups: when to use them, how to create interview guides for them, and how to run them effectively.

Chapter 13 moves away from interviewing to the second major form of data collection unique to qualitative researchers – observation .  Qualitative research that employs observation can best be understood as falling on a continuum of “fly on the wall” observation (e.g., observing how strangers interact in a doctor’s waiting room) to “participant” observation, where the researcher is also an active participant of the activity being observed.  For example, an activist in the Black Lives Matter movement might want to study the movement, using her inside position to gain access to observe key meetings and interactions.  Chapter  13 covers the basics of participant observation studies: advantages and disadvantages, gaining access, ethical concerns related to insider/outsider status and entanglement, and recording techniques.

Chapter 14 takes a closer look at “deep ethnography” – immersion in the field of a particularly long duration for the purpose of gaining a deeper understanding and appreciation of a particular culture or social world.  Clifford Geertz called this “deep hanging out.”  Whereas participant observation is often combined with semistructured interview techniques, deep ethnography’s commitment to “living the life” or experiencing the situation as it really is demands more conversational and natural interactions with people.  These interactions and conversations may take place over months or even years.  As can be expected, there are some costs to this technique, as well as some very large rewards when done competently.  Chapter 14 provides some examples of deep ethnographies that will inspire some beginning researchers and intimidate others.

Chapter 15 moves in the opposite direction of deep ethnography, a technique that is the least positivist of all those discussed here, to mixed methods , a set of techniques that is arguably the most positivist .  A mixed methods approach combines both qualitative data collection and quantitative data collection, commonly by combining a survey that is analyzed statistically (e.g., cross-tabs or regression analyses of large number probability samples) with semi-structured interviews.  Although it is somewhat unconventional to discuss mixed methods in textbooks on qualitative research, I think it is important to recognize this often-employed approach here.  There are several advantages and some disadvantages to taking this route.  Chapter 16 will describe those advantages and disadvantages and provide some particular guidance on how to design a mixed methods study for maximum effectiveness.

Chapter 16 covers data collection that does not involve live human subjects at all – archival and historical research (chapter 17 will also cover data that does not involve interacting with human subjects).  Sometimes people are unavailable to us, either because they do not wish to be interviewed or observed (as is the case with many “elites”) or because they are too far away, in both place and time.  Fortunately, humans leave many traces and we can often answer questions we have by examining those traces.  Special collections and archives can be goldmines for social science research.  This chapter will explain how to access these places, for what purposes, and how to begin to make sense of what you find.

Chapter 17 covers another data collection area that does not involve face-to-face interaction with humans: content analysis .  Although content analysis may be understood more properly as a data analysis technique, the term is often used for the entire approach, which will be the case here.  Content analysis involves interpreting meaning from a body of text.  This body of text might be something found in historical records (see chapter 16) or something collected by the researcher, as in the case of comment posts on a popular blog post.  I once used the stories told by student loan debtors on the website studentloanjustice.org as the content I analyzed.  Content analysis is particularly useful when attempting to define and understand prevalent stories or communication about a topic of interest.  In other words, when we are less interested in what particular people (our defined sample) are doing or believing and more interested in what general narratives exist about a particular topic or issue.  This chapter will explore different approaches to content analysis and provide helpful tips on how to collect data, how to turn that data into codes for analysis, and how to go about presenting what is found through analysis.

Where chapter 17 has pushed us towards data analysis, chapters 18 and 19 are all about what to do with the data collected, whether that data be in the form of interview transcripts or fieldnotes from observations.  Chapter 18 introduces the basics of coding , the iterative process of assigning meaning to the data in order to both simplify and identify patterns.  What is a code and how does it work?  What are the different ways of coding data, and when should you use them?  What is a codebook, and why do you need one?  What does the process of data analysis look like?

Chapter 19 goes further into detail on codes and how to use them, particularly the later stages of coding in which our codes are refined, simplified, combined, and organized.  These later rounds of coding are essential to getting the most out of the data we’ve collected.  As students are often overwhelmed with the amount of data (a corpus of interview transcripts typically runs into the hundreds of pages; fieldnotes can easily top that), this chapter will also address time management and provide suggestions for dealing with chaos and reminders that feeling overwhelmed at the analysis stage is part of the process.  By the end of the chapter, you should understand how “findings” are actually found.

The book concludes with a chapter dedicated to the effective presentation of data results.  Chapter 20 covers the many ways that researchers communicate their studies to various audiences (academic, personal, political), what elements must be included in these various publications, and the hallmarks of excellent qualitative research that various audiences will be expecting.  Because qualitative researchers are motivated by understanding and conveying meaning , effective communication is not only an essential skill but a fundamental facet of the entire research project.  Ethnographers must be able to convey a certain sense of verisimilitude , the appearance of true reality.  Those employing interviews must faithfully depict the key meanings of the people they interviewed in a way that rings true to those people, even if the end result surprises them.  And all researchers must strive for clarity in their publications so that various audiences can understand what was found and why it is important.

The book concludes with a short chapter ( chapter 21 ) discussing the value of qualitative research. At the very end of this book, you will find a glossary of terms. I recommend you make frequent use of the glossary and add to each entry as you find examples. Although the entries are meant to be simple and clear, you may also want to paraphrase the definition—make it “make sense” to you, in other words. In addition to the standard reference list (all works cited here), you will find various recommendations for further reading at the end of many chapters. Some of these recommendations will be examples of excellent qualitative research, indicated with an asterisk (*) at the end of the entry. As they say, a picture is worth a thousand words. A good example of qualitative research can teach you more about conducting research than any textbook can (this one included). I highly recommend you select one to three examples from these lists and read them along with the textbook.

A final note on the choice of examples – you will note that many of the examples used in the text come from research on college students.  This is for two reasons.  First, as most of my research falls in this area, I am most familiar with this literature and have contacts with those who do research here and can call upon them to share their stories with you.  Second, and more importantly, my hope is that this textbook reaches a wide audience of beginning researchers who study widely and deeply across the range of what can be known about the social world (from marine resources management to public policy to nursing to political science to sexuality studies and beyond).  It is sometimes difficult to find examples that speak to all those research interests, however. A focus on college students is something that all readers can understand and, hopefully, appreciate, as we are all now or have been at some point a college student.

Recommended Reading: Other Qualitative Research Textbooks

I’ve included a brief list of some of my favorite qualitative research textbooks and guidebooks if you need more than what you will find in this introductory text.  For each, I’ve also indicated if these are for “beginning” or “advanced” (graduate-level) readers.  Many of these books have several editions that do not significantly vary; the edition recommended is merely the edition I have used in teaching and to whose page numbers any specific references made in the text agree.

Barbour, Rosaline. 2014. Introducing Qualitative Research: A Student’s Guide. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.  A good introduction to qualitative research, with abundant examples (often from the discipline of health care) and clear definitions.  Includes quick summaries at the ends of each chapter.  However, some US students might find the British context distracting and can be a bit advanced in some places.  Beginning .

Bloomberg, Linda Dale, and Marie F. Volpe. 2012. Completing Your Qualitative Dissertation . 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.  Specifically designed to guide graduate students through the research process. Advanced .

Creswell, John W., and Cheryl Poth. 2018 Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing among Five Traditions .  4th ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.  This is a classic and one of the go-to books I used myself as a graduate student.  One of the best things about this text is its clear presentation of five distinct traditions in qualitative research.  Despite the title, this reasonably sized book is about more than research design, including both data analysis and how to write about qualitative research.  Advanced .

Lareau, Annette. 2021. Listening to People: A Practical Guide to Interviewing, Participant Observation, Data Analysis, and Writing It All Up .  Chicago: University of Chicago Press. A readable and personal account of conducting qualitative research by an eminent sociologist, with a heavy emphasis on the kinds of participant-observation research conducted by the author.  Despite its reader-friendliness, this is really a book targeted to graduate students learning the craft.  Advanced .

Lune, Howard, and Bruce L. Berg. 2018. 9th edition.  Qualitative Research Methods for the Social Sciences.  Pearson . Although a good introduction to qualitative methods, the authors favor symbolic interactionist and dramaturgical approaches, which limits the appeal primarily to sociologists.  Beginning .

Marshall, Catherine, and Gretchen B. Rossman. 2016. 6th edition. Designing Qualitative Research. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.  Very readable and accessible guide to research design by two educational scholars.  Although the presentation is sometimes fairly dry, personal vignettes and illustrations enliven the text.  Beginning .

Maxwell, Joseph A. 2013. Qualitative Research Design: An Interactive Approach .  3rd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. A short and accessible introduction to qualitative research design, particularly helpful for graduate students contemplating theses and dissertations. This has been a standard textbook in my graduate-level courses for years.  Advanced .

Patton, Michael Quinn. 2002. Qualitative Research and Evaluation Methods . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.  This is a comprehensive text that served as my “go-to” reference when I was a graduate student.  It is particularly helpful for those involved in program evaluation and other forms of evaluation studies and uses examples from a wide range of disciplines.  Advanced .

Rubin, Ashley T. 2021. Rocking Qualitative Social Science: An Irreverent Guide to Rigorous Research. Stanford : Stanford University Press.  A delightful and personal read.  Rubin uses rock climbing as an extended metaphor for learning how to conduct qualitative research.  A bit slanted toward ethnographic and archival methods of data collection, with frequent examples from her own studies in criminology. Beginning .

Weis, Lois, and Michelle Fine. 2000. Speed Bumps: A Student-Friendly Guide to Qualitative Research . New York: Teachers College Press.  Readable and accessibly written in a quasi-conversational style.  Particularly strong in its discussion of ethical issues throughout the qualitative research process.  Not comprehensive, however, and very much tied to ethnographic research.  Although designed for graduate students, this is a recommended read for students of all levels.  Beginning .

Patton’s Ten Suggestions for Doing Qualitative Research

The following ten suggestions were made by Michael Quinn Patton in his massive textbooks Qualitative Research and Evaluations Methods . This book is highly recommended for those of you who want more than an introduction to qualitative methods. It is the book I relied on heavily when I was a graduate student, although it is much easier to “dip into” when necessary than to read through as a whole. Patton is asked for “just one bit of advice” for a graduate student considering using qualitative research methods for their dissertation.  Here are his top ten responses, in short form, heavily paraphrased, and with additional comments and emphases from me:

• Make sure that a qualitative approach fits the research question. The following are the kinds of questions that call out for qualitative methods or where qualitative methods are particularly appropriate: questions about people’s experiences or how they make sense of those experiences; studying a person in their natural environment; researching a phenomenon so unknown that it would be impossible to study it with standardized instruments or other forms of quantitative data collection.
• Study qualitative research by going to the original sources for the design and analysis appropriate to the particular approach you want to take (e.g., read Glaser and Straus if you are using grounded theory )
• Find a dissertation adviser who understands or at least who will support your use of qualitative research methods. You are asking for trouble if your entire committee is populated by quantitative researchers, even if they are all very knowledgeable about the subject or focus of your study (maybe even more so if they are!)
• Really work on design. Doing qualitative research effectively takes a lot of planning.  Even if things are more flexible than in quantitative research, a good design is absolutely essential when starting out.
• Practice data collection techniques, particularly interviewing and observing. There is definitely a set of learned skills here!  Do not expect your first interview to be perfect.  You will continue to grow as a researcher the more interviews you conduct, and you will probably come to understand yourself a bit more in the process, too.  This is not easy, despite what others who don’t work with qualitative methods may assume (and tell you!)
• Have a plan for analysis before you begin data collection. This is often a requirement in IRB protocols , although you can get away with writing something fairly simple.  And even if you are taking an approach, such as grounded theory, that pushes you to remain fairly open-minded during the data collection process, you still want to know what you will be doing with all the data collected – creating a codebook? Writing analytical memos? Comparing cases?  Having a plan in hand will also help prevent you from collecting too much extraneous data.
• Be prepared to confront controversies both within the qualitative research community and between qualitative research and quantitative research. Don’t be naïve about this – qualitative research, particularly some approaches, will be derided by many more “positivist” researchers and audiences.  For example, is an “n” of 1 really sufficient?  Yes!  But not everyone will agree.
• Do not make the mistake of using qualitative research methods because someone told you it was easier, or because you are intimidated by the math required of statistical analyses. Qualitative research is difficult in its own way (and many would claim much more time-consuming than quantitative research).  Do it because you are convinced it is right for your goals, aims, and research questions.
• Find a good support network. This could be a research mentor, or it could be a group of friends or colleagues who are also using qualitative research, or it could be just someone who will listen to you work through all of the issues you will confront out in the field and during the writing process.  Even though qualitative research often involves human subjects, it can be pretty lonely.  A lot of times you will feel like you are working without a net.  You have to create one for yourself.  Take care of yourself.
• And, finally, in the words of Patton, “Prepare to be changed. Looking deeply at other people’s lives will force you to look deeply at yourself.”
• We will actually spend an entire chapter ( chapter 3 ) looking at this question in much more detail! ↵
• Note that this might have been news to Europeans at the time, but many other societies around the world had also come to this conclusion through observation.  There is often a tendency to equate “the scientific revolution” with the European world in which it took place, but this is somewhat misleading. ↵
• Historians are a special case here.  Historians have scrupulously and rigorously investigated the social world, but not for the purpose of understanding general laws about how things work, which is the point of scientific empirical research.  History is often referred to as an idiographic field of study, meaning that it studies things that happened or are happening in themselves and not for general observations or conclusions. ↵
• Don’t worry, we’ll spend more time later in this book unpacking the meaning of ethnography and other terms that are important here.  Note the available glossary ↵

An approach to research that is “multimethod in focus, involving an interpretative, naturalistic approach to its subject matter.  This means that qualitative researchers study things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them.  Qualitative research involves the studied use and collection of a variety of empirical materials – case study, personal experience, introspective, life story, interview, observational, historical, interactional, and visual texts – that describe routine and problematic moments and meanings in individuals’ lives." ( Denzin and Lincoln 2005:2 ). Contrast with quantitative research .

In contrast to methodology, methods are more simply the practices and tools used to collect and analyze data.  Examples of common methods in qualitative research are interviews , observations , and documentary analysis .  One’s methodology should connect to one’s choice of methods, of course, but they are distinguishable terms.  See also methodology .

A proposed explanation for an observation, phenomenon, or scientific problem that can be tested by further investigation.  The positing of a hypothesis is often the first step in quantitative research but not in qualitative research.  Even when qualitative researchers offer possible explanations in advance of conducting research, they will tend to not use the word “hypothesis” as it conjures up the kind of positivist research they are not conducting.

The foundational question to be addressed by the research study.  This will form the anchor of the research design, collection, and analysis.  Note that in qualitative research, the research question may, and probably will, alter or develop during the course of the research.

An approach to research that collects and analyzes numerical data for the purpose of finding patterns and averages, making predictions, testing causal relationships, and generalizing results to wider populations.  Contrast with qualitative research .

Data collection that takes place in real-world settings, referred to as “the field;” a key component of much Grounded Theory and ethnographic research.  Patton ( 2002 ) calls fieldwork “the central activity of qualitative inquiry” where “‘going into the field’ means having direct and personal contact with people under study in their own environments – getting close to people and situations being studied to personally understand the realities of minutiae of daily life” (48).

The people who are the subjects of a qualitative study.  In interview-based studies, they may be the respondents to the interviewer; for purposes of IRBs, they are often referred to as the human subjects of the research.

The branch of philosophy concerned with knowledge.  For researchers, it is important to recognize and adopt one of the many distinguishing epistemological perspectives as part of our understanding of what questions research can address or fully answer.  See, e.g., constructivism , subjectivism, and  objectivism .

An approach that refutes the possibility of neutrality in social science research.  All research is “guided by a set of beliefs and feelings about the world and how it should be understood and studied” (Denzin and Lincoln 2005: 13).  In contrast to positivism , interpretivism recognizes the social constructedness of reality, and researchers adopting this approach focus on capturing interpretations and understandings people have about the world rather than “the world” as it is (which is a chimera).

The cluster of data-collection tools and techniques that involve observing interactions between people, the behaviors, and practices of individuals (sometimes in contrast to what they say about how they act and behave), and cultures in context.  Observational methods are the key tools employed by ethnographers and Grounded Theory .

Research based on data collected and analyzed by the research (in contrast to secondary “library” research).

The process of selecting people or other units of analysis to represent a larger population. In quantitative research, this representation is taken quite literally, as statistically representative.  In qualitative research, in contrast, sample selection is often made based on potential to generate insight about a particular topic or phenomenon.

A method of data collection in which the researcher asks the participant questions; the answers to these questions are often recorded and transcribed verbatim. There are many different kinds of interviews - see also semistructured interview , structured interview , and unstructured interview .

The specific group of individuals that you will collect data from.  Contrast population.

The practice of being conscious of and reflective upon one’s own social location and presence when conducting research.  Because qualitative research often requires interaction with live humans, failing to take into account how one’s presence and prior expectations and social location affect the data collected and how analyzed may limit the reliability of the findings.  This remains true even when dealing with historical archives and other content.  Who we are matters when asking questions about how people experience the world because we, too, are a part of that world.

The science and practice of right conduct; in research, it is also the delineation of moral obligations towards research participants, communities to which we belong, and communities in which we conduct our research.

An administrative body established to protect the rights and welfare of human research subjects recruited to participate in research activities conducted under the auspices of the institution with which it is affiliated. The IRB is charged with the responsibility of reviewing all research involving human participants. The IRB is concerned with protecting the welfare, rights, and privacy of human subjects. The IRB has the authority to approve, disapprove, monitor, and require modifications in all research activities that fall within its jurisdiction as specified by both the federal regulations and institutional policy.

Research, according to US federal guidelines, that involves “a living individual about whom an investigator (whether professional or student) conducting research:  (1) Obtains information or biospecimens through intervention or interaction with the individual, and uses, studies, or analyzes the information or biospecimens; or  (2) Obtains, uses, studies, analyzes, or generates identifiable private information or identifiable biospecimens.”

One of the primary methodological traditions of inquiry in qualitative research, ethnography is the study of a group or group culture, largely through observational fieldwork supplemented by interviews. It is a form of fieldwork that may include participant-observation data collection. See chapter 14 for a discussion of deep ethnography. 

A form of interview that follows a standard guide of questions asked, although the order of the questions may change to match the particular needs of each individual interview subject, and probing “follow-up” questions are often added during the course of the interview.  The semi-structured interview is the primary form of interviewing used by qualitative researchers in the social sciences.  It is sometimes referred to as an “in-depth” interview.  See also interview and  interview guide .

A method of observational data collection taking place in a natural setting; a form of fieldwork .  The term encompasses a continuum of relative participation by the researcher (from full participant to “fly-on-the-wall” observer).  This is also sometimes referred to as ethnography , although the latter is characterized by a greater focus on the culture under observation.

A research design that employs both quantitative and qualitative methods, as in the case of a survey supplemented by interviews.

An epistemological perspective that posits the existence of reality through sensory experience similar to empiricism but goes further in denying any non-sensory basis of thought or consciousness.  In the social sciences, the term has roots in the proto-sociologist August Comte, who believed he could discern “laws” of society similar to the laws of natural science (e.g., gravity).  The term has come to mean the kinds of measurable and verifiable science conducted by quantitative researchers and is thus used pejoratively by some qualitative researchers interested in interpretation, consciousness, and human understanding.  Calling someone a “positivist” is often intended as an insult.  See also empiricism and objectivism.

A place or collection containing records, documents, or other materials of historical interest; most universities have an archive of material related to the university’s history, as well as other “special collections” that may be of interest to members of the community.

A method of both data collection and data analysis in which a given content (textual, visual, graphic) is examined systematically and rigorously to identify meanings, themes, patterns and assumptions.  Qualitative content analysis (QCA) is concerned with gathering and interpreting an existing body of material.    

A word or short phrase that symbolically assigns a summative, salient, essence-capturing, and/or evocative attribute for a portion of language-based or visual data (Saldaña 2021:5).

Usually a verbatim written record of an interview or focus group discussion.

The primary form of data for fieldwork , participant observation , and ethnography .  These notes, taken by the researcher either during the course of fieldwork or at day’s end, should include as many details as possible on what was observed and what was said.  They should include clear identifiers of date, time, setting, and names (or identifying characteristics) of participants.

The process of labeling and organizing qualitative data to identify different themes and the relationships between them; a way of simplifying data to allow better management and retrieval of key themes and illustrative passages.  See coding frame and  codebook.

A methodological tradition of inquiry and approach to analyzing qualitative data in which theories emerge from a rigorous and systematic process of induction.  This approach was pioneered by the sociologists Glaser and Strauss (1967).  The elements of theory generated from comparative analysis of data are, first, conceptual categories and their properties and, second, hypotheses or generalized relations among the categories and their properties – “The constant comparing of many groups draws the [researcher’s] attention to their many similarities and differences.  Considering these leads [the researcher] to generate abstract categories and their properties, which, since they emerge from the data, will clearly be important to a theory explaining the kind of behavior under observation.” (36).

A detailed description of any proposed research that involves human subjects for review by IRB.  The protocol serves as the recipe for the conduct of the research activity.  It includes the scientific rationale to justify the conduct of the study, the information necessary to conduct the study, the plan for managing and analyzing the data, and a discussion of the research ethical issues relevant to the research.  Protocols for qualitative research often include interview guides, all documents related to recruitment, informed consent forms, very clear guidelines on the safekeeping of materials collected, and plans for de-identifying transcripts or other data that include personal identifying information.

Introduction to Qualitative Research Methods Copyright © 2023 by Allison Hurst is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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• What Is Qualitative Research? | Methods & Examples

What Is Qualitative Research? | Methods & Examples

Published on 4 April 2022 by Pritha Bhandari . Revised on 30 January 2023.

Qualitative research involves collecting and analysing non-numerical data (e.g., text, video, or audio) to understand concepts, opinions, or experiences. It can be used to gather in-depth insights into a problem or generate new ideas for research.

Qualitative research is the opposite of quantitative research , which involves collecting and analysing numerical data for statistical analysis.

Qualitative research is commonly used in the humanities and social sciences, in subjects such as anthropology, sociology, education, health sciences, and history.

• How does social media shape body image in teenagers?
• How do children and adults interpret healthy eating in the UK?
• What factors influence employee retention in a large organisation?
• How is anxiety experienced around the world?
• How can teachers integrate social issues into science curriculums?

Table of contents

Approaches to qualitative research, qualitative research methods, qualitative data analysis, advantages of qualitative research, disadvantages of qualitative research, frequently asked questions about qualitative research.

Qualitative research is used to understand how people experience the world. While there are many approaches to qualitative research, they tend to be flexible and focus on retaining rich meaning when interpreting data.

Common approaches include grounded theory, ethnography, action research, phenomenological research, and narrative research. They share some similarities, but emphasise different aims and perspectives.

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Each of the research approaches involve using one or more data collection methods . These are some of the most common qualitative methods:

• Observations: recording what you have seen, heard, or encountered in detailed field notes.
• Interviews:  personally asking people questions in one-on-one conversations.
• Focus groups: asking questions and generating discussion among a group of people.
• Surveys : distributing questionnaires with open-ended questions.
• Secondary research: collecting existing data in the form of texts, images, audio or video recordings, etc.
• You take field notes with observations and reflect on your own experiences of the company culture.
• You distribute open-ended surveys to employees across all the company’s offices by email to find out if the culture varies across locations.
• You conduct in-depth interviews with employees in your office to learn about their experiences and perspectives in greater detail.

Qualitative researchers often consider themselves ‘instruments’ in research because all observations, interpretations and analyses are filtered through their own personal lens.

For this reason, when writing up your methodology for qualitative research, it’s important to reflect on your approach and to thoroughly explain the choices you made in collecting and analysing the data.

Qualitative data can take the form of texts, photos, videos and audio. For example, you might be working with interview transcripts, survey responses, fieldnotes, or recordings from natural settings.

Most types of qualitative data analysis share the same five steps:

• Prepare and organise your data. This may mean transcribing interviews or typing up fieldnotes.
• Review and explore your data. Examine the data for patterns or repeated ideas that emerge.
• Develop a data coding system. Based on your initial ideas, establish a set of codes that you can apply to categorise your data.
• Assign codes to the data. For example, in qualitative survey analysis, this may mean going through each participant’s responses and tagging them with codes in a spreadsheet. As you go through your data, you can create new codes to add to your system if necessary.
• Identify recurring themes. Link codes together into cohesive, overarching themes.

There are several specific approaches to analysing qualitative data. Although these methods share similar processes, they emphasise different concepts.

Qualitative research often tries to preserve the voice and perspective of participants and can be adjusted as new research questions arise. Qualitative research is good for:

• Flexibility

The data collection and analysis process can be adapted as new ideas or patterns emerge. They are not rigidly decided beforehand.

• Natural settings

Data collection occurs in real-world contexts or in naturalistic ways.

• Meaningful insights

Detailed descriptions of people’s experiences, feelings and perceptions can be used in designing, testing or improving systems or products.

• Generation of new ideas

Open-ended responses mean that researchers can uncover novel problems or opportunities that they wouldn’t have thought of otherwise.

Researchers must consider practical and theoretical limitations in analysing and interpreting their data. Qualitative research suffers from:

• Unreliability

The real-world setting often makes qualitative research unreliable because of uncontrolled factors that affect the data.

• Subjectivity

Due to the researcher’s primary role in analysing and interpreting data, qualitative research cannot be replicated . The researcher decides what is important and what is irrelevant in data analysis, so interpretations of the same data can vary greatly.

• Limited generalisability

Small samples are often used to gather detailed data about specific contexts. Despite rigorous analysis procedures, it is difficult to draw generalisable conclusions because the data may be biased and unrepresentative of the wider population .

• Labour-intensive

Although software can be used to manage and record large amounts of text, data analysis often has to be checked or performed manually.

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to test a hypothesis by systematically collecting and analysing data, while qualitative methods allow you to explore ideas and experiences in depth.

There are five common approaches to qualitative research :

• Grounded theory involves collecting data in order to develop new theories.
• Ethnography involves immersing yourself in a group or organisation to understand its culture.
• Narrative research involves interpreting stories to understand how people make sense of their experiences and perceptions.
• Phenomenological research involves investigating phenomena through people’s lived experiences.
• Action research links theory and practice in several cycles to drive innovative changes.

Data collection is the systematic process by which observations or measurements are gathered in research. It is used in many different contexts by academics, governments, businesses, and other organisations.

There are various approaches to qualitative data analysis , but they all share five steps in common:

• Prepare and organise your data.
• Review and explore your data.
• Develop a data coding system.
• Assign codes to the data.
• Identify recurring themes.

The specifics of each step depend on the focus of the analysis. Some common approaches include textual analysis , thematic analysis , and discourse analysis .

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Qualitative Research Methods: Types, Examples, and Analysis

In a universe swarming with data, numbers, and algorithms, lies a lesser-known realm where emotions, stories, and intimate revelations take center stage. When you want to get inside your customers’ heads to understand their thoughts, feelings, perceptions, beliefs, and emotions, numbers are unlikely to provide a complete picture.

Let’s set the scene: picture a cozy bakery buzzing with conversations. People from different walks of life gather, each carrying a unique story to tell. You observe that your sale of pancakes is more than that of pastries, numerical data will tell you that much. But numbers won’t tell you why.

This is exactly where qualitative surveys come into play; they take you right to the heart of people’s minds and experiences – the “why” behind the statistics.

Quantitative data may offer a bird’s-eye view of the crowd, but qualitative surveys open the doorways to your audience’s individual tales. In this blog, we are going to explore qualitative research, its types, analytical procedures, positive and negative aspects, and examples.

Here we go!

What Is Qualitative Research?

Qualitative research is a branch of market research that involves collecting and analyzing qualitative data through open-ended communication. The primary purpose of conducting qualitative research is to understand the individual’s thoughts, feelings, opinions, and reasons behind these emotions.

It is used to gather in-depth and rich insights into a particular topic. Understanding how your audience feels about a specific subject helps make informed decisions in research.

As opposed to quantitative research, qualitative research does not deal with the collection of numerical data for statistical analysis. The application of this research method is usually found in humanities and social science subjects like sociology, history, anthropology, health science, education, etc.

Types of Qualitative Research Methods

Qualitative research methods are designed to understand the behavior and perception of the target audience about a particular subject.

Qualitative research methods include observations, one-on-one interviews, case study research, focus groups, ethnographic research, phenomenology, and grounded theory.

Let’s discuss them one by one.

1. Observations

Observation is one of the oldest qualitative methods of research used to collect systematic data using subjective methodologies. It is based on five primary sense organs – smell, sight, taste, touch, and hearing, and their functioning. This method focuses on characteristics and qualities rather than numbers.

The qualitative observation technique involves observing the interaction patterns in a particular situation. Researchers collect data by closely watching the behaviors of others. They rely on their ability to observe the target audience rather than communicating with people about their thoughts on a particular subject.

2. One-on-One Interviews

Conducting one-on-one interviews is one of the most common types of qualitative research methods. Although both open-ended and closed-ended questions can be a part of these interviews, open-ended conservation between researchers and participants related to a particular subject is still the preferred mode of communication. This is to gather in-depth qualitative data for the research purpose.

Here, the researcher asks pre-determined questions to the participants to collect specific information about their research topic. Interviews can be conducted face-to-face, by email, or by phone. The drawback of this method is that sometimes the participants feel uncomfortable sharing honest answers with the researcher.

3. Focus Groups

A Focus group involves collecting qualitative data by conducting a group discussion of 6-12 members along with a moderator related to a particular subject. Here the moderator asks respondents a set of predetermined questions so that they can interact with each other and form a group discussion. It helps researchers to collect rich qualitative data about their market research.

However, it is essential to ensure that the moderator asks open-ended questions like “how,” “what,” and “why” that will enable participants to share their thoughts and feelings.

Close-ended questions like “yes” and “no” should be avoided as they do not lead to engagement among participants.

4. Case Study Research

A case study is another example of qualitative research that involves a comprehensive examination of a particular subject, person, or event.

This method is used to obtain in-depth data and complete knowledge of the subject. The data is collected from various sources like interviews and observation to supplement the conclusion.

This qualitative approach is extensively used in the field of social sciences, law, business, and health. Many companies use this technique when marketing their products/services to new customers. It tells them how their business offerings can solve a particular problem. Let’s discuss an example of this method of qualitative research.

5. Digital Ethnography

This is an innovative form of qualitative research that focuses on understanding people and their cultures in the context of the digital realm. Digital ethnography aims to study individuals’ behavior, interactions, and social dynamics within online environments and digital communities.

In digital ethnography, the researcher acts as both an observer and a participant in these said online communities to gain firsthand insight into the lifestyles, cultures, and traditions of people navigating these digital landscapes.

Unlike traditional ethnography, digital ethnography is more efficient and accessible. The studies are conducted remotely, reducing the need for extended physical presence in a specific location, and the data collection process is often more streamlined.

6. Grounded Theory

This is another data collection method of qualitative research used across various disciplines. The Grounded Theory aims to provide the reasons, theories, and explanations behind an event. It focuses on why a course of action has happened the way it did.

The grounded theory model collects and analyzes the data to develop new theories about the subject. The data is collected using different techniques like observation, literature review, and document analysis.

This qualitative method is majorly used in business for conducting user satisfaction surveys to explain why a customer purchases a particular product or service. It helps companies in managing customer loyalty.

Watch: How to Create a Customer Satisfaction Survey

7. Phenomenology

Phenomenology is another qualitative research example that describes how an individual experiences or feels about a particular event. It also explores the experience of a specific event in a community.

Here, the researcher interviews people who have experienced a particular event to find similarities between their experiences. The researcher can also record what they learn from the target audience to maintain the credibility of the data.

Although this qualitative technique depends majorly on interviews, other data collection methods like observation, interviews, and survey questionnaires are also used to supplement the findings. The application of this method is found in psychology, philosophy, and education.

For example, to prompt a participant to share their experience around an event they encountered, you can ask:

“What was your experience like when you first encountered [a specific phenomenon or event]?”

8. Record Keeping

This approach involves using existing trustworthy documents and other reliable sources as the basis of data for new research. It’s comparable to visiting a library, where you can explore books and reference materials to gather relevant data that might be helpful for your research.

How Do You Analyze Qualitative Data?

1. Arranging the Data

Qualitative data is collected in different forms like audio recordings, interviews, video transcriptions, etc. This step involves arranging all the collected data in the text format in the spreadsheet. This can be done either manually or with the help of data analysis tools.

2. Organizing the Data

Even after putting the data into a spreadsheet, the data is still messy and hard to read. Due to this, the data needs to be organized in a readable and understandable pattern.

For example, you can organize data based on questions asked. Organize your data in such a way that it appears visually clear. Data organization can be tedious, but it is essential for the next step.

3. Assigning Codes

Developing codes for the data helps simplify the data analysis methods in qualitative research. Assigning code implies categorizing and setting patterns and properties to the collected data. It helps in compressing the vast amount of information collected. By developing codes for your data, you can gather deep insight into the data to make informed business decisions.

4. Analyzing the Data

Qualitative data cannot be analyzed based on any universally accepted equation like quantitative data. Qualitative data analysis depends on the thinking and logical skill of the researcher.

However, there are a few techniques by which you can easily interpret data by identifying themes and patterns between sample responses:

• Checking the data for repetitive words and phrases commonly used by the audience in their answers.
• Comparing the primary and secondary data collection to find the difference between them.
• Scanning the data for expected information that has not been included in answers provided by respondents.

5. Summarizing the Data

The final stage is to link the qualitative data to the hypothesis. Highlight significant themes, patterns, and trends by using essential quotes from the data, as well as any possible contradictions.

One of the main things about qualitative data is that there isn’t a single, formal way to collect and analyze data. Each research project will have its own set of methods and techniques that it needs to use.

The key is to look at the specific needs of each project and change the research method accordingly.

Advantages and Limitations of Qualitative Research

Qualitative market research techniques offer a more comprehensive and complete picture of the subject than quantitative research, which focuses on specific and narrow areas. Other advantages of using qualitative research methods are:

• Explore the subject in-depth: Qualitative research is personal and offers a deep understanding of the respondent’s feelings, thoughts, and actions so that the researcher can perform an in-depth analysis of the subject.
• Promotes discussion: Qualitative research methods are open-ended in approach rather than rigorously following a predetermined set of questions. It adds context to the research rather than just numbers.
• More flexibility: The interviewer can study and ask questions on the subject they feel is pertinent or had not previously thought about during the discussions. Moreover, open-ended questions enable respondents to be free to share their thoughts, leading to more information.
• Capture trends as they change: Qualitative research can track how people’s feelings and attitudes change over time. Respondents’ opinions can change during the conversation, and qualitative research can show this.

With that being said, however, we do not mean that qualitative data is entirely devoid of flaws. Like most things, it, too, has its fair share of limitations, the prime among them being:

• Subjectivity: Qualitative data can be influenced by the researcher’s bias or interpretation, potentially affecting the objectivity of the findings. The absence of strict guidelines in qualitative research can lead to variations in data collection and analysis too.
• Time-Consuming & Resource-Intensive: Conducting qualitative research can be a lengthy process, from data collection through transcription and analysis. It also often requires skilled researchers, making it more resource-intensive compared to some quantitative methods.
• Difficulty in Analysis: Analyzing qualitative data can be complex, as it involves coding, categorizing, and interpreting open-ended responses. This data category often does not lend itself well to traditional statistical tests, limiting the depth of statistical analysis as well.
• Challenges in Replication: Replicating qualitative studies can be challenging due to the unique context and interactions involved.

Advantages of Using Website Surveys for Qualitative Research

The role of surveys and questionnaires in collecting quantitative data is pretty obvious, but how exactly would you use them to capture qualitative data, and why? Well, for starters, website surveys offer numerous advantages here, such as letting researchers explore diverse perspectives, collect rich and detailed data, conduct cost-effective and time-efficient studies, etc.

Let’s have a brief rundown of the significant benefits below:

Reach and Diversity: Website surveys enable researchers to engage with a diverse and global audience. They break geographical barriers, allowing participation from individuals residing in different regions, cultures, and backgrounds, leading to a richer pool of perspectives.

• Cost-Effectiveness: Conducting traditional face-to-face qualitative research can be expensive and time-consuming. In contrast, website surveys are cost-effective, as they eliminate the need for travel, venue rentals, and other logistical expenses.
• Convenience and Flexibility: Website surveys offer unparalleled convenience to both researchers and participants. Respondents can take part in the study at their own pace and preferred time, promoting higher response rates and reducing non-response bias.
• Anonymity and Honesty: Participants often feel more comfortable expressing themselves honestly in online surveys. Anonymity ensures confidentiality, encouraging candid responses, and allowing researchers to gain deeper insights into personal experiences and opinions.
• Rich Data Collection: Website surveys can accommodate various question types, including open-ended questions, allowing respondents to elaborate on their thoughts. This results in the collection of rich, detailed, and nuanced data, enriching the qualitative analysis.
• Time-Efficient Data Collection: Website surveys facilitate efficient data collection, reaching a large number of participants in a short span. Researchers can access real-time data, enabling quick analysis and timely decision-making.
• Ease of Analysis: Online survey platforms often provide tools for automated data analysis, simplifying the coding and categorization process. Researchers can swiftly identify themes and patterns, expediting the interpretation of qualitative findings.
• Longitudinal Studies: Website surveys are well-suited for longitudinal studies, as they allow researchers to follow up with the same participants over an extended period. This longitudinal approach enables the exploration of changes in attitudes or behaviors over time.
• Integration with Multimedia: Website surveys can seamlessly incorporate multimedia elements, such as images, videos, or audio clips, enabling respondents to provide more context and depth to their responses.
• Eco-Friendly Approach: By reducing the need for paper and physical materials, website surveys promote a sustainable and eco-friendly approach to data collection, aligning with responsible research practices.

Most website survey tools are equipped with features that efficiently collect and analyze diverse perspectives, ultimately furthering your data collection process. For example:

• Question Customization: These tools allow users to create and customize a wide range of questions, including open-ended, closed-ended, rating scale, and more. This flexibility allows participants to express their thoughts and feelings in their own words, paving the way for gathering diverse qualitative data.
• Anonymity and Confidentiality: Ensuring confidentiality in qualitative research is crucial for building trust and obtaining more accurate and sensitive data. Participants can often remain anonymous when using website survey tools, which can encourage them to provide honest and candid responses.
• Data Analysis Support: Many website survey tools offer built-in data analysis features, such as basic statistical summaries and visualizations. While these features are more suited for quantitative data, they can still aid in organizing and understanding qualitative responses, making the analysis process more manageable.
• Flexibility in Survey Design: Researchers can use skip logic and branching features in these tools to create dynamic surveys that adapt based on participants’ responses. This can be greatly valuable in qualitative research, where participants’ experiences might vary widely.
• Ease of Participation: Participants can access website surveys using various devices like computers, tablets, or smartphones, making it convenient and accessible for them to take part in the research. This ease of participation can contribute to a higher response rate and a more diverse participant pool.
• Data Storage and Security: Many website survey tools offer secure data storage and backup, ensuring the safety of the collected qualitative data. This feature is essential for maintaining the confidentiality and integrity of participants’ responses.

Examples of Website Survey Questions for Qualitative Research

These examples can greatly help in targeting customers through Click-to-WhatsApp Ads on various social media platforms. Crafting effective survey questions is crucial for qualitative research. Ensuring clarity, avoiding leading questions, and maintaining a balanced mix of question types is paramount if you are looking to gather comprehensive and valuable qualitative data.

With well-designed website survey questions, you can delve deep into participants’ thoughts, emotions, and experiences, providing a solid foundation for insightful qualitative analysis.

Let’s explore some of the prime examples:

1. Open-Ended Questions (Exploratory):

• “Please describe your experience with our product/service in your own words.”
• “What are the main challenges you face in your daily work?”

2. Multiple-Choice Questions (Categorization):

“Which age group do you belong to?”

• 18-25 years
• 26-35 years
• 36-45 years
• 46-55 years

3. Likert Scale Questions (Rating/Opinion): “On a scale of 1 to 5, how satisfied are you with our customer support?” 1 (Not satisfied at all) 2 (Slightly satisfied) 3 (Moderately satisfied) 4 (Very satisfied) 5 (Extremely satisfied)

4. Ranking Questions (Preference):

“Please rank the following factors in order of importance for choosing a smartphone:”

• Battery life
• Camera quality
• Processor speed
• Display resolution

5. Semantic Differential Questions (Contrast): “How would you describe our website’s user interface?”

• Difficult _ Easy Unattractive Attractive
• Confusing ___ Clear

6. Picture Choice Questions (Visual Feedback):

“Which logo do you find more appealing for our brand?”

• Option A (Image)
• Option B (Image)

7. Demographic Questions (Participant Profiling):

“Which of the following best describes your occupation?”

• Professional

8. Dichotomous Questions (Yes/No):

• “Have you ever purchased products from our online store?”

9. Follow-Up Probing Questions (In-depth Insight):

• “You mentioned facing challenges at work. Could you please elaborate on the specific challenges you encounter?”

10. Experience-Based Questions (Narrative):

• “Tell us about a memorable customer service experience you’ve had, whether positive or negative.”

Ready to Obtain Quality Data Using Qualitative Research?

So, there you have it all about qualitative research methods: their types, examples, use, and importance. Quantitative research is one of the most effective instruments to understand individuals’ thoughts and feelings or identify their needs and problems.

After figuring out the problem, quantitative research is used to make the conclusion and offer a reliable solution for business.

You can also supplement your qualitative market research with ProProfs Survey Maker to reach your target audience more effectively and in a shorter duration. Use the 15-day free trial to enhance your qualitative research – no commitment, no credit card details!

About the author

Emma David is a seasoned market research professional with 8+ years of experience. Having kick-started her journey in research, she has developed rich expertise in employee engagement, survey creation and administration, and data management. Emma believes in the power of data to shape business performance positively. She continues to help brands and businesses make strategic decisions and improve their market standing through her understanding of research methodologies.

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Qualitative vs Quantitative Research Methods & Data Analysis

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

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Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

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What is the difference between quantitative and qualitative?

The main difference between quantitative and qualitative research is the type of data they collect and analyze.

Quantitative research collects numerical data and analyzes it using statistical methods. The aim is to produce objective, empirical data that can be measured and expressed in numerical terms. Quantitative research is often used to test hypotheses, identify patterns, and make predictions.

Qualitative research , on the other hand, collects non-numerical data such as words, images, and sounds. The focus is on exploring subjective experiences, opinions, and attitudes, often through observation and interviews.

Qualitative research aims to produce rich and detailed descriptions of the phenomenon being studied, and to uncover new insights and meanings.

Quantitative data is information about quantities, and therefore numbers, and qualitative data is descriptive, and regards phenomenon which can be observed but not measured, such as language.

What Is Qualitative Research?

Qualitative research is the process of collecting, analyzing, and interpreting non-numerical data, such as language. Qualitative research can be used to understand how an individual subjectively perceives and gives meaning to their social reality.

Qualitative data is non-numerical data, such as text, video, photographs, or audio recordings. This type of data can be collected using diary accounts or in-depth interviews and analyzed using grounded theory or thematic analysis.

Qualitative research is multimethod in focus, involving an interpretive, naturalistic approach to its subject matter. This means that qualitative researchers study things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them. Denzin and Lincoln (1994, p. 2)

Interest in qualitative data came about as the result of the dissatisfaction of some psychologists (e.g., Carl Rogers) with the scientific study of psychologists such as behaviorists (e.g., Skinner ).

Since psychologists study people, the traditional approach to science is not seen as an appropriate way of carrying out research since it fails to capture the totality of human experience and the essence of being human.  Exploring participants’ experiences is known as a phenomenological approach (re: Humanism ).

Qualitative research is primarily concerned with meaning, subjectivity, and lived experience. The goal is to understand the quality and texture of people’s experiences, how they make sense of them, and the implications for their lives.

Qualitative research aims to understand the social reality of individuals, groups, and cultures as nearly as possible as participants feel or live it. Thus, people and groups are studied in their natural setting.

Some examples of qualitative research questions are provided, such as what an experience feels like, how people talk about something, how they make sense of an experience, and how events unfold for people.

Research following a qualitative approach is exploratory and seeks to explain ‘how’ and ‘why’ a particular phenomenon, or behavior, operates as it does in a particular context. It can be used to generate hypotheses and theories from the data.

Qualitative Methods

There are different types of qualitative research methods, including diary accounts, in-depth interviews , documents, focus groups , case study research , and ethnography.

The results of qualitative methods provide a deep understanding of how people perceive their social realities and in consequence, how they act within the social world.

The researcher has several methods for collecting empirical materials, ranging from the interview to direct observation, to the analysis of artifacts, documents, and cultural records, to the use of visual materials or personal experience. Denzin and Lincoln (1994, p. 14)

Here are some examples of qualitative data:

Interview transcripts : Verbatim records of what participants said during an interview or focus group. They allow researchers to identify common themes and patterns, and draw conclusions based on the data. Interview transcripts can also be useful in providing direct quotes and examples to support research findings.

Observations : The researcher typically takes detailed notes on what they observe, including any contextual information, nonverbal cues, or other relevant details. The resulting observational data can be analyzed to gain insights into social phenomena, such as human behavior, social interactions, and cultural practices.

Unstructured interviews : generate qualitative data through the use of open questions.  This allows the respondent to talk in some depth, choosing their own words.  This helps the researcher develop a real sense of a person’s understanding of a situation.

Diaries or journals : Written accounts of personal experiences or reflections.

Notice that qualitative data could be much more than just words or text. Photographs, videos, sound recordings, and so on, can be considered qualitative data. Visual data can be used to understand behaviors, environments, and social interactions.

Qualitative Data Analysis

Qualitative research is endlessly creative and interpretive. The researcher does not just leave the field with mountains of empirical data and then easily write up his or her findings.

Qualitative interpretations are constructed, and various techniques can be used to make sense of the data, such as content analysis, grounded theory (Glaser & Strauss, 1967), thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006), or discourse analysis.

For example, thematic analysis is a qualitative approach that involves identifying implicit or explicit ideas within the data. Themes will often emerge once the data has been coded.

Key Features

• Events can be understood adequately only if they are seen in context. Therefore, a qualitative researcher immerses her/himself in the field, in natural surroundings. The contexts of inquiry are not contrived; they are natural. Nothing is predefined or taken for granted.
• Qualitative researchers want those who are studied to speak for themselves, to provide their perspectives in words and other actions. Therefore, qualitative research is an interactive process in which the persons studied teach the researcher about their lives.
• The qualitative researcher is an integral part of the data; without the active participation of the researcher, no data exists.
• The study’s design evolves during the research and can be adjusted or changed as it progresses. For the qualitative researcher, there is no single reality. It is subjective and exists only in reference to the observer.
• The theory is data-driven and emerges as part of the research process, evolving from the data as they are collected.

Limitations of Qualitative Research

• Because of the time and costs involved, qualitative designs do not generally draw samples from large-scale data sets.
• The problem of adequate validity or reliability is a major criticism. Because of the subjective nature of qualitative data and its origin in single contexts, it is difficult to apply conventional standards of reliability and validity. For example, because of the central role played by the researcher in the generation of data, it is not possible to replicate qualitative studies.
• Also, contexts, situations, events, conditions, and interactions cannot be replicated to any extent, nor can generalizations be made to a wider context than the one studied with confidence.
• The time required for data collection, analysis, and interpretation is lengthy. Analysis of qualitative data is difficult, and expert knowledge of an area is necessary to interpret qualitative data. Great care must be taken when doing so, for example, looking for mental illness symptoms.

Advantages of Qualitative Research

• Because of close researcher involvement, the researcher gains an insider’s view of the field. This allows the researcher to find issues that are often missed (such as subtleties and complexities) by the scientific, more positivistic inquiries.
• Qualitative descriptions can be important in suggesting possible relationships, causes, effects, and dynamic processes.
• Qualitative analysis allows for ambiguities/contradictions in the data, which reflect social reality (Denscombe, 2010).
• Qualitative research uses a descriptive, narrative style; this research might be of particular benefit to the practitioner as she or he could turn to qualitative reports to examine forms of knowledge that might otherwise be unavailable, thereby gaining new insight.

What Is Quantitative Research?

Quantitative research involves the process of objectively collecting and analyzing numerical data to describe, predict, or control variables of interest.

The goals of quantitative research are to test causal relationships between variables , make predictions, and generalize results to wider populations.

Quantitative researchers aim to establish general laws of behavior and phenomenon across different settings/contexts. Research is used to test a theory and ultimately support or reject it.

Quantitative Methods

Experiments typically yield quantitative data, as they are concerned with measuring things.  However, other research methods, such as controlled observations and questionnaires , can produce both quantitative information.

For example, a rating scale or closed questions on a questionnaire would generate quantitative data as these produce either numerical data or data that can be put into categories (e.g., “yes,” “no” answers).

Experimental methods limit how research participants react to and express appropriate social behavior.

Findings are, therefore, likely to be context-bound and simply a reflection of the assumptions that the researcher brings to the investigation.

There are numerous examples of quantitative data in psychological research, including mental health. Here are a few examples:

Another example is the Experience in Close Relationships Scale (ECR), a self-report questionnaire widely used to assess adult attachment styles .

The ECR provides quantitative data that can be used to assess attachment styles and predict relationship outcomes.

Neuroimaging data : Neuroimaging techniques, such as MRI and fMRI, provide quantitative data on brain structure and function.

This data can be analyzed to identify brain regions involved in specific mental processes or disorders.

For example, the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) is a clinician-administered questionnaire widely used to assess the severity of depressive symptoms in individuals.

The BDI consists of 21 questions, each scored on a scale of 0 to 3, with higher scores indicating more severe depressive symptoms. 

Quantitative Data Analysis

Statistics help us turn quantitative data into useful information to help with decision-making. We can use statistics to summarize our data, describing patterns, relationships, and connections. Statistics can be descriptive or inferential.

Descriptive statistics help us to summarize our data. In contrast, inferential statistics are used to identify statistically significant differences between groups of data (such as intervention and control groups in a randomized control study).

• Quantitative researchers try to control extraneous variables by conducting their studies in the lab.
• The research aims for objectivity (i.e., without bias) and is separated from the data.
• The design of the study is determined before it begins.
• For the quantitative researcher, the reality is objective, exists separately from the researcher, and can be seen by anyone.
• Research is used to test a theory and ultimately support or reject it.

Limitations of Quantitative Research

• Context: Quantitative experiments do not take place in natural settings. In addition, they do not allow participants to explain their choices or the meaning of the questions they may have for those participants (Carr, 1994).
• Researcher expertise: Poor knowledge of the application of statistical analysis may negatively affect analysis and subsequent interpretation (Black, 1999).
• Variability of data quantity: Large sample sizes are needed for more accurate analysis. Small-scale quantitative studies may be less reliable because of the low quantity of data (Denscombe, 2010). This also affects the ability to generalize study findings to wider populations.
• Confirmation bias: The researcher might miss observing phenomena because of focus on theory or hypothesis testing rather than on the theory of hypothesis generation.

Advantages of Quantitative Research

• Scientific objectivity: Quantitative data can be interpreted with statistical analysis, and since statistics are based on the principles of mathematics, the quantitative approach is viewed as scientifically objective and rational (Carr, 1994; Denscombe, 2010).
• Useful for testing and validating already constructed theories.
• Rapid analysis: Sophisticated software removes much of the need for prolonged data analysis, especially with large volumes of data involved (Antonius, 2003).
• Replication: Quantitative data is based on measured values and can be checked by others because numerical data is less open to ambiguities of interpretation.
• Hypotheses can also be tested because of statistical analysis (Antonius, 2003).

Antonius, R. (2003). Interpreting quantitative data with SPSS . Sage.

Black, T. R. (1999). Doing quantitative research in the social sciences: An integrated approach to research design, measurement and statistics . Sage.

Braun, V. & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology . Qualitative Research in Psychology , 3, 77–101.

Carr, L. T. (1994). The strengths and weaknesses of quantitative and qualitative research : what method for nursing? Journal of advanced nursing, 20(4) , 716-721.

Denscombe, M. (2010). The Good Research Guide: for small-scale social research. McGraw Hill.

Denzin, N., & Lincoln. Y. (1994). Handbook of Qualitative Research. Thousand Oaks, CA, US: Sage Publications Inc.

Glaser, B. G., Strauss, A. L., & Strutzel, E. (1968). The discovery of grounded theory; strategies for qualitative research. Nursing research, 17(4) , 364.

Minichiello, V. (1990). In-Depth Interviewing: Researching People. Longman Cheshire.

Punch, K. (1998). Introduction to Social Research: Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches. London: Sage

Further Information

• Designing qualitative research
• Methods of data collection and analysis
• Introduction to quantitative and qualitative research
• Checklists for improving rigour in qualitative research: a case of the tail wagging the dog?
• Qualitative research in health care: Analysing qualitative data
• Qualitative data analysis: the framework approach
• Using the framework method for the analysis of
• Qualitative data in multi-disciplinary health research
• Content Analysis
• Grounded Theory
• Thematic Analysis

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A Practical Guide to Writing Quantitative and Qualitative Research Questions and Hypotheses in Scholarly Articles

Edward barroga.

1 Department of General Education, Graduate School of Nursing Science, St. Luke’s International University, Tokyo, Japan.

Glafera Janet Matanguihan

2 Department of Biological Sciences, Messiah University, Mechanicsburg, PA, USA.

The development of research questions and the subsequent hypotheses are prerequisites to defining the main research purpose and specific objectives of a study. Consequently, these objectives determine the study design and research outcome. The development of research questions is a process based on knowledge of current trends, cutting-edge studies, and technological advances in the research field. Excellent research questions are focused and require a comprehensive literature search and in-depth understanding of the problem being investigated. Initially, research questions may be written as descriptive questions which could be developed into inferential questions. These questions must be specific and concise to provide a clear foundation for developing hypotheses. Hypotheses are more formal predictions about the research outcomes. These specify the possible results that may or may not be expected regarding the relationship between groups. Thus, research questions and hypotheses clarify the main purpose and specific objectives of the study, which in turn dictate the design of the study, its direction, and outcome. Studies developed from good research questions and hypotheses will have trustworthy outcomes with wide-ranging social and health implications.

INTRODUCTION

Scientific research is usually initiated by posing evidenced-based research questions which are then explicitly restated as hypotheses. 1 , 2 The hypotheses provide directions to guide the study, solutions, explanations, and expected results. 3 , 4 Both research questions and hypotheses are essentially formulated based on conventional theories and real-world processes, which allow the inception of novel studies and the ethical testing of ideas. 5 , 6

It is crucial to have knowledge of both quantitative and qualitative research 2 as both types of research involve writing research questions and hypotheses. 7 However, these crucial elements of research are sometimes overlooked; if not overlooked, then framed without the forethought and meticulous attention it needs. Planning and careful consideration are needed when developing quantitative or qualitative research, particularly when conceptualizing research questions and hypotheses. 4

There is a continuing need to support researchers in the creation of innovative research questions and hypotheses, as well as for journal articles that carefully review these elements. 1 When research questions and hypotheses are not carefully thought of, unethical studies and poor outcomes usually ensue. Carefully formulated research questions and hypotheses define well-founded objectives, which in turn determine the appropriate design, course, and outcome of the study. This article then aims to discuss in detail the various aspects of crafting research questions and hypotheses, with the goal of guiding researchers as they develop their own. Examples from the authors and peer-reviewed scientific articles in the healthcare field are provided to illustrate key points.

DEFINITIONS AND RELATIONSHIP OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

A research question is what a study aims to answer after data analysis and interpretation. The answer is written in length in the discussion section of the paper. Thus, the research question gives a preview of the different parts and variables of the study meant to address the problem posed in the research question. 1 An excellent research question clarifies the research writing while facilitating understanding of the research topic, objective, scope, and limitations of the study. 5

On the other hand, a research hypothesis is an educated statement of an expected outcome. This statement is based on background research and current knowledge. 8 , 9 The research hypothesis makes a specific prediction about a new phenomenon 10 or a formal statement on the expected relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable. 3 , 11 It provides a tentative answer to the research question to be tested or explored. 4

Hypotheses employ reasoning to predict a theory-based outcome. 10 These can also be developed from theories by focusing on components of theories that have not yet been observed. 10 The validity of hypotheses is often based on the testability of the prediction made in a reproducible experiment. 8

Conversely, hypotheses can also be rephrased as research questions. Several hypotheses based on existing theories and knowledge may be needed to answer a research question. Developing ethical research questions and hypotheses creates a research design that has logical relationships among variables. These relationships serve as a solid foundation for the conduct of the study. 4 , 11 Haphazardly constructed research questions can result in poorly formulated hypotheses and improper study designs, leading to unreliable results. Thus, the formulations of relevant research questions and verifiable hypotheses are crucial when beginning research. 12

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Excellent research questions are specific and focused. These integrate collective data and observations to confirm or refute the subsequent hypotheses. Well-constructed hypotheses are based on previous reports and verify the research context. These are realistic, in-depth, sufficiently complex, and reproducible. More importantly, these hypotheses can be addressed and tested. 13

There are several characteristics of well-developed hypotheses. Good hypotheses are 1) empirically testable 7 , 10 , 11 , 13 ; 2) backed by preliminary evidence 9 ; 3) testable by ethical research 7 , 9 ; 4) based on original ideas 9 ; 5) have evidenced-based logical reasoning 10 ; and 6) can be predicted. 11 Good hypotheses can infer ethical and positive implications, indicating the presence of a relationship or effect relevant to the research theme. 7 , 11 These are initially developed from a general theory and branch into specific hypotheses by deductive reasoning. In the absence of a theory to base the hypotheses, inductive reasoning based on specific observations or findings form more general hypotheses. 10

TYPES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Research questions and hypotheses are developed according to the type of research, which can be broadly classified into quantitative and qualitative research. We provide a summary of the types of research questions and hypotheses under quantitative and qualitative research categories in Table 1 .

Research questions in quantitative research

In quantitative research, research questions inquire about the relationships among variables being investigated and are usually framed at the start of the study. These are precise and typically linked to the subject population, dependent and independent variables, and research design. 1 Research questions may also attempt to describe the behavior of a population in relation to one or more variables, or describe the characteristics of variables to be measured ( descriptive research questions ). 1 , 5 , 14 These questions may also aim to discover differences between groups within the context of an outcome variable ( comparative research questions ), 1 , 5 , 14 or elucidate trends and interactions among variables ( relationship research questions ). 1 , 5 We provide examples of descriptive, comparative, and relationship research questions in quantitative research in Table 2 .

Hypotheses in quantitative research

In quantitative research, hypotheses predict the expected relationships among variables. 15 Relationships among variables that can be predicted include 1) between a single dependent variable and a single independent variable ( simple hypothesis ) or 2) between two or more independent and dependent variables ( complex hypothesis ). 4 , 11 Hypotheses may also specify the expected direction to be followed and imply an intellectual commitment to a particular outcome ( directional hypothesis ) 4 . On the other hand, hypotheses may not predict the exact direction and are used in the absence of a theory, or when findings contradict previous studies ( non-directional hypothesis ). 4 In addition, hypotheses can 1) define interdependency between variables ( associative hypothesis ), 4 2) propose an effect on the dependent variable from manipulation of the independent variable ( causal hypothesis ), 4 3) state a negative relationship between two variables ( null hypothesis ), 4 , 11 , 15 4) replace the working hypothesis if rejected ( alternative hypothesis ), 15 explain the relationship of phenomena to possibly generate a theory ( working hypothesis ), 11 5) involve quantifiable variables that can be tested statistically ( statistical hypothesis ), 11 6) or express a relationship whose interlinks can be verified logically ( logical hypothesis ). 11 We provide examples of simple, complex, directional, non-directional, associative, causal, null, alternative, working, statistical, and logical hypotheses in quantitative research, as well as the definition of quantitative hypothesis-testing research in Table 3 .

Research questions in qualitative research

Unlike research questions in quantitative research, research questions in qualitative research are usually continuously reviewed and reformulated. The central question and associated subquestions are stated more than the hypotheses. 15 The central question broadly explores a complex set of factors surrounding the central phenomenon, aiming to present the varied perspectives of participants. 15

There are varied goals for which qualitative research questions are developed. These questions can function in several ways, such as to 1) identify and describe existing conditions ( contextual research question s); 2) describe a phenomenon ( descriptive research questions ); 3) assess the effectiveness of existing methods, protocols, theories, or procedures ( evaluation research questions ); 4) examine a phenomenon or analyze the reasons or relationships between subjects or phenomena ( explanatory research questions ); or 5) focus on unknown aspects of a particular topic ( exploratory research questions ). 5 In addition, some qualitative research questions provide new ideas for the development of theories and actions ( generative research questions ) or advance specific ideologies of a position ( ideological research questions ). 1 Other qualitative research questions may build on a body of existing literature and become working guidelines ( ethnographic research questions ). Research questions may also be broadly stated without specific reference to the existing literature or a typology of questions ( phenomenological research questions ), may be directed towards generating a theory of some process ( grounded theory questions ), or may address a description of the case and the emerging themes ( qualitative case study questions ). 15 We provide examples of contextual, descriptive, evaluation, explanatory, exploratory, generative, ideological, ethnographic, phenomenological, grounded theory, and qualitative case study research questions in qualitative research in Table 4 , and the definition of qualitative hypothesis-generating research in Table 5 .

Qualitative studies usually pose at least one central research question and several subquestions starting with How or What . These research questions use exploratory verbs such as explore or describe . These also focus on one central phenomenon of interest, and may mention the participants and research site. 15

Hypotheses in qualitative research

Hypotheses in qualitative research are stated in the form of a clear statement concerning the problem to be investigated. Unlike in quantitative research where hypotheses are usually developed to be tested, qualitative research can lead to both hypothesis-testing and hypothesis-generating outcomes. 2 When studies require both quantitative and qualitative research questions, this suggests an integrative process between both research methods wherein a single mixed-methods research question can be developed. 1

FRAMEWORKS FOR DEVELOPING RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Research questions followed by hypotheses should be developed before the start of the study. 1 , 12 , 14 It is crucial to develop feasible research questions on a topic that is interesting to both the researcher and the scientific community. This can be achieved by a meticulous review of previous and current studies to establish a novel topic. Specific areas are subsequently focused on to generate ethical research questions. The relevance of the research questions is evaluated in terms of clarity of the resulting data, specificity of the methodology, objectivity of the outcome, depth of the research, and impact of the study. 1 , 5 These aspects constitute the FINER criteria (i.e., Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, and Relevant). 1 Clarity and effectiveness are achieved if research questions meet the FINER criteria. In addition to the FINER criteria, Ratan et al. described focus, complexity, novelty, feasibility, and measurability for evaluating the effectiveness of research questions. 14

The PICOT and PEO frameworks are also used when developing research questions. 1 The following elements are addressed in these frameworks, PICOT: P-population/patients/problem, I-intervention or indicator being studied, C-comparison group, O-outcome of interest, and T-timeframe of the study; PEO: P-population being studied, E-exposure to preexisting conditions, and O-outcome of interest. 1 Research questions are also considered good if these meet the “FINERMAPS” framework: Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, Relevant, Manageable, Appropriate, Potential value/publishable, and Systematic. 14

As we indicated earlier, research questions and hypotheses that are not carefully formulated result in unethical studies or poor outcomes. To illustrate this, we provide some examples of ambiguous research question and hypotheses that result in unclear and weak research objectives in quantitative research ( Table 6 ) 16 and qualitative research ( Table 7 ) 17 , and how to transform these ambiguous research question(s) and hypothesis(es) into clear and good statements.

a These statements were composed for comparison and illustrative purposes only.

b These statements are direct quotes from Higashihara and Horiuchi. 16

a This statement is a direct quote from Shimoda et al. 17

The other statements were composed for comparison and illustrative purposes only.

CONSTRUCTING RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

To construct effective research questions and hypotheses, it is very important to 1) clarify the background and 2) identify the research problem at the outset of the research, within a specific timeframe. 9 Then, 3) review or conduct preliminary research to collect all available knowledge about the possible research questions by studying theories and previous studies. 18 Afterwards, 4) construct research questions to investigate the research problem. Identify variables to be accessed from the research questions 4 and make operational definitions of constructs from the research problem and questions. Thereafter, 5) construct specific deductive or inductive predictions in the form of hypotheses. 4 Finally, 6) state the study aims . This general flow for constructing effective research questions and hypotheses prior to conducting research is shown in Fig. 1 .

Research questions are used more frequently in qualitative research than objectives or hypotheses. 3 These questions seek to discover, understand, explore or describe experiences by asking “What” or “How.” The questions are open-ended to elicit a description rather than to relate variables or compare groups. The questions are continually reviewed, reformulated, and changed during the qualitative study. 3 Research questions are also used more frequently in survey projects than hypotheses in experiments in quantitative research to compare variables and their relationships.

Hypotheses are constructed based on the variables identified and as an if-then statement, following the template, ‘If a specific action is taken, then a certain outcome is expected.’ At this stage, some ideas regarding expectations from the research to be conducted must be drawn. 18 Then, the variables to be manipulated (independent) and influenced (dependent) are defined. 4 Thereafter, the hypothesis is stated and refined, and reproducible data tailored to the hypothesis are identified, collected, and analyzed. 4 The hypotheses must be testable and specific, 18 and should describe the variables and their relationships, the specific group being studied, and the predicted research outcome. 18 Hypotheses construction involves a testable proposition to be deduced from theory, and independent and dependent variables to be separated and measured separately. 3 Therefore, good hypotheses must be based on good research questions constructed at the start of a study or trial. 12

In summary, research questions are constructed after establishing the background of the study. Hypotheses are then developed based on the research questions. Thus, it is crucial to have excellent research questions to generate superior hypotheses. In turn, these would determine the research objectives and the design of the study, and ultimately, the outcome of the research. 12 Algorithms for building research questions and hypotheses are shown in Fig. 2 for quantitative research and in Fig. 3 for qualitative research.

EXAMPLES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS FROM PUBLISHED ARTICLES

• EXAMPLE 1. Descriptive research question (quantitative research)
• - Presents research variables to be assessed (distinct phenotypes and subphenotypes)
• “BACKGROUND: Since COVID-19 was identified, its clinical and biological heterogeneity has been recognized. Identifying COVID-19 phenotypes might help guide basic, clinical, and translational research efforts.
• RESEARCH QUESTION: Does the clinical spectrum of patients with COVID-19 contain distinct phenotypes and subphenotypes? ” 19
• EXAMPLE 2. Relationship research question (quantitative research)
• - Shows interactions between dependent variable (static postural control) and independent variable (peripheral visual field loss)
• “Background: Integration of visual, vestibular, and proprioceptive sensations contributes to postural control. People with peripheral visual field loss have serious postural instability. However, the directional specificity of postural stability and sensory reweighting caused by gradual peripheral visual field loss remain unclear.
• Research question: What are the effects of peripheral visual field loss on static postural control ?” 20
• EXAMPLE 3. Comparative research question (quantitative research)
• - Clarifies the difference among groups with an outcome variable (patients enrolled in COMPERA with moderate PH or severe PH in COPD) and another group without the outcome variable (patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH))
• “BACKGROUND: Pulmonary hypertension (PH) in COPD is a poorly investigated clinical condition.
• RESEARCH QUESTION: Which factors determine the outcome of PH in COPD?
• STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: We analyzed the characteristics and outcome of patients enrolled in the Comparative, Prospective Registry of Newly Initiated Therapies for Pulmonary Hypertension (COMPERA) with moderate or severe PH in COPD as defined during the 6th PH World Symposium who received medical therapy for PH and compared them with patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH) .” 21
• EXAMPLE 4. Exploratory research question (qualitative research)
• - Explores areas that have not been fully investigated (perspectives of families and children who receive care in clinic-based child obesity treatment) to have a deeper understanding of the research problem
• “Problem: Interventions for children with obesity lead to only modest improvements in BMI and long-term outcomes, and data are limited on the perspectives of families of children with obesity in clinic-based treatment. This scoping review seeks to answer the question: What is known about the perspectives of families and children who receive care in clinic-based child obesity treatment? This review aims to explore the scope of perspectives reported by families of children with obesity who have received individualized outpatient clinic-based obesity treatment.” 22
• EXAMPLE 5. Relationship research question (quantitative research)
• - Defines interactions between dependent variable (use of ankle strategies) and independent variable (changes in muscle tone)
• “Background: To maintain an upright standing posture against external disturbances, the human body mainly employs two types of postural control strategies: “ankle strategy” and “hip strategy.” While it has been reported that the magnitude of the disturbance alters the use of postural control strategies, it has not been elucidated how the level of muscle tone, one of the crucial parameters of bodily function, determines the use of each strategy. We have previously confirmed using forward dynamics simulations of human musculoskeletal models that an increased muscle tone promotes the use of ankle strategies. The objective of the present study was to experimentally evaluate a hypothesis: an increased muscle tone promotes the use of ankle strategies. Research question: Do changes in the muscle tone affect the use of ankle strategies ?” 23

EXAMPLES OF HYPOTHESES IN PUBLISHED ARTICLES

• EXAMPLE 1. Working hypothesis (quantitative research)
• - A hypothesis that is initially accepted for further research to produce a feasible theory
• “As fever may have benefit in shortening the duration of viral illness, it is plausible to hypothesize that the antipyretic efficacy of ibuprofen may be hindering the benefits of a fever response when taken during the early stages of COVID-19 illness .” 24
• “In conclusion, it is plausible to hypothesize that the antipyretic efficacy of ibuprofen may be hindering the benefits of a fever response . The difference in perceived safety of these agents in COVID-19 illness could be related to the more potent efficacy to reduce fever with ibuprofen compared to acetaminophen. Compelling data on the benefit of fever warrant further research and review to determine when to treat or withhold ibuprofen for early stage fever for COVID-19 and other related viral illnesses .” 24
• EXAMPLE 2. Exploratory hypothesis (qualitative research)
• - Explores particular areas deeper to clarify subjective experience and develop a formal hypothesis potentially testable in a future quantitative approach
• “We hypothesized that when thinking about a past experience of help-seeking, a self distancing prompt would cause increased help-seeking intentions and more favorable help-seeking outcome expectations .” 25
• “Conclusion
• Although a priori hypotheses were not supported, further research is warranted as results indicate the potential for using self-distancing approaches to increasing help-seeking among some people with depressive symptomatology.” 25
• EXAMPLE 3. Hypothesis-generating research to establish a framework for hypothesis testing (qualitative research)
• “We hypothesize that compassionate care is beneficial for patients (better outcomes), healthcare systems and payers (lower costs), and healthcare providers (lower burnout). ” 26
• Compassionomics is the branch of knowledge and scientific study of the effects of compassionate healthcare. Our main hypotheses are that compassionate healthcare is beneficial for (1) patients, by improving clinical outcomes, (2) healthcare systems and payers, by supporting financial sustainability, and (3) HCPs, by lowering burnout and promoting resilience and well-being. The purpose of this paper is to establish a scientific framework for testing the hypotheses above . If these hypotheses are confirmed through rigorous research, compassionomics will belong in the science of evidence-based medicine, with major implications for all healthcare domains.” 26
• EXAMPLE 4. Statistical hypothesis (quantitative research)
• - An assumption is made about the relationship among several population characteristics ( gender differences in sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of adults with ADHD ). Validity is tested by statistical experiment or analysis ( chi-square test, Students t-test, and logistic regression analysis)
• “Our research investigated gender differences in sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of adults with ADHD in a Japanese clinical sample. Due to unique Japanese cultural ideals and expectations of women's behavior that are in opposition to ADHD symptoms, we hypothesized that women with ADHD experience more difficulties and present more dysfunctions than men . We tested the following hypotheses: first, women with ADHD have more comorbidities than men with ADHD; second, women with ADHD experience more social hardships than men, such as having less full-time employment and being more likely to be divorced.” 27
• “Statistical Analysis
• ( text omitted ) Between-gender comparisons were made using the chi-squared test for categorical variables and Students t-test for continuous variables…( text omitted ). A logistic regression analysis was performed for employment status, marital status, and comorbidity to evaluate the independent effects of gender on these dependent variables.” 27

EXAMPLES OF HYPOTHESIS AS WRITTEN IN PUBLISHED ARTICLES IN RELATION TO OTHER PARTS

• EXAMPLE 1. Background, hypotheses, and aims are provided
• “Pregnant women need skilled care during pregnancy and childbirth, but that skilled care is often delayed in some countries …( text omitted ). The focused antenatal care (FANC) model of WHO recommends that nurses provide information or counseling to all pregnant women …( text omitted ). Job aids are visual support materials that provide the right kind of information using graphics and words in a simple and yet effective manner. When nurses are not highly trained or have many work details to attend to, these job aids can serve as a content reminder for the nurses and can be used for educating their patients (Jennings, Yebadokpo, Affo, & Agbogbe, 2010) ( text omitted ). Importantly, additional evidence is needed to confirm how job aids can further improve the quality of ANC counseling by health workers in maternal care …( text omitted )” 28
• “ This has led us to hypothesize that the quality of ANC counseling would be better if supported by job aids. Consequently, a better quality of ANC counseling is expected to produce higher levels of awareness concerning the danger signs of pregnancy and a more favorable impression of the caring behavior of nurses .” 28
• “This study aimed to examine the differences in the responses of pregnant women to a job aid-supported intervention during ANC visit in terms of 1) their understanding of the danger signs of pregnancy and 2) their impression of the caring behaviors of nurses to pregnant women in rural Tanzania.” 28
• EXAMPLE 2. Background, hypotheses, and aims are provided
• “We conducted a two-arm randomized controlled trial (RCT) to evaluate and compare changes in salivary cortisol and oxytocin levels of first-time pregnant women between experimental and control groups. The women in the experimental group touched and held an infant for 30 min (experimental intervention protocol), whereas those in the control group watched a DVD movie of an infant (control intervention protocol). The primary outcome was salivary cortisol level and the secondary outcome was salivary oxytocin level.” 29
• “ We hypothesize that at 30 min after touching and holding an infant, the salivary cortisol level will significantly decrease and the salivary oxytocin level will increase in the experimental group compared with the control group .” 29
• EXAMPLE 3. Background, aim, and hypothesis are provided
• “In countries where the maternal mortality ratio remains high, antenatal education to increase Birth Preparedness and Complication Readiness (BPCR) is considered one of the top priorities [1]. BPCR includes birth plans during the antenatal period, such as the birthplace, birth attendant, transportation, health facility for complications, expenses, and birth materials, as well as family coordination to achieve such birth plans. In Tanzania, although increasing, only about half of all pregnant women attend an antenatal clinic more than four times [4]. Moreover, the information provided during antenatal care (ANC) is insufficient. In the resource-poor settings, antenatal group education is a potential approach because of the limited time for individual counseling at antenatal clinics.” 30
• “This study aimed to evaluate an antenatal group education program among pregnant women and their families with respect to birth-preparedness and maternal and infant outcomes in rural villages of Tanzania.” 30
• “ The study hypothesis was if Tanzanian pregnant women and their families received a family-oriented antenatal group education, they would (1) have a higher level of BPCR, (2) attend antenatal clinic four or more times, (3) give birth in a health facility, (4) have less complications of women at birth, and (5) have less complications and deaths of infants than those who did not receive the education .” 30

Research questions and hypotheses are crucial components to any type of research, whether quantitative or qualitative. These questions should be developed at the very beginning of the study. Excellent research questions lead to superior hypotheses, which, like a compass, set the direction of research, and can often determine the successful conduct of the study. Many research studies have floundered because the development of research questions and subsequent hypotheses was not given the thought and meticulous attention needed. The development of research questions and hypotheses is an iterative process based on extensive knowledge of the literature and insightful grasp of the knowledge gap. Focused, concise, and specific research questions provide a strong foundation for constructing hypotheses which serve as formal predictions about the research outcomes. Research questions and hypotheses are crucial elements of research that should not be overlooked. They should be carefully thought of and constructed when planning research. This avoids unethical studies and poor outcomes by defining well-founded objectives that determine the design, course, and outcome of the study.

Disclosure: The authors have no potential conflicts of interest to disclose.

Author Contributions:

• Conceptualization: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Methodology: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Writing - original draft: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Writing - review & editing: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.

• Open access
• Published: 15 April 2024

How would you describe a mentally healthy college student based on Chinese culture? A qualitative research from the perspective of college students

• Mingjia Guo 1 ,
• Xiaoming Jia 1 &
• Wenqian Wang 1  

BMC Psychology volume  12 , Article number:  207 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Promoting college students’ mental health remains a significant concern, necessitating a clear understanding of what constitutes good mental health. Variations in the conceptualizations of mental health across cultures, typically derived from academic and authoritative perspectives, have overlooked insights from laypeople. This study aims to investigate the characteristics of mentally healthy college students within Chinese cultural contexts, emphasizing perspectives provided by college students themselves.

Undergraduates with self-reported mental health scores ≥ 7 were randomly selected for in-depth interviews. The sample ( N  = 17, 59% female) had a mean age of 20.82 ± 1.33 years and represented diverse regions, backgrounds, and academic fields. Thematic analysis was used in the analysis of the qualitative data, involving initial coding to identify 168 manifestations of mental health among college students, followed by categorizing them into 18 characteristics through focused coding. These characteristics were then organized into five themes via core coding. The Delphi method was utilized to validate the themes with 3 experts, ensuring the trustworthiness of the final findings.

Eighteen characteristics of mentally healthy college students emerged from the interviews, categorized into 5 themes: (1)Value Pursuit (i.e. Having a sense of responsibility and mission and being willing to dedicate oneself to the country at any time.); (2)Life Attitude (i.e. Staying positive and having the ability and quality to cope with hardships.); (3)Interpersonal Ideals (i.e., Showing filial respect to parents appropriately.); (4)Behavior Ability(i.e., Studying diligently and learning well.); and (5)Self-cultivation (i.e., Possessing good qualities advocated by Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism coexist harmoniously.). Most of these characteristics directly reflect traditional Chinese culture or culture that has changed with the times. At the same time, some are a reflection of modern Chinese new culture.

Conclusions

On the whole, the characteristics of mentally healthy college students are diverse and with rich connotations, focusing on the individual’s relationship with the country, family, and others, and are good expressions of Chinese cultural features, such as the balance of Yin and Yang, the coexistence of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism, and highlight moral attributes. In essence, these traits hold profound importance in advancing the mental health of Chinese college students.

Peer Review reports

The period of undergraduate study is vital for individual development, physical and mental growth, knowledge reserve, and health literacy development. For undergraduate students, they are in the process of transitioning from late adolescence to early adulthood, navigating various physical, psychological, and social changes [ 1 ]. After entering the university, undergraduates, especially first-year students, are prone to various maladaptation problems due to changes in their living and learning environments [ 2 ]. Notably, a recent nationwide survey of 48,789 undergraduate students from 31 provinces and cities of China showed that 24.17% of undergraduates were at risk of depression, and 49.58% were at risk of anxiety [ 3 ].

Some studies have shown that these psychological problems are related to culture. As a Chinese proverb goes, “Nothing is more important than learning.” Before university, Chinese students focused solely on their studies, with their parents managing all aspects of life [ 4 ]. Consequently, they may lack the ability to independently resolve problems, particularly when confronted with many challenges in university life, often feeling helpless. Furthermore, admission to university is considered an honor to ancestors and a source of pride for parents in Chinese culture [ 5 ]. Attaining good grades and securing an ideal career post-graduation are seen as ways for college students to fulfill their filial duties, like supporting their parents, thus imposing familial and communal pressures.

Cultural influences also play a role in the mental health of college students. Wang et al. (2016) investigated how traditional Chinese philosophies—such as relationship harmony (advocated by Confucianism), dialectical coping (from Taoism), and non-attachment (rooted in Buddhism)—impact college students’ mental health. Their research demonstrated these philosophies’ negative correlation with psychological distress and negative emotions while displaying positive correlations with self-esteem, positive emotions, meaning of life, and happiness [ 6 ]. Another study indicated that Chinese college students scoring higher in Zhongyong thinking exhibit lower anxiety and depressive symptoms, along with higher self-esteem and life satisfaction, versus those with lower scores [ 7 ].

Since culture and mental health are mutually embedded [ 8 ], different cultures may interpret the same things differently. For instance, in Western cultures, pursuing a college education is often viewed as an individual pursuit, whereas in collectivist China, but in China, higher education is commonly sought to elevate social status and offer enhanced financial support to parents, such as securing a comfortable retirement home. In times of conflict, individuals in Chinese society tend to adopt the principle of “taking a step back and yielding vastness and spaciousness to others” [ 9 ], prioritizing long-term harmony over immediate gains by favoring conflict avoidance over confrontation. The values of “harmony is precious” and the practice of “forbearance” are revered in China, whereas in Western societies, it may be considered unhealthy, with individuals opting for direct expression of discontent [ 10 ].

In China, only 8% of the population hold bachelor’s degrees [ 11 ], and college students are seen as the nation’s hope and future [ 12 ], underscoring a heightened focus on their mental health. To enhance the mental health of Chinese college students effectively, it is imperative to grasp the cultural nuances defining mental health across various contexts.

Mental health has always been a focus in the field of psychology. Researchers from diverse backgrounds have extensively investigated mental health within various cultural frameworks. This includes the development of nuanced interpretations and pertinent theories regarding mental health across different cultural settings [ 13 , 14 ]. Moreover, scholars have localized measurement tools through meticulous adaptations [ 1 , 15 , 16 , 17 ] and delved into understanding the impact mechanisms between mental health and its associated determinants [ 18 , 19 ]. In terms of the connotation of mental health, aside from the various approaches of counseling and psychotherapy have their interpretations and definitions of mental health, various organizations and scholars have also put forward different perspectives of mental health from multifaceted viewpoints, clearly demonstrating the impact of culture.

According to the Concise Encyclopaedia Britannica, mental health is defined as “the state of optimal functioning of the individual psyche within the limits of its own and environmental conditions, but not as an absolute state of perfection” [ 20 ]. Meeks and Heit describe mental health as “the ability to perceive and express one’s emotions and state of mind; mental health is the ability to accept reality as it is” [ 21 ]. Meanwhile, Ryan and Deci propose that mental health involves “the ability to feel effective and agile, e.g., to have full self-fulfillment” [ 22 ]. The World Health Organization defines mental health as “a state of well-being in which the individual realizes his or her abilities, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully, and can make a contribution to his or her community” [ 23 ]. These definitions illustrate how Western culture emphasizes individual capabilities, states of being, and overall well-being, focusing on fulfilling potential, fostering self-esteem, and reflecting a culture centered on the individual.

In the Dictionary of Psychology (Chinese version), mental health was defined as “a good state in which the individual’s mental state (e.g., general adaptability, soundness of personality) remains normal or at a good level, and in which harmony is maintained within the self (e.g., self-awareness, self-control, self-experience) and between the self and the environment” [ 24 ]. According to Zhang and Yang, mental health contains objective and subjective components [ 25 ]. An individual’s mental health is mainly expressed by the relationship between the individual and others in a group, so it contains social meaning. Hu suggests that mental health is about “following one’s heart and not exceeding the rules,” which has both its individual (developmental and autonomous) and social (adaptive and normative) aspects [ 26 ]. Yip defines mental health as a direction that suggests self-discipline and obedience to social order to maintain inner balance and external harmony with others [ 27 ]. Specifically, individuals can maintain this balance and harmony across three levels: personal, interpersonal, and moral/ethical. These definitions underscore Chinese scholars’ emphasis on the social aspects of the individual in conjunction with the proper functioning of mental faculties. They highlight Chinese culture’s focus on harmony, interpersonal relationships, societal connections, and moral/ethical considerations.

In summary, concepts and understandings of mental health are closely tied to culture [ 28 ], reflecting that the connotations of mental health defined by different cultural contexts can vary to some extent. Then, how is mental health related to culture? The theory of sociocultural models (TSCM) provides a perspective on the interaction between culture and the individual mind [ 29 ].

The primary thesis of the theory of sociocultural models (TSCM) is that the human mind and culture mutually constitute each other. During continued interactions, individuals internalize the social culture into their psychological realities to regulate their actions and interactions. Conversely, community members will externalize the psychological reality through enactment and instantiation, creating new social cultures through social interactions and co-construction with the existing social culture. The dialectical interactions of these two aspects constitute the mechanism of the sociocultural regulation of human actions and the construction of the sociocultural reality [ 29 ]. Consequently, social culture dictates varying expectations for mental health standards, while the characteristics associated with mental health are also culturally rooted and reflect social culture. Simultaneously, societal depictions of mentally healthy individuals contribute to the evolution of novel cultural norms in a reciprocal manner.

The Chinese culture has a long history of rich mental health concepts deeply rooted in philosophies such as Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism. Confucianism seeks to go into the society( Rushi ), i.e., “To ordain conscience for Heaven and Earth, to secure life and fortune for the populace, to carry on lost teachings of ancient sages, to build peace for posterity” (Zhang Zai: Heng Qu Yi Shuo ). When encountering setbacks, Confucianism advocates being adaptable to circumstances and maintaining mental health by being resilient and motivated. Taoism seeks to transcend the world( Chaoshi ) and advocates “letting go.”When encountering difficulties, people maintain mental health by going with the flow and doing what they should do. The philosophy also underscores the importance of balancing Yin and Yang, enabling individuals to perceive challenges holistically by acknowledging both positive and negative aspects. Buddhism seeks to jump out of the material world( Chushi ) and advocate “being free of worried thoughts” when encountering difficulties. As Hui Neng(the Sixth Patriarch of Zen) said in the Tan Jing, “Since everything is naught, where can dust gather?” Individuals can cope better with difficulties if they have a mindset that looks down on gains and losses and that everything is nothingness.

Popular anecdotes and proverbs in Chinese culture also dictate criteria for individuals’ mental health. For instance, the “Three Feet of Space” tale narrates an incident from ancient China where the Guo family faced a boundary dispute with their neighbor during house construction. Upon hearing of this issue, patriarch Guo Pu wisely proposed, “Sending letters a thousand miles just for a wall; why not give him three feet?” This led to the Guo family’s compromise, and finally, both families conceded three feet of space from their walls. This narrative underscores the cultural emphasis on fostering interpersonal harmony through mutual accommodation, viewing discordant relationships as signs of poor mental health.

Contemporary scholars have also endeavored to directly integrate key concepts from Chinese traditional culture into psychological counseling and therapy. Yang and his colleagues(2002) [ 30 ] created Taoist Cognitive Therapy to facilitate cognitive restructuring in psychologically distressed individuals by directly applying the 32 characteristics of the Taoist principle of health, that is: “Benefit without harm, but not disputing; abstinent contentment with little selfishness and desire; under the knowledge and the place, let gentleness overcome rigidity; recover the original simplicity, let it be.” Liu(2023) posits that “unity of universe and human” in Chinese culture is a core idea of mental health [ 31 ]. He pointed out that the psychological phenomenon corresponding to this concept is psychological nothingness. By fusing modern psychotherapy with the concept of “unity of universe and human,” Liu developed the technique of “Moving symptom’s symbol to nothingness” to fulfill the healing role of Chinese culture. These endeavors establish a robust framework for comprehending mental health through the lens of Chinese cultural perspectives.

Over the years, numerous scholars have delved into the attributes of mentally healthy college students. Prominent among these is Wang and Zhang’s widely recognized framework, which outlines eight characteristics drawing from personal experience: understanding and accepting oneself; accepting others and dealing well with them; facing reality squarely and accepting it; loving life and enjoying work; being able to coordinate and control emotions and being in a good state of mind; having a complete and harmonious personality; having normal intelligence; and having age-appropriate mental behavior [ 32 ]. However, this work has predominantly focused on psychological cognition, emotion, and intention, with limited consideration of the cultural context, particularly the influence of Chinese culture on mental health.

Subsequently, scholars such as Zeng and Lei, incorporating social, ethical, and moral perspectives, proposed a culturally nuanced framework emphasizing four main traits in mentally healthy college students: positive and controllable emotions, good moral values, comfortable coping with schoolwork, and healthy social interaction [ 33 ]. While valuable, this perspective primarily mirrors researchers’ subjective experiences and authority-driven viewpoints. It neglects insights from laypeople, omits identification of the aspects of Chinese culture showcasing characteristics of mentally healthy college students, and lacks differentiation between mentally healthy college students and other demographic groups. Consequently, there is a demand for exploring innovative methodologies to scrutinize the attributes of mentally healthy college students, particularly focusing on characteristics within Chinese culture.

Currently, there are various research paradigms for the study of mental health. Jiang (2004) categorized them and concluded that there are two main principles in evaluating mental health: the majority principle and the elite principle [ 34 ]. The majority principle refers to a research paradigm that selects research subjects through large samples and measures whether individuals deviate from the norm through the principle of statistical normal distribution [ 35 ]. An example is applying the Chinese version of Symptom Checklist-90 (SCL-90), one of the most often used self-report symptom inventories to measure the mental health of college students, and individuals scoring exceeding the norm were considered abnormal [ 36 ].

The elite principle refers to a research paradigm that focuses on elite samples, namely a small number of relatively outstanding individuals in the whole population who are at the tip of one side of the normal distribution, and primarily employs qualitative research methods to derive research findings [ 35 ]. For example, Maslow researched some great people in Western history( i.e., self-actualized people) using qualitative research methods such as biographical analysis, depicted 15 characteristics of self-actualized people, that is, “more efficient perception of reality and more comfortable relations with it,” “acceptance (self, others, nature),” “spontaneity; simplicity; naturalness,” “problem centering,” “the quality of detachment; the need for privacy,” “continued freshness of appreciation,” “autonomy; independence of culture and environment; will; active agents,” “the mystic experience: the peak experience,” “gemeinschaftsgefuhl,” “interpersonal relations,” “the democratic character structure,” “discrimination between means and ends, between good and evil,” “philosophical, unhostile sense of humor,” “creativeness,” “resistance to enculturation; the transcendence of any particular culture” [ 37 ].

Maslow’s findings profoundly influenced research on mental health definitions, standards, and interventions. While some researchers have embraced the characteristics of self-actualized people as an ideal standard of mental health [ 38 ], others have leveraged these characteristics by focusing on exceptional psychological qualities rather than normative behavioral performance [ 39 ], and many of these characteristics have been used as ideal indicators of mental health for the promotion of mental health among college students [ 40 ]. Additionally, these characteristics and the conditions that promote or inhibit self-actualization are also applied in methods and paths of healthy human development [ 41 ]. Furthermore, specific characteristics such as a “philosophical, unhostile sense of humor” have been directly applied by researchers to enhance humor quality among college students facing stress and embarrassment, aiming to uphold their mental well-being [ 42 ].

Despite significant value in both theory and practice, Maslow’s study is based on the Western culture and is not aimed at a specific group of college students. Consequently, its direct relevance to enhancing the mental well-being of Chinese college students may be limited, necessitating further investigation into mental health within the framework of Chinese culture. Nonetheless, Maslow’s study of the elite samples of self-actualized people also provides a new research paradigm for mental health research, which has greatly inspired this study.

In the past, most studies on the mental health of college students used quantitative studies based on the majority principle. While some qualitative studies inquiries delved into the characteristics of mentally healthy college students, these studies often focused on specific subgroups like those who experienced being left behind [ 43 ] or childhood trauma [ 44 ]. A gap exists in the mental health characteristics based on the Chinese culture of college students who are the elite samples, i.e., those who exhibit very good mental health. By utilizing the elite principle paradigm, researchers can gain insights into and depict the mental health characteristics of college students within the context of Chinese culture, with the ultimate aim of delineating the mental health characteristics of college students specific to this cultural framework.

This study will apply the elite principle to examine college students with very good mental health. Through a distinctly Chinese cultural lens, this research aims to delineate what mentally healthy college students look like and what characteristics they show. By focusing on college students’ personal experiences and Chinese culture, this study positions college students as knowledge generators, employing a qualitative research approach to uncover the characteristics of mentally healthy college students. The objective is to achieve a new understanding of college students’ mental health based on Chinese culture and provide a theoretical basis for new mental health standards and a reference for promoting, cultivating, and intervening in college students’ mental health.

In this study, mental health refers to the good psychological state of an individual. College students refer to the group of students who are receiving professional higher education. Chinese culture refers to the culture created by the Chinese over thousands of years of development, from ancient times to the present [ 45 ].

The study applied a participatory, exploratory, qualitative design. Qualitative methods are suitable for exploring the meaning of phenomena or life events to the interviewees and their inherent experiences from the subjectivity of the interviewees [ 46 ]. It also emphasizes the participants as a generator of knowledge and the acquisition of significant experiences from the participants [ 47 ]. Thus, it can help researchers to gain a deeper understanding of community members in a specific cultural-historical context. Moreover, qualitative methods hold particular promise for prioritizing participants’ voices, and they contribute to understanding human interaction with the environment in development and helping researchers build and expand new concepts and theories in specific cultural-historical contexts [ 48 ]. This study used semi-structured individual in-depth interviews to explore the characteristics of mentally healthy college students based on Chinese culture. Moreover, the procedure of the study is shown in Fig.  1 .

The procedure of the study

The development of the interview outline

The qualitative data for this study was collected through semi-structured interviews. Interviews serve as a tool to help reveal and understand participants’ perspectives and experiences. The interview outline for this study was based on the theory of sociocultural models [ 29 ], focusing on how the interviewed college students understood Chinese culture and which cultures were internalized as characteristics of mentally healthy college students.

The interview outline in the pre-interview includes questions such as “What do you think is mental health? What do you think a ‘mentally healthy’ college student is like? You can use yourself or your classmates as examples.” “What do you think is Chinese culture? What is your understanding of Chinese culture?” “What do you think is related to college students’ mental health in Chinese culture?” (Appendix 1 ).

Participant recruitment and selection

The selection criteria for the participants were: i) undergraduate students enrolled in colleges; ii) having a very good psychological status, with a self-assessment of mental health of 7 or more (out of 10); and iii) self-assessment anxiety/depression scores within the normal range.

The study recruited participants through postings in contact groups and forums among different colleges. Undergraduates who satisfied the selection criteria volunteered to participate in the study. At the time of self-referral, enrolled students rated their mental health with the term “Out of ten, how would you rate your mental health?” as well as filled out self-rated anxiety and depression scales [ 49 , 50 ].

The reasons for considering selection criteria are as follows. Firstly, the research objective is to identify the mental health characteristics of college students with good mental health. Therefore, following the elite principle and referencing Maslow’s self-actualization research paradigm [ 37 ], we have chosen exceptionally mentally healthy college students as elite samples for study. Given that statistical analysis commonly regards the top 27% as the criterion for high-score groups [ 51 , 52 ], a score of 7 out of 10 indicates high mental health levels. Consequently, the study interviewed college students scoring at least 7 points. Secondly, to eliminate individuals with significant biases in the self-assessment of mental health and those potentially experiencing psychological issues, we utilized scores from self-rating scales for depression and anxiety to exclude possible candidates with underlying psychological disorders.

Eventually, 17 college students who met the criteria were selected for interviews in this study. The selection of participants considered factors that might influence college students to develop different understandings of Chinese cultures, such as upbringing, family environment, and educational experiences. The total number of participants was determined based on thematic saturation, i.e., no significant themes emerged with new respondents [ 53 , 54 ]. Finally, 17 undergraduate students volunteered to participate in the formal interviews, and the self-reported mental health score of the interviewees was 8.11(SD = 0.90) (out of 10). Among the participants, seven were male, and ten were female. Their ages ranged from 19 to 23 years old (mean age = 20.82, SD = 1.33 years), five interviewees were from Double World-Class Project Universities in China, and 5 were first-year students, two sophomores, eight juniors, and two seniors. Participants came from different regions of China; 4 grew up in north China, 1 in northwest China, 2 in southwest China, 2 in south China, 1 in east China, and 7 in central China; 1 from an ethnic minority. 65% were from urban areas, and 29% had no siblings. Additional information on parents’ education level and occupation is shown in Table  1 .

After the interviews, participants were thanked for their participation and contribution and were offered 30 RMB (about 4 dollars) for participating.

The finalization of the interview outline

Before the formal interviews, three college students (one male and two female) who met the selection criteria were pre-interviewed, and the interview outline was adjusted based on the pre-interviews. Specifically, the researchers adjusted ambiguous expressions. For example, in the pre-interview, the researchers found that if they asked the interviewees, “What do you think is related to college students’ mental health in Chinese culture?” They answered how Chinese culture affects college students’ mental health rather than the characteristics of mentally healthy college students based on Chinese culture. Therefore, we adjusted the question to “What a ‘mentally healthy’ college student is like based on Chinese culture? You can take yourself or your classmates as an example” to obtain the characteristics of mental health that reflect Chinese culture. A formal interview outline was eventually formed (Appendix 2 ).

Data collection and analysis

The qualitative data was collected through in-depth personal interviews with eligible college students. Each interview lasted between 50- 100 min and was conducted by the researcher (MG), who possessed a doctoral background in psychology, had received training in qualitative research methods, and had three years of experience working in mental health education in universities. All participants signed informed consent forms prior to the interviews. In total, 1252 min of interviews were conducted with 17 participants, which were then manually transcribed by MG, resulting in 289,000 words of interview transcripts.

To accurately ascertain the true meaning expressed by the participants, this study employed manual analysis within the research team to code and analyze the interview transcripts word by word and sentence by sentence. Under the guidance of XJ (a clinical and counseling psychology professor), the research team completed all data analysis work. In addition to MG and WW, the team members included two doctoral students who are also full-time university psychological counselors and two master’s students specializing in mental health education.

The data analysis was conducted using thematic analysis [ 55 ]. The steps are as follows: first, the researcher transcribed each of the digitally recorded interviews, immersed within the data, and repeatedly read through the 289,000-word interview transcripts. Second, researchers identified meaningful texts and created open codes. Each meaningful sentence was marked with a “code number,” totaling 1,889. The study used “F” to represent female interviewees and “M” for male participants. The first number represents the interview orders of interviewees; the second number represents the order of the meaningful statements in the interview. For example, “M5-40” represents the 40th word, sentence, or paragraph spoken by the fifth male interviewee. Third, after contemplating the open codes repeatedly, 168 manifestations of mentally healthy college students were derived through initial coding. These manifestations were then summarized to establish 18 characteristics of psychologically healthy university students via focused coding. Subsequently, these 18 characteristics were further classified through core coding to derive five main themes. Fourth, we checked the themes and adjusted their structure until they met internal homogeneity and external heterogeneity criteria. Fifth, we defined and named the themes; 18 characteristics were obtained and coded into five themes.

The Delphi expert evaluation

Subsequently, three experts were invited to assess the appropriateness of naming, defining, and classifying the identified 18 characteristics and five themes above. These experts are professors in clinical and counseling psychology from institutions such as Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, with in-depth research in Chinese culture and mental health. They have published numerous related monographs and academic papers, such as “When Psychological Counseling Meets Traditional Culture” and “Mind Operations in Meditation.”

The evaluation comprised two rounds. The first round involved a focused group interview where the three experts individually reviewed each theme, characteristic, and original interview data, offering suggestions for revision. They generally approved of the theme divisions and most characteristics, with two main modifications: 1) the integration and categorization of specific characteristics, such as the initial characteristic “Having a pleasant disposition,” which was deemed by experts to contribute to a comfortable interpersonal state and thus was incorporated into “Interpersonal harmony and comfort.” 2) Adjustments to specific nomenclature, such as refining “Showing filial respect to parents” to “Showing filial respect to parents appropriately” to better emphasize the nuance of the characteristic.

The revised results were resent to the three experts for a second round of evaluation, leading to a consensus with no further modifications suggested, thus finalizing the research findings.

The trustworthiness of the data

Trustworthiness was achieved in several ways.

First, to minimize personal biases to the greatest extent possible, the researchers continuously reflect at each stage of the research project, remaining attentive to the influence of their own experiences and biases throughout all research and analysis phases. For instance, MG utilized a reflective journal [ 56 ] to document personal perspectives after each interview, consistently reminding herself to avoid preconceived notions.

Second, the selection of participants considered factors that might influence college students to develop different understandings of Chinese cultures to ensure the diversity of the participants. And, the total number of participants was determined based on thematic saturation [ 53 , 54 ]. In this study, after interviewing the F8(the 14th interviewee), no new significant themes emerged. Then, three more interviews were conducted (F9, F10, M7), and no significant themes emerged with the new respondents.

Third, the research performed investigator triangulation [ 57 ]. Independent researchers completed comparative analyses of individual findings, organized regular research team meetings to compare the analyses, and identified relevant themes. Moreover, XJ frequently reviewed interviews conducted by MG, her reactions to interviews, and the formulation of results. All the researchers discussed the coding and the corresponding original text until a consensus was obtained to bolster the study’s credibility and dependability.

Fourth, external audits are conducted to foster the accuracy or validity of a research study [ 57 ]. The research invited three experts above who have made achievements in Chinese culture and mental health to assess the appropriateness of naming, defining, and classifying the characteristics and themes in order to enhance the reliability of research findings.

College students’ understanding of Chinese culture

The interviewees’ understanding of Chinese culture was focused on the following four main aspects, and the participant’s identifier follows quotations.

Firstly, Chinese culture is undoubtedly distinct from other countries. For example, F1 believes that “Chinese culture is not just some fixed dynasties in history, or language, or what some literati or educators or some people said, it refers to some patterns of behavior or some ideas that distinguish people from other countries” (F1-66) and is unique to China (M3-110).

Secondly, Chinese culture includes both traditional and modern Chinese new cultures (e.g., revolutionary spirit, M2-95, M4-151, M7-85). Moreover, it is argued that Chinese culture is the essence of what has been left behind through history, including all aspects that have been handed down from ancient times to the present (M1-99; M5-128), and that it is a continuous transmission (F2-72, F4-92, F5-170, F7-137; F9-181; M6-132) and a fusion of the old and the new (F7-142). Chinese culture is implicitly formed and constantly influences and permeates everyone or their lives (F3-134; F7-138; M1-102; M3-111).

Thirdly, Chinese culture is a macro concept, encompassing both intangible and physical aspects. Intangible aspects include thoughts, spirits, and qualities (M2-95, M4-151, M5-131). The physical component includes not only literary works such as poetry (as perceived by all respondents) but also Chinese language and writing (Chinese characters, F2-75; oracle bone inscriptions, F9-184; calligraphy, F2-77, F5-170, F8-94), architecture (F3-148; F10-98), costume (F3-141; F10-101), and folkloric performances (drama, F2 -74; shadow puppets, F5-168; martial arts, F7-141), gastronomy (M5-132), art (painting, F8-93; paper-cutting, M1-100, M2-96, F5-169; china, M2-97; F2-75), traditional festivals and customs (M3-107; F3-138; F5-166; F7-140; F0-97. M7-87) and many others.

Fourthly, some important historical and modern figures mainly reflect Chinese culture’s ideological and spiritual aspects. For example, the famous statesman and literary figure Wen Tianxiang of the late Southern Song dynasty, whose poems “Everyone must die; let me but leave a loyal heart shining in the pages of history books” showed the interviewees his righteousness (M4-122), resilient, his moral integrity (F6-77), and his fearlessness in dedicating his life to his country (M2-72). There is also Zhou Enlai’s ambitious pursuit of “Reading for the rise of China” (M4-62), Mao Zedong’s sense of family and country and the importance he attached to learning (M5-43), and Qian Xuesen’s strict demands on himself during his research (M4-126). The interviewees also made many references to literary figures, such as Li Bai, a poet of the Tang dynasty, whom several interviewees mentioned for his free and ease in the face of frustration (M2-92, M6-30), and his ability to show his spontaneous side in life and learn things spontaneously(M5-54). As well as the ambition of Du Fu showed in his poem “When you are standing on the peak, you are on top of the world” (M5-36), and his sense of responsibility (M1-91, F3-56) reflected in his other poem, “To Emperor Yao and Shun, and to make the customs simple again” (M1-91, F3-56). They also talked about Su Shi’s open-mindedness (F8-79; M6-9) and cheerfulness (M5-29) in the face of adversity, who is a famous poet, calligrapher, gourmet, and hydraulic expert in the Northern Song Dynasty; and also the inner peace(M6-15) and indifference (F3-53) of Tao Yuanming (a famous idyllic poet in the Eastern Jin Dynasty) from his poem “I pick fence side asters at will; carefree I see the southern hill,” and so on.

In addition, the spirit of Chinese culture is also reflected in some allusions and some historical events in ancient and modern times, for example, “Mencius’ mother moves her home three times to better her son’s education” (F1-60), “Che Yin makes use of the light of fireflies or the reflected light by the snow to study” and “Kuang Heng dug a small hole on the wall in order to get some light from the neighbor’s house to read books” (F1-61; F8-34). These allusions convey the importance of studying hard even when conditions are limited. Also, the revolutionary spirit of the May Fourth Movement shows that young people are not afraid of sacrifice (M4-29), and the New Democratic and Industrial Revolution embodied the unity of the Chinese people (M7-91).

Characteristics of mentally healthy college students based on Chinese culture

There are eighteen characteristics of mentally healthy college students based on participants’ understanding of Chinese culture as described above, which is coded into five core themes: (1) value pursuit, (2) life attitude, (3) interpersonal ideal, (4) behavior ability, and (5) self-cultivation. It can be seen that the vast majority of the mental health characteristics reflect traditional Chinese culture, which is constantly being passed down and changed, with the remainder reflecting the influence of modern Chinese culture. The five themes and corresponding characteristics are shown in Table  2 . The results are presented below, and the participant’s identifier follows quotations.

Value pursuit

Value pursuit refers to an individual’s understanding and practice of life ideals and beliefs after integrating social consciousness, such as worldview, life view, and values. Participants described that mentally healthy college students based on Chinese culture have strong beliefs and goal pursuits of contributing to the motherland. They exhibit profound loyalty towards their motherland, viewing its service as their sacred duty, and are steadfast in their resolve to contribute through bold exploration, even in the face of daunting challenges or the prospect of personal sacrifice. This theme directly reflects the Chinese Confucian culture of “Self-cultivation is the starting point of several steps moving outward. The next step is managing family affairs, followed by governing the state. The final step is moving to provide peace and sound governance to all under heaven” and “To be the first in the country to worry about the affairs of the state and the last to enjoy oneself.” The following three subthemes were identified regarding students’ value pursuit.

(1) Loving their motherland and identifying with their culture

First and foremost, mentally healthy college students love their country and are firmly convinced that they want to identify with it. Twelve interviewees emphasize that mentally healthy college students should embody love for their country, cultural identification, and a profound sense of belonging and national pride. On the one hand, they are patriotic and loyal to their motherland and have high moral characters. For example, one participant said, “ like the patriotism in Yue Fei (a famous military man, strategist, calligrapher, poet, and national hero in Chinese history, and was the first of the Four generals rebuilding the Song dynasty). His patriotism and loyalty are also what a mentally healthy college student should have ” (#M6-54).

On the other hand, they identify with the country, nation, and culture from the heart and are proud of the motherland. Another participant said, “ Mentally healthy college students should have a real sense of cultural identity. Furthermore, a Chinese should identify with the traditional Chinese culture …… ” (#F3-110).

(2) Having a sense of responsibility and mission and being willing to dedicate oneself to the country at any time

In addition, mentally healthy college students have a firm sense of mission and responsibility to the motherland. Ten interviewees assert that mentally healthy college students should exhibit a sense of national responsibility, ambitious aspirations, and a readiness to devote themselves to their homeland wholeheartedly. Mentally healthy college students should have ambitious ambitions. As M1-75 said: “ ‘To ordain conscience for Heaven and Earth, to secure life and fortune for the populace, to carry on lost teachings of ancient sages, to build peace for posterity’ (Zhang Zai: Heng Qu Yi Shuo), which can also reflect the looks of a mentally healthy college student. ”

The most important thing is to be willing to contribute to their motherland, even at the expense of oneself. Another participant said, “ Mentally healthy college students do not think about personal gains and losses too much but put their country and nation before themselves, ……, ‘Death is not my concern should it benefit the country. How can I pick and choose for my loss or gains?’ (Lin Zexu) …… ” (#M7-22).

(3) Daring to criticize, explore, and innovate

At the same time, mentally healthy college students have the quest and conviction to keep climbing to the top. Sixteen interviewees believe that mentally healthy college students are enterprising, daring to criticize, explore, and innovate to contribute to their country’s development. Mentally healthy college students are active, enterprising, and have goals and plans. One participant said, “ I think mentally healthy college students should have goals and plans for themselves ” (#M6-3). They also have critical thinking and exploratory spirit and will keep innovating. As F7 said, “ If you are a mentally healthy college student, you also need some innovative spirit to break through …… ” (#F7-59). Also, they are willing to explore and contribute to the country’s development, as M4 said: “ Mentally healthy college students should be like Qian Xuesen (also known as Tsien Hsue-she), who has a strong spirit of patriotism. He devoted himself to scientific research, and after countless attempts and explorations, he finally launched the first atomic bomb for China …… ” (#M4-124).

Life Attitude

Life attitude is an individual’s understanding and reaction to things that happen in daily life. Participants highlighted that maintaining a positive, optimistic, dialectical, and open-minded stance towards setbacks and challenges is a key characteristic of mentally healthy college students. This theme directly reflects Chinese culture: “Someday, with my sail piercing the clouds, I will mount the wind, break the waves, and traverse the vast, rolling sea.” and “It is blessed to suffer losses.” The following four subthemes regarding students’ life attitudes were identified.

(1) Loving life and being positive

Mentally healthy college students hold positive attitudes about life. Fourteen interviewees believe that mentally healthy college students exhibit optimistic attitudes toward life. Mentally healthy college students approach life optimistically, viewing it as brimming with hope. As F9 mentioned, “ I think I am mentally healthy because I am quite positive and optimistic about life, and I will face it positively even if there are some bad things ” (#F9-149). Moreover, they love life and experience life from their heart, “ I think mentally healthy college students can live a good life. Particularly, they can still maintain a love for life, have something they want to do, have the energy to fight or to live. ” (#M2-2). They always think life is full of meaning. As F1 said, “ I think some of the cases (of mental ill health) are because they have lost hope in life and do not want to do anything ” (#F1-47).

(2) Staying positive and having the ability and quality to cope with hardships

Mentally healthy college students possess a positive attitude towards suffering and setbacks. All interviewees believe that mentally healthy college students have a positive view and the qualities of coping with suffering when facing life difficulties. They will not shy away from adversity; instead, they proactively address issues, surmount obstacles, and manage them with composure. When facing difficulties or setbacks, mentally healthy college students maintain constructive beliefs. As one participant said: “ ‘Just as heaven keeps moving forward vigorously, a man of virtue should strive continuously to strengthen himself’ (The Change of Book). And ‘When Heaven intends to confer a great responsibility upon a person, it first visits his mind and will with suffering, toils his sinews and bones, subjects his body to hunger, exposes him to poverty and confounds his projects. Through this, his mind is stimulated, his nature strengthened, and his inadequacies repaired’ (Mencius). A mentally healthy college student should be like as described in these statements. ” (#F9-25).

They also exhibit the qualities to cope with hardships, such as striving continuously to strengthen themselves, being indomitable, resilient, enterprising, and so on. “ I think indomitable also reflects the self-control mentioned earlier, that is, they will not give up even after experiencing more difficulties ” (#M4-136).

Furthermore, they can analyze and resolve problems amid adversity and challenges, effectively overcoming them. “ For a long time, when my friends and I encounter setbacks, crises, or challenges, I always use this phrase to encourage myself and others to handle it calmly, ‘to be unchanged in front of the collapse of the mountain Tai, and to face danger without being surprised when it suddenly comes in front of you.’ ” (#M7-6).

(3) Being flexible and dialectical

Mentally healthy college students have a dialectical attitude towards life. Ten interviewees noted that mentally healthy college students demonstrate critical thinking skills by approaching situations objectively, comprehensively, and dialectically. These dialectical concepts, attitudes, and behaviors when facing negative things in life are also characteristics of mentally healthy college students. One participant said, “ Mentally healthy college students should be as objective and comprehensive as possible when dealing with things ” (#F3-118). They do not dwell on the present and have a positive attitude toward the future, “ There are plenty of fish in the sea. Do not miss the whole forest because of a tree. Even if you are sad about a breakup, do not cling to the past, but try to live a new life ” (#M7-12).

Furthermore, they think dialectically and believe that all sufferings have its reward. As F1 said: “ A saying goes that ‘Someday This Pain Will Be Useful to You,’ which means that it is not always bad to suffer Loss; think long term. For example, one may sometimes feel that their interests are being threatened in interpersonal relationships. However, if they are particularly concerned about this, it will make them uncomfortable, while if they are generous or forgiving, their heart will become more open ” (#F1-24).

(4) Being inclusive and broad-minded

Mentally healthy college students have an open-minded attitude toward life. Sixteen interviewees believe mentally healthy college students are tolerant, broad-minded, and open-minded. Both for themselves and others, mentally healthy college students hold tolerant attitudes. A participant said, “ I may lack a little tolerance for others because I am always strict with myself, so I may sometimes be strict with others. So, from this point of view, I think my mental health level needs to be further improved ” (#M2-79). They are broad-minded (“ Be magnanimous, as the saying goes, ‘A prime minister’s mind should be broad enough for poling a boat,’ which is a sign of college students’ mental health, advising people to look at whatever things a little more openly ”, #F6-34).

Moreover, even in the face of life’s misfortunes, they are also very liberal and open-minded, able to accept them openly. As M6 mentioned, “ One should also have positive and healthy perceptions. Su Shi, a famous poet, calligrapher, gourmet, and hydraulic expert in the Northern Song Dynasty, openly accepted the fact that he was deprived of his official position. Instead of being depressed daily, he lived an easy and interesting life, free and relaxed ” (#M6-9).

Interpersonal ideal

Interpersonal ideals refer to the pursuit and aspiration of individuals to achieve the best in interpersonal communication and good relationships. According to these interviewees, the characteristics of mentally healthy college students can be divided into general and specific interpersonal relationships. Regarding general interpersonal relationships, mentally healthy college students are friendly and kind, and their interactions with others are harmonious and comfortable. When navigating specific relationships like those with parents, they are filial but have rational thinking; in terms of friendship and romantic partnerships, they pursue ideal and pure relationships. This theme is a direct reflection of Chinese culture: “benevolence,” “harmony is precious,” “The relations between men of virtue are plain like water,” “filial piety,” and so on. The following four subthemes were identified regarding students’ interpersonal ideals.

1） Being benevolent and kind

Mentally healthy college students are benevolent and kind in their interactions with others. Thirteen interviewees believe mentally healthy college students are kind-hearted, compassionate, sincere, caring, and helping others without discrimination. Mentally healthy college students are benevolent and have compassion for others; as M7 mentioned, “ When I met beggars on the road, …… whether they are pretending or be, I am always willing to give them some money…… ” (#M7-54). They are kind-hearted (“ I think a person should be at least kind-hearted; he may have that kind of empathy inside, have that kind of emotion for either other people or animals, ……, and have a softer heart, which also reflects the mental health of college students ,” #F6-45). They treat people gently and friendly (“ Laozi and Confucius look gentler than others, I feel that this characteristic in them also indicates the mental health of college students ,” #M3-73).

Furthermore, they are helpful and kind to others. As one participant said, “ Imagine this: You’re in a crowd, and a bike tumbles to the ground. Everyone is looking around, unsure of what happened. Now, you’re caught in a bind: Should you lend a hand or stay back to avoid being wrongly accused? Despite the chance of misunderstanding, I feel it’s crucial to step up and help. Ignoring the situation just doesn’t sit right with me—it goes against everything I believe in. ” (#F5-161).

2） Interpersonal harmony and comfort

Mentally healthy college students have a harmonious and comfortable interpersonal state. All interviewees agree that mentally healthy college students exhibit pleasant character and interpersonal adeptness, adhere to fundamental Chinese cultural values, and maintain a more harmonious and comfortable relational environment compared to their peers. Mentally healthy college students experience interpersonal harmony and comfort; one interviewee said, “ A mentally healthy college student has better interpersonal relationships, ……and has a comfortable social state ” (#F1-17). In interpersonal interaction, they prioritize harmony (“ I quite agree with the saying ‘Peace is of paramount importance. Since we are studying together, it is important to take care of each other and try to understand each other ”, #M3-49). Besides, they have good interpersonal interactions (“ ones’ mental health, I think, also shows more in whether they can deal with interpersonal relationships with people around them, …… whatever kind of people may meet, they can deal with the relationship well ”, #F6-9).

Moreover, they appreciate others (“ If other people have gained a certain amount of academic achievement, …… if he is (mentally) healthy, he may be happy for others’ success, achievement ”, #M7-33). Also, they can resolve conflicts or contradictions in interpersonal relationships (“ There is no perfect person; for example, if they cause harm to others, they can recognize their mistakes and apologize timely and honestly ,” #M6-101).

Furthermore, they follow many guidelines to create a harmonious and comfortable interpersonal state. As F3 mentioned, “ I think, when it comes to some unimportant things, it is important not to bother others like that…… one should have the sense of proportion ” (#F3-39).

3） Having a soul mate

Mentally healthy college students seek to have a soul mate in specific friendships or romantic partnerships. Nine interviewees suggest that mentally healthy college students possess the ability and quality to communicate and empathize with others on a deep spiritual level and form corresponding friendships or romantic relationships. Whether in friendship or romantic relationships, mentally healthy college students have the correct attitude toward interaction, as F8 said, “ For example, Zeng Gong and Wang Anshi (both politicians of the Northern Song Dynasty), …… They become good friends for life not based on interests, but on their appreciation of each other, and the same values, which I think mental health of college students should always be ” (#F8-67).

They emphasize the spiritual level of communication more than pursuing each other’s company. They have a more high-quality and pure relationship, in friendship or romantic relationships. As F6 said: “ ‘The friendship of a noble person is as pure as water.’ (Chuang-Tzu). Put simply, relationships should be genuine and straightforward, free from fame-seeking or ulterior motives; Just like the story of Boya and Ziqi, mentally healthy students might find a companion who truly gets them, connecting on a spiritual and empathetic level…… ” (#F6-38). It is the same with romantic relationships, as M6 mentioned, “ When you read the poem of Su Shi, for example, ‘Ten years parted, one living, one dead; Not thinking; Yet never forgetting; A thousand Li from her lonely grave; I have nowhere to tell my grief……’ The affection between him and his wife is so deep that it is enviable ” (#M6-42).

4） Showing filial respect to parents appropriately

Mentally healthy college students have rational conceptions of filial piety towards their parents and appropriate, respectful behavior. Eleven interviewees believe mentally healthy college students are filial and rational in their interactions with their parents. Mentally healthy college students show filial piety to their parents appropriately. On the one hand, they practice filial piety by accompanying their parents, communicating more with them, caring for them, repaying them, and so on. As F5 mentioned, “ ‘Our bodies—to every hair and bit of skin—are received by us from our parents’ (Xiao Jing). Mentally healthy college students are grateful and respectful, often care for their parents, and spend more time with them ” (#F5-109).

On the other hand, they also have rational thinking rather than unprincipled obedience regarding filial piety’s “cognition” aspect. As one participant said, “ Not just any kind of filial piety, that is, you should have your thinking and judgment…… ” (#F3-105). Another participant said, “ Proper filial piety is an aspect of college students’ mental health, not that they are obedient to their parents. When they disagree with parents, they can communicate more with parents and let themselves be understood ” (#M5-102).

Behavior ability

Behavior ability refers to the ability of an individual to behave appropriately. According to these interviewees, mentally healthy college students have a variety of behavioral abilities, such as adapting to different environments, learning well, and regulating their emotions. This theme directly reflects the Chinese culture: “Those who obey heaven survive, and those who defy heaven perish,” “learn without thinking is reckless, think without learning is dangerous,” and “When joy, anger, sorrow, and happiness are not yet expressed as a response to other things, they are in a state of balance. When they are expressed in words and deeds by the rites, harmony is achieved. “The following three subthemes were identified regarding students’ behavior ability.

(1) Adapting to the environment

Mentally healthy college students can adapt to the environment. Seven interviewees believe that mentally healthy college students can adapt to different environments. Adaptability is reflected on the one hand in the interpersonal aspects (“ There is also the adaptation to the university environment. Mentally healthy college students can integrate into groups and clubs, and actively participate in club activities ”, #F2-16). Also, they can adapt to different environments (“ I think social adaptability is quite important…… I went to work part-time this summer, but I feel that I have just been exposed to it ”, #F9-10). Moreover, they also show adaptability to adversity (“ I think mentally healthy college students also can adapt to adversity…… ”, #M5-70).

(2) Studying diligently and learning well

Mentally healthy college students can learn well. Thirteen interviewees suggest that mentally healthy college students exhibit a positive learning attitude, take ownership of their learning, maintain a continuous learning process, and demonstrate good study habits. They learn earnestly and diligently and have good learning attitudes (“ College students with good mental health will keep learning, have the initiative to learn, down-to-earth. Moreover, if they work by fits and starts (Cao Xueqin: The Dream of Red Mansions), there will not be a good result ”, #F5-64).

They also actively take responsibility for learning. As F10 said, “ Responsibility is fundamental. The primary task for students is studying. One should stay in one’s lane ” (#F10-83). Besides, they are good at learning (“ I think Lu Xun, who gave up medicine to pursue literature, …… has a powerful ability to learn ”, #F9-71). In addition, they study diligently and accumulate knowledge. As M2 mentioned, “ Since I have to prepare for the entrance examination, I have to memorize words and take lessons every day. That is, ‘But unless you pile up little steps, you can never journey a thousand li; unless you pile up tiny streams, you can never make a river or a sea.’ (Hsun-Tzu: Encouraging Learning), …… I realized that what I do daily is important ”, #M2-93).

(3) Being emotionally appropriate and can regulate emotions

Mentally healthy college students can regulate and manage their emotions. Nine interviewees posit that mentally healthy students display emotional appropriateness and stability, promptly and effectively managing their emotions. Emotions are often regarded as the signal light of mental health. Thus, mentally healthy college students are emotionally appropriate and relatively stable, “ A mentally healthy college student should be emotionally stable, …… ‘The master was mild, and yet dignified; majestic, and yet not fierce; respectful, and yet easy’ (The Analects). One should have a suitable emotion in which state ” (#F3-78).

Moreover, when encountering adverse events, they have the ability to regulate their emotions. As one participant mentioned, “ A mentally healthy college student can control his emotions and regulate his emotions ” (#F6-1). At the same time, they can adjust themselves in appropriate and healthy ways in time, “ when he meets some bad things, he can just communicate with others, exercise…… instead of drinking or even hurting himself ” (#F8-10).

Self-cultivation

Self-cultivation refers to the inner quality or state an individual constantly improves or achieves through long-term efforts and cultivation. According to the interviewees, mentally healthy college students advocate the continuous improvement of self-cultivation. They try to possess many excellent qualities of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism and perfect them daily by having clear and objective self-knowledge and constantly reflecting on themselves to improve their cultivation. This is a direct reflection of the Chinese culture of “no end to learning” and “Seeing the virtuous and thinking of the wise, seeing the unwise and introspecting”, and so on. The following four subthemes regarding students’ self-cultivation were identified.

(1) Having an objective, positive perception of oneself and can accept one’s mediocrity

The constant improvement of mentally healthy college students’ self-cultivation first requires a clear perception of oneself. Eleven interviewees believe mentally healthy college students have a positive, comprehensive, and clear understanding of themselves. They know their strengths and weaknesses and can accept their mediocre and weak sides, “ For example, an Olympic weightlifter, he can only lift 50 pounds, but he had to go lift 100 pounds…… A mentally healthy person should clearly understand themselves and do according to one’s abilities… ”, #F8-33). They also have a positive view of themselves, “ ‘All things in their being are good for something’ (Li Bai: Invitation to Wine); one should not think too lightly of themselves when disillusioned. They can certainly play their usefulness in life, cannot improperly belittle oneself ” (#F9-35). Furthermore, they can also accept their mediocrity and weakness, “ I think there is also a significant point, which is to accept their mediocrity gradually…… ” (#F1-8).

(2) Being confident and also modest

The constant improvement of mentally healthy college students’ self-cultivation also requires an objective perception of oneself. Thirteen interviewees believe that mentally healthy college students are confident and able to stick to what they believe is correct while also being modest. According to a participant, mentally healthy college students believe in themselves, “ This point of believing in oneself in Qian Xuesen is probably also what a mentally healthy college student should have…… ”, #M4-128). They are assertive and can stand firm on their ideas (“ When faced with two choices, mentally healthy college students listen to others’ opinions and at the same time stick to their ow n,” #F4-77). At the same time, they are also modest (“ A saying goes that, ‘Modesty helps one go forward, whereas conceit makes one lag.’ In my opinion, mentally healthy students may not be so proud of themselves……”, #F5-36). Furthermore, they are not overly confident or modest (“Both confidence and modesty in a mentally healthy college student are appropriate and balanced, that is, I think it is necessary to be confident but also modest……, ” #F7-109).

(3) Focusing on introspection and contemplation to align with the sages

Mentally healthy college students improve themselves through constant introspection. Ten interviewees believe mentally healthy college students focus on introspection and are strict with themselves. They constantly check the gaps to seek progress and expand their horizon. Specifically, mentally healthy college students often reflect on themselves (“ ‘I daily examine myself on three points……’ (The Analects) which I think reflects the mental health of college students, that is, whether you are doing your best in the team…… ”, F2-35). They are also strict with themselves, “ As the sayings go, ‘You cannot expect a better world without cleaning your room first,’ although Du Fu (a famous poet of the Tang Dynasty) is said to be very talented, if one cannot do small things well, like cleaning the house, he can do nothing else well ” (#M5-52).

Moreover, they make constant progress and look to the virtuous, “ ‘When you see a person of virtue and capability, you should think of emulating and equaling the person; when you see a person of low caliber, you should reflect on your weak points’ (The Analects). Mentally healthy people also constantly learn from the strengths of others and reflect on their weaknesses ” (#M2-34).

(4) Possessing good qualities advocated by Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism, which coexist harmoniously

The highest level of self-cultivation for mentally healthy college students is to possess many good qualities of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism, which together become the characteristics of mentally healthy college students. Sixteen interviewees suggest that mentally healthy college students exhibit strong moral characteristics and virtues from Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism, all coexisting harmoniously. Mentally healthy college students have the excellent qualities of Taoism, such as being calm and bland, indifferent to fame and fortune, and peaceful and happy. As the participants said, “ This sense of ordinariness, which I think may also be a necessity for mental health…… ” (#F7- 34); “ Mentally healthy college students are calm and relaxed, take the rough with the smooth; they have confidence in themselves and take it easy ” (#M7-35).

Moreover, they have the excellent virtues of Confucianism, such as benevolence, righteousness, rites, wisdom, and good faith. As F3 said, “ Mentally healthy college students must be good in these virtues, like ‘loyalty, filial piety, rites, wisdom, good faith, and courage’…… ” (#F3-90). Another participant mentioned, “ After comparing so many fictional characters, it is hard for me to use words to describe him (Qiao Feng), …… very filial and loyal, very righteous, …… doing things very fairly, … … ”, #M6-59).

Besides, they also obtain the main qualities of Buddhism, such as gratitude and kindness (“ ‘Moral character can be built by accumulating goodness’ (Hsun-Tzu: Encouraging Learning). A mentally healthy college student does good deeds, such as attending activities as a volunteer…… ” #F2-30). As F9 said, “ Also, mentally healthy college students often remember others’ kindness and are grateful, and then be nice to others, as the saying goes, ‘You throw a peach to me, I give you a white jade for friendship.’ (The Book of Songs) ”, #F9 -112).

The study identified five themes and 18 characteristics of mentally healthy college students within Chinese culture. These characteristics are deeply rooted in Chinese traditions, highlighting yin-yang balance and moral cultivation. They related closely to college students’ identity, learning stage, and age. Contrasting with characteristics of other cultural backgrounds, they showcase the impact of Chinese culture on college students, validating and expanding the theory of sociocultural models.

Comparison with previous studies

Firstly, compared to existing research on the characteristics of mentally healthy college students, this study presents novel findings and unique insights. Consistent with other related studies rooted in Chinese culture, both this study and previous research accentuate that the characteristics of mentally healthy college students encompass facets such as self-awareness, interpersonal relationships, emotional regulation, and positive learning traits. For instance, Wang (1992) posited that mentally healthy college students exhibit characteristics focusing on self-awareness, interpersonal adeptness, and emotional regulation [ 32 ]. Similarly, Zeng (2021) described the characteristics of mentally healthy college students, highlighting their emotional state, academic performance, and interpersonal skills [ 33 ].

Some characteristics revealed in our study diverge from those proposed in prior research concerning their specific connotations. Taking emotional regulation as an example, the research of Zeng (2021) and Wang (1992) primarily emphasized affirming positive emotions. They depicted mentally healthy college students as “positively emotional and controllable” or “possess the capacity to coordinate and manage emotions effectively, sustaining a positive mood.” In contrast, the characteristic identified in this study of “being emotionally appropriate and can regulate emotions” not only encompasses positive emotions but also includes negative feelings, emphasizing the timely and moderate expression of both. This directly reflects the Confucian concept of “Zhongyong” (doctrine of the mean) in Chinese culture, which advocates for moderation in all things, whether positive or negative. Therefore, it is evident that college students’ mental health is closely intertwined with the concept of moderation. Individuals can achieve mental health in various aspects by expressing emotions moderately, whether positive or negative.

Furthermore, this study has identified characteristics not previously mentioned by Chinese scholars, such as “showing filial respect to parents appropriately.” Filial piety is a unique social behavior within Chinese culture, embodying a comprehensive and intricate ethical framework [ 58 ]. Chinese society dramatically emphasizes family values, where treating parents well and acknowledging their upbringing is paramount. Therefore, if one is not filial, one cannot be said to be mentally healthy. However, with the evolution of societal norms, the essence of filial piety has transformed. Recent research reveals that contemporary society no longer adheres to traditional interpretations of filial piety solely through obedience to parents [ 59 ]. This shift signifies that mentally healthy college students now approach filial piety differently, manifesting altered perspectives, attitudes, and behaviors toward this concept. In ancient China, departing from one’s hometown to pursue education and personal growth was discouraged, as staying by one’s parents’ side was deemed the epitome of filial piety. As Confucius stated, “While the father and mother are living, do not wander afar” ( The Analects ). However, today, individuals are encouraged to venture afar to contribute meaningfully to their country and society [ 60 ]. As a result, modern manifestations of filial piety among mentally healthy college students involve not just reverence, care, and support for their parents but also underscore the significance of preserving autonomy and independence while fulfilling their familial duties.

Secondly, upon comparing our findings with research from other cultural backgrounds, it becomes apparent that our results diverge significantly from those of Western culture but align closely with research outcomes from Africa and Asia.

In the West, the understanding of mental health emphasizes enhancing personal belonging, satisfaction, and well-being, which is very different from Chinese culture, which emphasizes self-sacrifice and self-elimination [ 61 ]. Although this study was conducted in a qualitative study of a group of college students in very good mental health, a research perspective similar to Maslow’s research on self-actualizers, there were significant differences in the specific characteristics of these healthy individuals in different cultures. In particular, this study did not address the characteristics of self-actualizers noted by Maslow, such as “the mystic experience: the peak experience” and “philosophical, unhostile sense of humor,” which emphasize excellent personal features. The characteristics identified from this study emphasize individuals’ relationships with the country and family. Such as “loving their motherland and identifying with their culture,” “having a sense of responsibility and mission and being willing to dedicate oneself to the country at any time,” and “Showing filial respect to parents appropriately.” These characteristics are the direct expression of Chinese culture in terms of devoting oneself to the country and being filial to parents, which were not found in the results of Maslow’s study.

On the other hand, this study aligns more closely with research findings from African and Asian cultural backgrounds. For example, in the view of caregivers in Africa and Asia, mentally healthy individuals are people who contribute to the community and spend an enjoyable time in groups [ 28 ]. Thus, college students with good mental health can meet precise requirements at different levels: the individual and others, the individual and the family, and the individual and the nation, which is more of a relationship-oriented “big self” [ 62 ].

Thirdly, this research’s findings correspond with certain facets of the 24 character strengths and 6 virtues outlined in positive psychology, yet they also reveal disparities in specific aspects.

With the burgeoning of the positive psychology movement, some researchers have suggested that people with good mental health are not articulated merely as the absence of mental illness but as people who possess positive qualities, such as being highly resilient and well-being [ 63 ]. Seligman and colleagues summarized 6 virtues and 24 character strengths contributing to a good life [ 64 ], which have garnered wide attention. A point of convergence is that some positive psychological qualities emphasized by the characteristics identified in this study align with those highlighted in positive psychology. For instance, the characteristic of “being benevolent and kind” identified in this study emphasizes that mentally healthy college students are compassionate and kind. Similarly, one of the 6 virtues in positive psychology is humanity, which also focuses on kindness.

Nonetheless, notable distinctions exist between this study and the character strengths or virtues proposed by positive psychology. Firstly, in terms of the connotation of similar qualities, there are variations between the two. For example, the quality of “modesty” as a traditional Chinese virtue holds different implications than the Western perspective on “humility.” Modesty in Chinese culture carries much richer connotations than in the West, and core characteristics such as being open-minded, down-to-earth, and striving for improvement are unique to Chinese culture [ 65 ]. Additionally, while positive psychology views humility as an important but standalone character strength, this study found that mentally healthy college students are “being confident and also modest,” with modesty and confidence blending and coexisting harmoniously. This aligns with the encouragement of self-esteem, confidence, and self-improvement among the younger generation in China in recent years [ 66 ]. However, Chinese people still highly value modesty as a virtue while simultaneously emphasizing confidence. These seemingly contradictory qualities of confidence and modesty are valued, reflecting the dynamic balance of “yin and yang” in Chinese culture [ 67 ].

More importantly, this study has uncovered additional positive qualities beyond the 24 character strengths, such as “being inclusive and broad-minded”.These qualities carry strong moral attributes; in other words, possessing these moral qualities is essential for mental health. Confucianism emphasizes social morality, self-cultivation, and the development of a gentleman-like sage personality [ 68 ]. Self-cultivation is the basis for the ethical construction of family and society to perfect the ideal personality of governing the state and pacifying the world. The concept of “sageliness within and kingliness without” underscores this philosophy [ 69 ]. The characteristic “being inclusive and broad-minded” implies that mentally healthy college students exhibit tolerant and open-minded attitudes, embracing the principles of “Harmony, but Not Uniformity” and “The sea admits hundreds of rivers for its capacity to hold”(Chinese idioms) when encountering diverse viewpoints or adversity. Therefore, a mentally healthy college student possesses virtues such as tolerance and open-mindedness, showcasing solid moral values. In essence, college students’ mental health is intertwined with their moral attributes. A mentally healthy individual must embody essential moral qualities, which serve as markers of their overall well-being. Acknowledging the significance of moral virtues in defining and nurturing mental health among college students is crucial.

Validation and extension to the theory of sociocultural models

Firstly, this study validates the theory of sociocultural models. On one hand, this study confirms how culture influences individual psychology as proposed in the theory of sociocultural models. In this study, psychological entities represent the characteristics of mentally healthy college students that guide their thoughts, behaviors, and attitudes. According to the findings of this study, Chinese traditional culture plays a significant role in shaping these characteristics. For example, the patriotic sentiments of important historical figures such as Wen Tianxiang and Yue Fei, as well as the thoughts of traditional Chinese culture such as “Death is not my concern should it benefit the country. How can I pick and choose for my loss or gains?” (Lin Zexu: Two poems for family members on the way to the garrison ”) and “To ordain conscience for Heaven and Earth, to secure life and fortune for the populace, to carry on lost teachings of ancient sages, to build peace for posterity’ (Zhang Zai: Heng Qu Yi Shuo ) are internalized in the characteristics of “Having a sense of responsibility and mission and being willing to dedicate oneself to the country at any time.” The country cultivates college students as pillars of talent, and Confucianism teaches “To be the first in the country to worry about the affairs of the state and the last to enjoy oneself.” (Fan Zhongyan: The Yueyang Tower ). Thus, studying is not only for personal development but also for a sense of responsibility and contribution to the country, which arguably demonstrates the mental health characteristics of the specific group of college students with distinct traditional Chinese cultural connotations. Such findings align with the theory of sociocultural models, emphasizing how people internalize societal culture into their psychological entities to regulate their psychological activities.

On the other hand, this study validates how individual psychology externalizes and promotes the generation of new culture as proposed in the theory of sociocultural models. During China’s modernization, people have realized that only by daring to break through the shackles of existing ideas and exploring innovative development opportunities can the country move forward and develop sustainably. Many people have overcome difficulties and carried out the revolution, construction, and innovation in constructing Chinese socialism. Their love for the country and their sense of mission made them always meet the challenges of national reconstruction with high morale and perseverance [ 70 ]. Especially since the reform and opening-up, people’s minds have been fundamentally liberated, and the spring of scientific and technological progress has been ushered in. Their precious spiritual wealth, such as the characteristic of “daring to criticize, explore, and innovate,” has facilitated the development of new cultures like Chinese revolutionary and socialist cultures in modern times. Such findings align with the theory of sociocultural models, highlighting how group members externalize their psychological entities and transform them into new social cultures through social interactions and co-construction with existing social cultures.

Secondly, this study expands the content of the theory of sociocultural models. Due to a lack of specific pathways depicting the interaction between culture and psychology in the theory of sociocultural models, this study found that the significant carriers of interaction between culture and individual psychology are the spiritual world presented by historical and modern figures mentioned by the interviewees, as well as tangible worlds such as Chinese characters, poetry, martial arts, and art. These aspects of Chinese culture are internalized by college students as part of their psychological entities, guiding their words and actions and also shaping their perception of mental health. Conversely, the psychological entities of college students, such as the emergence of new concepts like “daring to criticize, explore, and innovate” in the construction of a new China, are transformed into emerging cultures, such as Chinese socialist culture through the role of figures like Qian Xuesen and stories as carriers.

Strengths, limitations, and future research

This study possesses several strengths. Firstly, it is the first attempt to systematically explore the characteristics of college students’ mental health entirely based on Chinese culture. The 18 identified characteristics directly convey or reflect aspects of Chinese culture, significantly enriching the comprehension of college students’ mental well-being within the context of Chinese culture. Secondly, the study adheres to the elite principle research paradigm by using elite samples as participants. Consequently, the outcomes comprehensively delineate the characteristics of mentally healthy college students possessing an excellent psychological state rooted in Chinese culture. These findings not only provide an ideal model for nurturing mental health among college students but also engender fresh insights into mental well-being, culminating in a novel benchmark for mental health standards. Thirdly, this study delves into the unique characteristics of mentally healthy college students within Chinese culture from the students’ firsthand experiences. In contrast, prior scholars predominantly offered personal opinions on the characteristics of mentally healthy individuals based on their experiences, lacking the direct perspectives of college students.

This study also has some limitations. As a qualitative study, the nature of this research inherently limits the applications of its conclusions. Focused primarily on college students, generalizing the findings to other groups in China (such as civil servants) may be constrained. Moreover, this study exclusively examines Chinese college students without conducting cross-cultural research. The absence of direct comparative studies fails to highlight variations in mentally healthy characteristics across diverse cultures. For instance, the absence of a comparative study between Chinese and students from other cultures (such as American college students) hindered exploration into the distinctive characteristics and differences of mentally healthy college students from varying cultures. Consequently, extrapolating the results of this study to other cultural contexts also has its limitations. Despite some similarities between Chinese culture and certain cultures in Asia and Africa, direct inferences also have significant constraints.

Furthermore, in terms of understanding culture, there is no conclusive definition of what culture is and what Chinese culture is. Scholars have put forward many understandings and definitions of Chinese culture from different perspectives. Understanding and defining Chinese culture are still in the exploratory stage, which challenges this study. The researcher’s understanding and mastery of existing relevant knowledge are somewhat limited regarding the formation of research results and the depth of analysis and discussion.

Future research could consider the following aspects. Firstly, a comparative study of the characteristics of mentally healthy people in different cultural groups can be conducted. Since individualistic/collectivistic cultures influence Americans and Chinese to be more expressive of private selves/collective selves, and religious cultures also influence individual self-esteem [ 71 ] and form religious selves [ 72 ]. Therefore, some comparative studies with students from different cultural backgrounds can be conducted in the future. For example, a comparative study with three groups of college students from the United States, China, and India can be considered to compare whether there are differences in the characteristics of mentally healthy college students from different cultures. Secondly, some quantitative studies can be considered. For example, future research could refine specific characteristics identified in the study, like “being flexible and dialectical,” for more specific operational definitions and develop a scale to measure the mental health of different groups to validate how these characteristics are manifested in university students or other groups so that more further research could be conducted using this new scale, which may help facilitate replication of the findings. Thirdly, based on continuous learning and accumulation of Chinese culture, future research can do in-depth excavation and exploration of the manifestation and nature of these mental health characteristics. For example, future research could select the characteristics reflecting the culture of filial piety or Zhongyong culture and explore how these cultures change and develop into mental health characteristics with the development of science and technology, the change of social structure, and the collision of Chinese and Western cultures, which may also be of great significance.

Practical implications

The Chinese culture has rich treasure resources and cultivated Chinese character traits, characteristics, and lifestyles. The results of this study show that many attitudes, ideas, and behaviors espoused by Chinese culture are manifestations of mental health. In particular, this study found the characteristics of mentally healthy college students based on Chinese culture, which is culturally applicable and more suitable for promoting the mental health of Chinese college students and can provide essential references and bases for mental health education and clinical practice.

On the one hand, this study can provide an overall theoretical framework for developing mental health courses for college students. Mental health courses are the most important and direct form of mental health education for college students in China, and they are also the primary way to improve the psychological quality of college students. The Ministry of Education requires colleges and universities to offer mandatory public courses on mental health for undergraduate students [ 73 ]. However, current mental health courses for Chinese college students rely mainly on Western mental health-related definitions, theories, and techniques for delivery [ 74 , 75 ]. The five themes and 18 characteristics discovered in this study are systematic, providing a comprehensive and systematic theoretical basis for college students’ mental health courses.

In particular, the five themes discovered in this study—values pursuit, life attitude, interpersonal ideals, behavioral ability, and self-cultivation—can be employed as the central pillars for teaching and setting objectives in a college student mental health course rooted in Chinese culture. Furthermore, the 18 identified characteristics can form each lesson’s fundamental content and learning goals, establishing a comprehensive framework. For instance, the characteristics “being confident and also modest” can be one of the key topics under the theme of “self-cultivation.” By comparing Western views of mental health (focused on confidence) with Chinese beliefs (valuing both confidence and modesty) and blending students’ self-awareness with Chinese cultural insights, the course can delve into the importance of confidence and modesty in Chinese culture. Strategies for cultivating these characteristics can be discussed, shedding light on the unique aspects of mental health development among college students within Chinese cultural contexts.

Secondly, this research offers valuable insights for fostering healthy personalities among college students in psychological counseling methods from the perspective of Chinese culture. On the one hand, this study has a guiding significance for setting goals in psychological counseling. Psychological counseling has traditionally emphasized decreasing negative emotions and boosting positive ones. Nevertheless, this study serves as a reminder for counselors to reassess this counseling objective. Throughout the counseling process, counselors should not only focus on diminishing negative emotions but also be wary of potential complications stemming from excessive positive emotions, stressing the importance of a moderate expression of positive and negative emotions.

On the other hand, the discoveries of this study could serve as a wellspring of inspiration for crafting indigenous approaches to psychological counseling. This research reveals that mentally healthy college students possess the characteristic “possessing good qualities advocated by Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism coexist harmoniously.” Within Chinese culture, the symbiotic interplay among Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism stands out as a cornerstone [ 76 ], where these philosophies coexist compatibly and mutually influence each other in shaping Chinese characters [ 77 ]. Future scholars might devise counseling methodologies rooted in the principle of harmonious coexistence found within Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism, potentially empowering individuals to bolster their mental health through these culturally embedded psychological counseling approaches.

This study explores the characteristics of mental health of college students with good psychological states from the perspective of Chinese culture and finds 18 characteristics, based on which five themes are formed: value pursuit, life attitude, interpersonal ideal, behavior ability, and self-cultivation. The 18 characteristics are typical of Chinese culture or its features, focusing on multi-level relationships with others, parents, and the country. They are also typical of Chinese culture with moral attributes, an emphasis on self-cultivation, a balance of Yin and Yang, and the coexistence of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism. These findings help enrich the research on culture and mental health, highlight the Chinese cultural connotations of mental health, and help form an ideal standard of mental health for college students. Findings can serve as a theoretical foundation for improving the mental well-being of Chinese college students, act as a guiding light for enhancing students’ mental health, and be integrated directly into the mental health curriculum as course content. Mental health education activities based on these findings can help promote, maintain, and cultivate college students’ mental health literacy and healthy personalities to fulfill their potential and become the pillars of the nation.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets for this study are not readily available because they consist of interview data, for which confidentiality cannot be safeguarded. Therefore, the data will not be made available. Requests to access the datasets should be directed to XJ, [email protected].

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Acknowledgements

We appreciate Professor Tianjun Liu from Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Professor Jianjun Zhu, and Professor Ming Li from Beijing Forestry University for their support in assessing the appropriateness of naming, defining, and classifying the 18 characteristics and five themes. We thank our research team and participants who shared their experiences and made this study possible. We thank Dr. Xiaofang Yao at Federation University Australia and Dr. Lixian Tu at Shanghai University of Political Science and Law for their support throughout the English translation.

This study is support by the BIT Research and Innovation Promoting Project (Grant No. 2022YCXY053).

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MG conducted the interviews, analyzed the data and wrote the manuscript under the guidance of XJ. XJ formulated this study and contributed to editing of the manuscript and critical revisions. WW assisted with the writing and editing of the final manuscript. All authors contributed to manuscript revision, read, and approved the submitted version.

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Guo, M., Jia, X. & Wang, W. How would you describe a mentally healthy college student based on Chinese culture? A qualitative research from the perspective of college students. BMC Psychol 12 , 207 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-024-01689-7

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