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How to write an argumentative essay | Examples & tips

How to Write an Argumentative Essay | Examples & Tips

Published on July 24, 2020 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on July 23, 2023.

An argumentative essay expresses an extended argument for a particular thesis statement . The author takes a clearly defined stance on their subject and builds up an evidence-based case for it.

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When do you write an argumentative essay, approaches to argumentative essays, introducing your argument, the body: developing your argument, concluding your argument, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about argumentative essays.

You might be assigned an argumentative essay as a writing exercise in high school or in a composition class. The prompt will often ask you to argue for one of two positions, and may include terms like “argue” or “argument.” It will frequently take the form of a question.

The prompt may also be more open-ended in terms of the possible arguments you could make.

Argumentative writing at college level

At university, the vast majority of essays or papers you write will involve some form of argumentation. For example, both rhetorical analysis and literary analysis essays involve making arguments about texts.

In this context, you won’t necessarily be told to write an argumentative essay—but making an evidence-based argument is an essential goal of most academic writing, and this should be your default approach unless you’re told otherwise.

Examples of argumentative essay prompts

At a university level, all the prompts below imply an argumentative essay as the appropriate response.

Your research should lead you to develop a specific position on the topic. The essay then argues for that position and aims to convince the reader by presenting your evidence, evaluation and analysis.

Don’t just list all the effects you can think of.
Do develop a focused argument about the overall effect and why it matters, backed up by evidence from sources.
Don’t just provide a selection of data on the measures’ effectiveness.
Do build up your own argument about which kinds of measures have been most or least effective, and why.
Don’t just analyze a random selection of doppelgänger characters.
Do form an argument about specific texts, comparing and contrasting how they express their thematic concerns through doppelgänger characters.

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An argumentative essay should be objective in its approach; your arguments should rely on logic and evidence, not on exaggeration or appeals to emotion.

There are many possible approaches to argumentative essays, but there are two common models that can help you start outlining your arguments: The Toulmin model and the Rogerian model.

Toulmin arguments

The Toulmin model consists of four steps, which may be repeated as many times as necessary for the argument:

Make a claim
Provide the grounds (evidence) for the claim
Explain the warrant (how the grounds support the claim)
Discuss possible rebuttals to the claim, identifying the limits of the argument and showing that you have considered alternative perspectives

The Toulmin model is a common approach in academic essays. You don’t have to use these specific terms (grounds, warrants, rebuttals), but establishing a clear connection between your claims and the evidence supporting them is crucial in an argumentative essay.

Say you’re making an argument about the effectiveness of workplace anti-discrimination measures. You might:

Claim that unconscious bias training does not have the desired results, and resources would be better spent on other approaches
Cite data to support your claim
Explain how the data indicates that the method is ineffective
Anticipate objections to your claim based on other data, indicating whether these objections are valid, and if not, why not.

Rogerian arguments

The Rogerian model also consists of four steps you might repeat throughout your essay:

Discuss what the opposing position gets right and why people might hold this position
Highlight the problems with this position
Present your own position , showing how it addresses these problems
Suggest a possible compromise —what elements of your position would proponents of the opposing position benefit from adopting?

This model builds up a clear picture of both sides of an argument and seeks a compromise. It is particularly useful when people tend to disagree strongly on the issue discussed, allowing you to approach opposing arguments in good faith.

Say you want to argue that the internet has had a positive impact on education. You might:

Acknowledge that students rely too much on websites like Wikipedia
Argue that teachers view Wikipedia as more unreliable than it really is
Suggest that Wikipedia’s system of citations can actually teach students about referencing
Suggest critical engagement with Wikipedia as a possible assignment for teachers who are skeptical of its usefulness.

You don’t necessarily have to pick one of these models—you may even use elements of both in different parts of your essay—but it’s worth considering them if you struggle to structure your arguments.

Regardless of which approach you take, your essay should always be structured using an introduction , a body , and a conclusion .

Like other academic essays, an argumentative essay begins with an introduction . The introduction serves to capture the reader’s interest, provide background information, present your thesis statement , and (in longer essays) to summarize the structure of the body.

Hover over different parts of the example below to see how a typical introduction works.

The spread of the internet has had a world-changing effect, not least on the world of education. The use of the internet in academic contexts is on the rise, and its role in learning is hotly debated. For many teachers who did not grow up with this technology, its effects seem alarming and potentially harmful. This concern, while understandable, is misguided. The negatives of internet use are outweighed by its critical benefits for students and educators—as a uniquely comprehensive and accessible information source; a means of exposure to and engagement with different perspectives; and a highly flexible learning environment.

The body of an argumentative essay is where you develop your arguments in detail. Here you’ll present evidence, analysis, and reasoning to convince the reader that your thesis statement is true.

In the standard five-paragraph format for short essays, the body takes up three of your five paragraphs. In longer essays, it will be more paragraphs, and might be divided into sections with headings.

Each paragraph covers its own topic, introduced with a topic sentence . Each of these topics must contribute to your overall argument; don’t include irrelevant information.

This example paragraph takes a Rogerian approach: It first acknowledges the merits of the opposing position and then highlights problems with that position.

Hover over different parts of the example to see how a body paragraph is constructed.

A common frustration for teachers is students’ use of Wikipedia as a source in their writing. Its prevalence among students is not exaggerated; a survey found that the vast majority of the students surveyed used Wikipedia (Head & Eisenberg, 2010). An article in The Guardian stresses a common objection to its use: “a reliance on Wikipedia can discourage students from engaging with genuine academic writing” (Coomer, 2013). Teachers are clearly not mistaken in viewing Wikipedia usage as ubiquitous among their students; but the claim that it discourages engagement with academic sources requires further investigation. This point is treated as self-evident by many teachers, but Wikipedia itself explicitly encourages students to look into other sources. Its articles often provide references to academic publications and include warning notes where citations are missing; the site’s own guidelines for research make clear that it should be used as a starting point, emphasizing that users should always “read the references and check whether they really do support what the article says” (“Wikipedia:Researching with Wikipedia,” 2020). Indeed, for many students, Wikipedia is their first encounter with the concepts of citation and referencing. The use of Wikipedia therefore has a positive side that merits deeper consideration than it often receives.

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An argumentative essay ends with a conclusion that summarizes and reflects on the arguments made in the body.

No new arguments or evidence appear here, but in longer essays you may discuss the strengths and weaknesses of your argument and suggest topics for future research. In all conclusions, you should stress the relevance and importance of your argument.

Hover over the following example to see the typical elements of a conclusion.

The internet has had a major positive impact on the world of education; occasional pitfalls aside, its value is evident in numerous applications. The future of teaching lies in the possibilities the internet opens up for communication, research, and interactivity. As the popularity of distance learning shows, students value the flexibility and accessibility offered by digital education, and educators should fully embrace these advantages. The internet’s dangers, real and imaginary, have been documented exhaustively by skeptics, but the internet is here to stay; it is time to focus seriously on its potential for good.

If you want to know more about AI tools , college essays , or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

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An argumentative essay tends to be a longer essay involving independent research, and aims to make an original argument about a topic. Its thesis statement makes a contentious claim that must be supported in an objective, evidence-based way.

An expository essay also aims to be objective, but it doesn’t have to make an original argument. Rather, it aims to explain something (e.g., a process or idea) in a clear, concise way. Expository essays are often shorter assignments and rely less on research.

At college level, you must properly cite your sources in all essays , research papers , and other academic texts (except exams and in-class exercises).

Add a citation whenever you quote , paraphrase , or summarize information or ideas from a source. You should also give full source details in a bibliography or reference list at the end of your text.

The exact format of your citations depends on which citation style you are instructed to use. The most common styles are APA , MLA , and Chicago .

The majority of the essays written at university are some sort of argumentative essay . Unless otherwise specified, you can assume that the goal of any essay you’re asked to write is argumentative: To convince the reader of your position using evidence and reasoning.

In composition classes you might be given assignments that specifically test your ability to write an argumentative essay. Look out for prompts including instructions like “argue,” “assess,” or “discuss” to see if this is the goal.

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Home — Essay Samples — Education — Importance of Education — The Arguments Why Education Should Be Free For Everyone

The Arguments Why Education Should Be Free for Everyone

Categories: College Tuition Importance of Education

About this sample

Words: 854 |

Published: Mar 18, 2021

Words: 854 | Pages: 2 | 5 min read

Works Cited:

Alpha History. (n.d.). Nationalism as a cause of World War I.
Bernhardi, F. von. (1914). Germany and the Next War. London: Edward Arnold.
Cawley, J. (n.d.). Nationalism as the cause of European competitiveness that led to World War I.
History Home. (n.d.). The causes of World War One. Retrieved from https://www.historyhome.co.uk/europe/causeww1.htm
Rosenthal, L. (2016). The great war, nationalism and the decline of the West. Retrieved from https://lawrencerosenthal.net/2016/05/16/the-great-war-nationalism-and-the-decline-of-the-west/
Bloy, M. (n.d.). Nationalism in the 19th century. Retrieved from https://www.historyhome.co.uk/europe/natquest.htm

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114 Good Argumentative Essay Topics for Students in 2023

April 25, 2023

The skill of writing an excellent argumentative essay is a crucial one for every high school or college student to master. Argumentative essays teach students how to organize their thoughts logically and present them in a convincing way. This skill is helpful not only for those pursuing degrees in law , international relations , or public policy , but for any student who wishes to develop their critical thinking faculties. In this article, we’ll cover what makes a good argument essay and offer several argumentative essay topics for high school and college students. Let’s begin!

What is an Argumentative Essay

An argumentative essay is an essay that uses research to present a reasoned argument on a particular subject . As with the persuasive essay , the purpose of this essay is to sway the reader to the writer’s position. A strong persuasive essay makes its point through diligent research, evidence, and logical reasoning skills.

Argumentative Essay Format

A strong argumentative essay will be based on facts, not feelings. Each of these facts should be supported by clear evidence from credible sources . Furthermore, a good argumentative essay will have an easy-to-follow structure. When organizing your argumentative essay, use this format as a guide: introduction, supporting body paragraphs, paragraphs addressing common counterarguments, and conclusion.

In the introduction , the writer presents their position and thesis statement —a sentence that summarizes the paper’s main points. The body paragraphs then draw upon supporting evidence to back up this initial statement, with each paragraph focusing on its own point. In the counterargument paragraph , the writer acknowledges and refutes opposing viewpoints. Finally, in the conclusion , the writer restates the main argument made in the thesis statement and summarizes the points of the essay. Additionally, the conclusion may offer a final proposal to persuade the reader of the essay’s position.

For more tips and tricks on formatting an argumentative essay, check out this useful guide from Khan Academy.

How to Write an Effective Argumentative Essay, Step by Step

Choose your topic. Use the list below to help you pick a topic. Ideally, the topic you choose will be meaningful to you.
Once you’ve selected your topic, it’s time to sit down and get to work! Use the library, the web, and any other resources to gather information about your argumentative essay topic. Research widely but smartly. As you go, take organized notes, marking the source of every quote and where it may fit in the scheme of your larger essay. Remember to look for possible counterarguments.
Outline . Using the argumentative essay format above, create an outline for your essay. Brainstorm a thesis statement covering your argument’s main points, and begin to put together the pieces of the essay, focusing on logical flow.
Write . Draw on your research and outline to create a solid first draft. Remember, your first draft doesn’t need to be perfect. (As Voltaire says, “Perfect is the enemy of good.”) For now, focus on getting the words down on paper.
Edit . Be your own critical eye. Read what you’ve written back to yourself. Does it make sense? Where can you improve? What can you cut?

Argumentative Essay Topics for Middle School, High School, and College Students

Family argumentative essay topics.

Should the government provide financial incentives for families to have children to address the declining birth rate?
Should we require parents to provide their children with a certain level of nutrition and physical activity to prevent childhood obesity?
Should parents implement limits on how much time their children spend playing video games?
Should cellphones be banned from family/holiday gatherings?
Should we hold parents legally responsible for their children’s actions?
Should children have the right to sue their parents for neglect?
Should parents have the right to choose their child’s religion?
Are spanking and other forms of physical punishment an effective method of discipline?
Should courts allow children to choose where they live in cases of divorce?
Should parents have the right to monitor teens’ activity on social media?
Should parents control their child’s medical treatment, even if it goes against the child’s wishes?

Education Argument Essay Topics

Should schools ban the use of technology like ChatGPT?
Are zoos unethical, or necessary for conservation and education?
To what degree should we hold parents responsible in the event of a school shooting?
Should schools offer students a set number of mental health days?
Should school science curriculums offer a course on combating climate change?
Should public libraries be allowed to ban certain books?
What role, if any, should prayer play in public schools?
Should schools push to abolish homework?
Are gifted and talented programs in schools more harmful than beneficial due to their exclusionary nature?
Should universities do away with Greek life?
Should schools remove artwork, such as murals, that some perceive as offensive?
Should the government grant parents the right to choose alternative education options for their children and use taxpayer funds to support these options?
Is homeschooling better than traditional schooling for children’s academic and social development?
Should we require schools to teach sex education to reduce teen pregnancy rates?
Should we require schools to provide comprehensive sex education that includes information about both homosexual and heterosexual relationships?
Should colleges use affirmative action and other race-conscious policies to address diversity on campus?
Should the government fund public universities to make higher education more accessible to low-income students?
Should the government fund universal preschool to improve children’s readiness for kindergarten?

Government Argumentative Essay Topics

Should the U.S. decriminalize prostitution?
Should the U.S. issue migration visas to all eligible applicants?
Should the federal government cancel all student loan debt?
Should we lower the minimum voting age? If so, to what?
Should the federal government abolish all laws penalizing drug production and use?
Should the U.S. use its military power to deter a Chinese invasion of Taiwan?
Should the U.S. supply Ukraine with further military intelligence and supplies?
Should the North and South of the U.S. split up into two regions?
Should Americans hold up nationalism as a critical value?
Should we permit Supreme Court justices to hold their positions indefinitely?
Should Supreme Court justices be democratically elected?
Is the Electoral College still a productive approach to electing the U.S. president?
Should the U.S. implement a national firearm registry?
Is it ethical for countries like China and Israel to mandate compulsory military service for all citizens?
Should the U.S. government implement a ranked-choice voting system?
Should institutions that benefited from slavery be required to provide reparations?
Based on the 1619 project, should history classes change how they teach about the founding of the U.S.?

Bioethics Argumentative Essay Topics

Should the U.S. government offer its own healthcare plan?
In the case of highly infectious pandemics, should we focus on individual freedoms or public safety when implementing policies to control the spread?
Should we legally require parents to vaccinate their children to protect public health?
Is it ethical for parents to use genetic engineering to create “designer babies” with specific physical and intellectual traits?
Should the government fund research on embryonic stem cells for medical treatments?
Should the government legalize assisted suicide for terminally ill patients?

Social Media Argumentative Essay Topics

Should the federal government increase its efforts to minimize the negative impact of social media?
Do social media and smartphones strengthen one’s relationships?
Should antitrust regulators take action to limit the size of big tech companies?
Should social media platforms ban political advertisements?
Should the federal government hold social media companies accountable for instances of hate speech discovered on their platforms?
Do apps such as TikTok and Instagram ultimately worsen the mental well-being of teenagers?
Should governments oversee how social media platforms manage their users’ data?
Should social media platforms like Facebook enforce a minimum age requirement for users?
Should social media companies be held responsible for cases of cyberbullying?
Should the United States ban TikTok?

Religion Argument Essay Topics

Should religious institutions be tax-exempt?
Should religious symbols such as the hijab or crucifix be allowed in public spaces?
Should religious freedoms be protected, even when they conflict with secular laws?
Should the government regulate religious practices?
Should we allow churches to engage in political activities?
Religion: a force for good or evil in the world?
Should the government provide funding for religious schools?
Is it ethical for healthcare providers to deny abortions based on religious beliefs?
Should religious organizations be allowed to discriminate in their hiring practices?
Should we allow people to opt out of medical treatments based on their religious beliefs?
Should the U.S. government hold religious organizations accountable for cases of sexual abuse within their community?
Should religious beliefs be exempt from anti-discrimination laws?
Should religious individuals be allowed to refuse services to others based on their beliefs or lifestyles? (As in this famous case .)

Science Argumentative Essay Topics

Should the world eliminate nuclear weapons?
Should scientists bring back extinct animals?
Should we hold companies fiscally responsible for their carbon footprint?
Should we ban pesticides in favor of organic farming methods?
Is it ethical to clone animals for scientific purposes?
Should the federal government ban all fossil fuels, despite the potential economic impact on specific industries and communities?
What renewable energy source should the U.S. invest more money in?
Should the FDA outlaw GMOs?
Would the world be safe if we got rid of all nuclear weapons?
Should we worry about artificial intelligence surpassing human intelligence?

Sports Argument Essay Topics

Should colleges compensate student-athletes?
How should sports teams and leagues address the gender pay gap?
Should youth sports teams do away with scorekeeping?
Should we ban aggressive contact sports like boxing and MMA?
Should professional sports associations mandate that athletes stand during the national anthem?
Should high schools require their student-athletes to maintain a certain GPA?
Should transgender athletes compete in sports according to their gender identity?
Should schools ban football due to the inherent danger it poses to players?

Technology Argumentative Essay Topics

Should sites like DALL-E compensate the artists whose work it was trained on?
Is social media harmful to children?
Should the federal government make human exploration of space a more significant priority?
Is it ethical for the government to use surveillance technology to monitor citizens?
Should websites require proof of age from their users?
Should we consider A.I.-generated images and text pieces of art?
Does the use of facial recognition technology violate individuals’ privacy?

Business Argument Essay Topics

Should the U.S. government phase out the use of paper money in favor of a fully digital currency system?
Should the federal government abolish its patent and copyright laws?
Should we replace the Federal Reserve with free-market institutions?
Is free-market ideology responsible for the U.S. economy’s poor performance over the past decade?
Will cryptocurrencies overtake natural resources like gold and silver?
Is capitalism the best economic system? What system would be better?
Should the U.S. government enact a universal basic income?
Should we require companies to provide paid parental leave to their employees?
Should the government raise the minimum wage?
Should antitrust regulators break up large companies to promote competition?
Is it ethical for companies to prioritize profits over social responsibility?
Should gig-economy workers like Uber and Lyft drivers be considered employees or independent contractors?
Should the federal government regulate the gig economy to ensure fair treatment of workers?
Should the government require companies to disclose the environmental impact of their products?

In Conclusion – Argument Essay Topics

Using the tips above, you can effectively structure and pen a compelling argumentative essay that will wow your instructor and classmates. Remember to craft a thesis statement that offers readers a roadmap through your essay, draw on your sources wisely to back up any claims, and read through your paper several times before it’s due to catch any last-minute proofreading errors. With time, diligence, and patience, your essay will be the most outstanding assignment you’ve ever turned in…until the next one rolls around.

Looking for more fresh and engaging topics for use in the classroom? Also check out our 85 Good Debate Topics for High School Students .

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Lauren Green

With a Bachelor of Arts in Creative Writing from Columbia University and an MFA in Fiction from the Michener Center for Writers at the University of Texas at Austin, Lauren has been a professional writer for over a decade. She is the author of the chapbook A Great Dark House (Poetry Society of America, 2023) and a forthcoming novel (Viking/Penguin).

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Argumentative Essays

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The Modes of Discourse—Exposition, Description, Narration, Argumentation (EDNA)—are common paper assignments you may encounter in your writing classes. Although these genres have been criticized by some composition scholars, the Purdue OWL recognizes the wide spread use of these approaches and students’ need to understand and produce them.

What is an argumentative essay?

The argumentative essay is a genre of writing that requires the student to investigate a topic; collect, generate, and evaluate evidence; and establish a position on the topic in a concise manner.

Please note : Some confusion may occur between the argumentative essay and the expository essay. These two genres are similar, but the argumentative essay differs from the expository essay in the amount of pre-writing (invention) and research involved. The argumentative essay is commonly assigned as a capstone or final project in first year writing or advanced composition courses and involves lengthy, detailed research. Expository essays involve less research and are shorter in length. Expository essays are often used for in-class writing exercises or tests, such as the GED or GRE.

Argumentative essay assignments generally call for extensive research of literature or previously published material. Argumentative assignments may also require empirical research where the student collects data through interviews, surveys, observations, or experiments. Detailed research allows the student to learn about the topic and to understand different points of view regarding the topic so that she/he may choose a position and support it with the evidence collected during research. Regardless of the amount or type of research involved, argumentative essays must establish a clear thesis and follow sound reasoning.

The structure of the argumentative essay is held together by the following.

A clear, concise, and defined thesis statement that occurs in the first paragraph of the essay.

In the first paragraph of an argument essay, students should set the context by reviewing the topic in a general way. Next the author should explain why the topic is important ( exigence ) or why readers should care about the issue. Lastly, students should present the thesis statement. It is essential that this thesis statement be appropriately narrowed to follow the guidelines set forth in the assignment. If the student does not master this portion of the essay, it will be quite difficult to compose an effective or persuasive essay.

Clear and logical transitions between the introduction, body, and conclusion.

Transitions are the mortar that holds the foundation of the essay together. Without logical progression of thought, the reader is unable to follow the essay’s argument, and the structure will collapse. Transitions should wrap up the idea from the previous section and introduce the idea that is to follow in the next section.

Body paragraphs that include evidential support.

Each paragraph should be limited to the discussion of one general idea. This will allow for clarity and direction throughout the essay. In addition, such conciseness creates an ease of readability for one’s audience. It is important to note that each paragraph in the body of the essay must have some logical connection to the thesis statement in the opening paragraph. Some paragraphs will directly support the thesis statement with evidence collected during research. It is also important to explain how and why the evidence supports the thesis ( warrant ).

However, argumentative essays should also consider and explain differing points of view regarding the topic. Depending on the length of the assignment, students should dedicate one or two paragraphs of an argumentative essay to discussing conflicting opinions on the topic. Rather than explaining how these differing opinions are wrong outright, students should note how opinions that do not align with their thesis might not be well informed or how they might be out of date.

Evidential support (whether factual, logical, statistical, or anecdotal).

The argumentative essay requires well-researched, accurate, detailed, and current information to support the thesis statement and consider other points of view. Some factual, logical, statistical, or anecdotal evidence should support the thesis. However, students must consider multiple points of view when collecting evidence. As noted in the paragraph above, a successful and well-rounded argumentative essay will also discuss opinions not aligning with the thesis. It is unethical to exclude evidence that may not support the thesis. It is not the student’s job to point out how other positions are wrong outright, but rather to explain how other positions may not be well informed or up to date on the topic.

A conclusion that does not simply restate the thesis, but readdresses it in light of the evidence provided.

It is at this point of the essay that students may begin to struggle. This is the portion of the essay that will leave the most immediate impression on the mind of the reader. Therefore, it must be effective and logical. Do not introduce any new information into the conclusion; rather, synthesize the information presented in the body of the essay. Restate why the topic is important, review the main points, and review your thesis. You may also want to include a short discussion of more research that should be completed in light of your work.

A complete argument

Perhaps it is helpful to think of an essay in terms of a conversation or debate with a classmate. If I were to discuss the cause of World War II and its current effect on those who lived through the tumultuous time, there would be a beginning, middle, and end to the conversation. In fact, if I were to end the argument in the middle of my second point, questions would arise concerning the current effects on those who lived through the conflict. Therefore, the argumentative essay must be complete, and logically so, leaving no doubt as to its intent or argument.

The five-paragraph essay

A common method for writing an argumentative essay is the five-paragraph approach. This is, however, by no means the only formula for writing such essays. If it sounds straightforward, that is because it is; in fact, the method consists of (a) an introductory paragraph (b) three evidentiary body paragraphs that may include discussion of opposing views and (c) a conclusion.

Longer argumentative essays

Complex issues and detailed research call for complex and detailed essays. Argumentative essays discussing a number of research sources or empirical research will most certainly be longer than five paragraphs. Authors may have to discuss the context surrounding the topic, sources of information and their credibility, as well as a number of different opinions on the issue before concluding the essay. Many of these factors will be determined by the assignment.

255 Education Argumentative Essay Topics & Ideas

18 January 2024

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Education, a cornerstone of societal development, is a fertile field for writing papers. In this case, education argumentative essay topics can range widely, from debates over traditional vs. digital classrooms, the effectiveness of standardized testing, and the necessity of college education in the 21st century to the balance between academics and character development. Arguments can consider whether current school curriculums cater adequately to the needs of all students or primarily reinforce societal inequalities. Examining education policies at the local, national, or international levels can provide further insights. In turn, exploring the role of educational institutions in preparing students for the future workforce, including discussions on vocational training and entrepreneurial education, is another promising direction for developing argumentative essay topics in education.

Best Education Argumentative Essay Topics

Balancing School Curriculum: Is Art Education as Important as Science?
Roles of Technology in Enhancing Educational Outcomes
The Ethics of Using Animals for School Biology Experiments
Parental Influence on a Child’s Academic Success
University Tuition Fees: Necessary Expense or Excessive Burden?
Should Physical Education Be Mandatory in Schools?
Importance of Teaching Life Skills alongside Traditional Subjects
Grading System: Helping Students Learn or Adding Undue Pressure?
Incorporating Meditation in Schools for Improved Mental Health
Homeschooling vs. Traditional Schooling: Which Prepares Students Better?
Examining the Role of Sex Education in Preventing Teenage Pregnancy
Importance of Introducing Multicultural Education in Schools
Mandatory Community Service as Part of the Curriculum: Pros and Cons
Cyberbullying: Should Schools Take Responsibility?
Unraveling the Effects of School Uniforms on Student Behavior
Gender-Separated Classes: Beneficial or Discriminatory?
Are College Degrees Worth the Financial Investment?
The Role of Teachers’ Salaries in Ensuring Quality Education
Digital Textbooks vs. Traditional Books: Which Is More Effective?
Evaluating the Effectiveness of Homework in Enhancing Learning
The Pros and Cons of Year-Round Schooling
Roles of Parent-Teacher Communication in Enhancing Students’ Performance
Effectiveness of Distance Learning: Is It Comparable to Traditional Learning?
Should Controversial Topics Be Discussed in School?

Easy Education Essay Topics

Exploring the Impact of School Lunch Programs on Student Health
Is Cursive Writing Necessary in Today’s Digital Age?
Teaching Consent in Schools: A Necessity or Overstepping Bounds?
Gifted Programs: Are They Unfair to Other Students?
Bilingual Education: Key to Global Competency or Detrimental to Native Culture?
Implementing Zero Tolerance Policies in Schools: Beneficial or Harmful?
Should Teachers Be Allowed to Carry Firearms for Classroom Protection?
Influence of School Infrastructure on Student Learning Outcomes
Incorporating Climate Change Education in School Curriculums
Should Students Be Grouped by Ability in Classrooms?
Effectiveness of Anti-Bullying Campaigns in Schools
The Right to Privacy: Should Schools Monitor Student’s Online Activities?
Evaluating the Role of Extracurricular Activities in Student Development
The Need for Financial Literacy Education in Schools
Freedom of Speech: Should Students Be Allowed to Express Controversial Opinions in School?
Potential Benefits of Single-Sex Schools
Relevance of History Education in Modern Times
The Influence of Religious Beliefs on Education
Foreign Language Requirements: Necessity or Unnecessary Burden?
Are Teachers’ Unions Beneficial or Detrimental to Education Quality?
Impacts of Parental Educational Background on Children’s Academic Achievement
Does Grade Inflation Devalue a College Degree?
Does Early Childhood Education Have Long-Term Benefits?
Are College Admissions Processes Fair?

Education Argumentative Essay Topics & Ideas

Interesting Education Essay Topics

The Consequences of Educational Budget Cuts
Exploring the Role of Sports in Academic Achievement
Effects of Teacher Burnout on Student Learning
Is Educational Equality Achievable in a Capitalist Society?
Are Private Schools Necessarily Better than Public Schools?
Role of Social Media in Education: Distraction or Useful Tool?
Is Traditional Discipline Effective in Modern Schools?
Examining the Effectiveness of Montessori Education
Are Standardized Curriculum Frameworks Limiting Teachers’ Creativity?
Is There a Place for Character Education in Today’s Schools?
Importance of Critical Thinking Skills in the Curriculum
Do Student Evaluations of Teachers Improve Teaching Quality?
Music Education’s Influence on Academic Performance
Impact of Socioeconomic Status on Academic Achievement
Should Children Be Taught Entrepreneurship in Schools?
Educational Benefits of Field Trips in Curriculum
Does School Counseling Effectively Address Students’ Mental Health Needs?
The Role of Games in Enhancing Math Education
Is the Current Emphasis on STEM Education Justified?
The Influence of Family Structure on Children’s Educational Outcomes
Does Multitasking with Technology Hinder Learning?
Should Political Education Be Mandatory in Schools?
Effects of Classroom Diversity on Student Learning and Empathy

Education Essay Topics for High School

Does Standardized Testing Accurately Reflect a Student’s Knowledge?
Should Schools Invest More in Arts Education?
Is a Year-Round School Calendar Beneficial for Learning?
Are School Uniforms Necessary for a Conducive Learning Environment?
Does Homework Actually Benefit Students?
Should Advanced Courses Be Made Available to All High School Students?
Can Online Learning Replace Traditional Classroom Teaching?
How Is Essential Sex Education in High School Curriculum?
The Impact of School Infrastructure on Quality of Education
Are School Sports Essential for Student Development?
Does Bilingual Education Enhance Cognitive Skills?
Does Parental Involvement Improve Academic Performance?
Is There a Need to Reinvent School Discipline Policies?
How Does the Use of Technology in Schools Affect Learning?
The Role of Schools in Promoting Healthy Eating Habits
Are School Field Trips Essential for Practical Learning?
Should Schools Introduce Personal Finance Classes?
Physical Education Classes: Necessity or Luxury?
Effect of Bullying on Academic Performance
The Influence of Peer Pressure on Students’ Performance
Should We Teach Entrepreneurship in High Schools?
Does a Longer School Day Improve Learning Outcomes?
Roles of Moral Education in Character Building

Education Essay Topics for College Students

Incorporating Technology in Classrooms: Necessity or Distraction?
Standardized Testing: An Effective Evaluation Tool or a Hindrance to Creativity?
University Degrees: Essential for Success or Overrated?
Pros and Cons of Single-Sex Education: A Deep Dive
Private vs. Public Schools: Who Provides a Better Education?
Traditional Education vs. Online Learning: Comparing Effectiveness
Impact of Extracurricular Activities on Academic Performance
Bilingual Education: Potential Benefits and Challenges
Vocational Training: Does It Deserve More Emphasis in the Curriculum?
Effects of Class Size on Student Learning Outcomes
Homeschooling vs. Traditional Schooling: Weighing the Outcomes
Mandatory Physical Education: A Boon or Bane?
College Athletes: Should They Be Paid?
Education in Rural vs. Urban Settings: Exploring Disparities
Funding: How Does It Impact the Quality of Education?
Role of Sex Education in Schools: Analyzing the Importance
Uniforms in Schools: Do They Promote Equality?
Plagiarism Policies: Are They Too Strict or Not Enough?
Art Education: Is It Being Neglected in Schools?
Teaching Soft Skills: Should It Be Mandatory in Schools?
Tuition Fees: Do They Restrict Access to Higher Education?
Inclusion of Students With Disabilities: Analyzing Best Practices

Education Argumentative Essay Topics for University

Cyberbullying: Should Schools Have a Greater Responsibility?
STEM vs. Liberal Arts: Which Provides a Better Future?
Impacts of Mental Health Services in Schools
Grade Inflation: Does It Devalue a Degree?
Diversity in Schools: Does It Enhance Learning?
Gap Year: Does It Help or Hinder Students?
Recess: Is It Necessary for Students’ Well-Being?
Early Childhood Education: Does It Contribute to Later Success?
Parental Involvement: How Does It Influence Student Performance?
Value of Internships in Higher Education
Curriculum: Is It Outdated in Today’s Fast-Paced World?
Digital Textbooks vs. Paper Textbooks: Evaluating the Differences
Learning a Second Language: Should It Be Mandatory?
Censorship in School Libraries: Freedom or Protection?
Life Skills Education: Is It Missing From Our Curriculum?
Teachers’ Pay: Does It Reflect Their Value in Society?
College Rankings: Do They Truly Reflect Educational Quality?
Corporal Punishment: Does It Have a Place in Modern Education?
Student Loans: Are They Creating a Debt Crisis?
Learning Styles: Myth or Real Educational Framework?
Grading System: Is It the Best Measure of Students’ Abilities?

Academic Topics Essay

Fostering Creativity: Should Schools Prioritize the Arts?
Student Debt: Consequences and Possible Solutions
Bullying Policies in Schools: Are They Effective?
Teaching Ethics and Values: Whose Responsibility?
Distance Learning: The New Normal Post-Pandemic?
School Censorship: Are There Limits to Freedom of Speech?
College Admissions: Is the Process Fair?
Standardizing Multilingual Education: A Possibility?
Learning Disabilities: How Can Schools Provide Better Support?
Does Class Size Impact the Quality of Education?
Integrating Technology: Are There Potential Risks?
Affirmative Action in College Admissions: Fair or Biased?
The Role of Private Tuition: Supplemental Help or Unfair Advantage?
Military-Style Discipline in Schools: Effective or Harmful?
Should Schools Implement Mental Health Curriculums?
Early Education: Does It Pave the Way for Success?
Grading System: Is it an Accurate Measure of Student Ability?
Career Counseling in Schools: Should It be Mandatory?
Addressing Racial Bias in Educational Materials
The Debate Over Prayer in Schools: Freedom of Religion or Church-State Separation?
The Impact of Zero-Tolerance Policies on the School Environment
Education Funding: The Pros and Cons of School Vouchers
University Rankings: Helpful Guide or Harmful Pressure?
Personal Finance Education: Should It Be Included in the Curriculum?

Argumentative Essay Topics on Education

Impacts of Standardized Testing on Students’ Creativity
Digital Learning Platforms vs. Traditional Classroom Teaching
Effectiveness of the Montessori Education System
Mandatory Foreign Language Education: A Necessity or Luxury?
Single-Sex Schools’ Role in Modern Society
Teachers’ Salaries: A Reflection of Their Value in Society?
Technological Devices in Classrooms: A Boon or Bane?
Inclusion of Life Skills in the Curriculum
Ethical Education: Its Significance and Implementation
Educating Children About Climate Change and Sustainability
Homeschooling vs. Traditional Schooling: Which Yields Better Results?
School Uniforms: Do They Encourage Uniformity Over Individuality?
The Role of Extracurricular Activities in Holistic Education
Importance of Critical Thinking in the Curriculum
Corporate Sponsorship in Schools: Ethical Considerations
Increasing Parental Involvement in Children’s Education
Vocational Training in High School: Is It Necessary?
The Merits and Demerits of Charter Schools
Prioritizing Health Education in the School Curriculum
Diversifying History Lessons: The Impact on Cultural Understanding
Gifted and Talented Programs: Unfair Advantage or Necessary Support?
Implementing Mindfulness Training in Schools
Mandatory Physical Education: Is It Vital for Health?
Advantages and Disadvantages of Year-Round Schooling
The Potential of Virtual Reality in Education

Education Persuasive Essay Topics

Enhancing Creativity: The Importance of Art Education in Schools
Mandatory Coding Lessons: Preparing Students for the Digital Future
Bilingual Education: Encouraging Multilingualism From an Early Age
Parental Involvement: Crucial for Academic Success or an Invasion of Privacy?
Cyberbullying Awareness: Should It Be Part of the School Curriculum?
The Role of Technology in Modern Education: Boon or Bane?
Sex Education: Essential for Reducing Teen Pregnancy and STD Rates
Standardized Tests: Accurate Measure of a Student’s Capabilities or Outdated Practice?
Religious Studies: The Necessity of Teaching World Religions in Public Schools
Homework Overload: Assessing the True Impact on Students’ Mental Health
School Uniforms: Encouraging Discipline or Suppressing Individuality?
Inclusion in Classrooms: The Benefits of Educating Special Needs Students Alongside Their Peers
Teacher Salaries: The Need for Higher Pay to Attract Quality Educators
Educational Video Games: Revolutionizing Learning or Distraction From Studying?
Student Athletes: Balancing Academics and Sports Participation
Year-Round Schooling: Improving Learning Retention or Overloading Students?
Early Education: The Benefits of Pre-School Programs
Social Media: Its Role in Modern Education
Field Trips: Enhancing Learning Outside the Classroom
Classroom Size: The Impact on Learning and Engagement
Vocational Training: Essential for Preparing Students for the Workforce
Distance Learning: Exploring its Advantages and Disadvantages

Education Research Paper Topics

Extracurricular Activities: The Importance in Students’ Holistic Development
Multiple Intelligence Theory: Implementing Diverse Teaching Strategies
Classroom Decor: Its Influence on Student Engagement and Learning
Mindfulness Practices: Promoting Emotional Health in Schools
Sustainability Education: Fostering Environmentally-Conscious Citizens
Cultural Diversity: Promoting Inclusion and Acceptance in Schools
Physical Education: Addressing Childhood Obesity through School Programs
Gifted and Talented Programs: Benefits and Drawbacks
Homeschooling: Advantages Over Traditional Schooling
Alternative Assessment Methods: Moving Beyond Exams and Grades
Bullying Prevention: The Role of Schools and Teachers
College Admissions: The Controversy Around Legacy Preferences
Ethics Education: Instilling Moral Values in Students
Student Loans: The Crisis and Its Impact on Higher Education
Nutrition Education: Promoting Healthy Eating Habits in Schools
Digital Literacy: Essential Skills for the 21st Century
Grade Inflation: The Deterioration of Academic Standards in Higher Education
Climate Change Education: Teaching the Next Generation About Global Warming
Character Education: Building Integrity and Responsibility in Students
Music Education: Its Influence on Cognitive Development
Literacy Programs: Overcoming Reading and Writing Challenges
Mentorship Programs: Enhancing Student Success and Confidence
Financial Literacy: Preparing Students for Real-World Money Management

Strong Education Argumentative Essay Topics

Is Censorship Justified in School Libraries?
The Benefits and Drawbacks of Single-Sex Schools
Is College Preparation in High School Adequate?
Are Teachers’ Salaries Commensurate With Their Job Responsibilities?
Cyberbullying: Should Schools Intervene?
The Importance of Cultural Diversity in Education
Should Mental Health Education Be Mandatory in Schools?
Do School Rankings Reflect the Quality of Education?
The Relevance of Cursive Writing in Today’s Digital World
Should Religious Studies Be Part of the School Curriculum?
Are Students Overburdened with Excessive Schoolwork?
The Implications of Zero Tolerance Policies in Schools
School Safety: Responsibility of Schools or Parents?
Does Grade Inflation Diminish the Value of Education?
Are Life Skills Education Necessary in Schools?
The Debate on Home Schooling vs. Traditional Schooling
Is it Necessary to Teach World Religions in High Schools?
Does a School’s Location Affect the Quality of Education?
The Argument for Teaching Emotional Intelligence in Schools
Should Attendance Be Mandatory in High School?
Could Meditation and Mindfulness Improve Students’ Concentration?
The Role of Music Education in Student Development
Do Students Learn More From Books or Computers?
The Need for Environmental Sustainability Education in Schools

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Do you feel the need to examine some previously written Argumentative Essays on Higher Education before you begin writing an own piece? In this open-access collection of Higher Education Argumentative Essay examples, you are provided with a fascinating opportunity to explore meaningful topics, content structuring techniques, text flow, formatting styles, and other academically acclaimed writing practices. Adopting them while composing your own Higher Education Argumentative Essay will surely allow you to finalize the piece faster.

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Free Argumentative Essay On Vocational And Liberal Aims In Higher Education

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The Value Of College Education Argumentative Essays Examples

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In relation to good education, there is always a need to measure situations especially when it comes determining the practicality of its application. It is because of this matter that the real value of college education at present is being examined accordingly. In the discussion that follows, the determination of such value shall be given proper attention to, this making a definite impact on how the society accepts the value of tertiary education at present.

Rising Cost Of College Tuition In US Argumentative Essay Sample

Every segment of the American economy is under pressure and college education has not been left behind. The cost of college education has risen sharply in the recent past and a big percentage of American College students risk being left out of college education if the cost rises further. The increase in costs has come forth in spite of the excruciating cost-cutting done by colleges on every activity in the institutions. The increase in tuition fee actually outperformed the overall inflation rate.

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Original research article, the challenge of position-taking in novice higher education students’ argumentative writing.

Centre for University Teaching and Learning, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland

Argumentative writing is the central generic skill in higher education studies. However, students have difficulties in basic argumentation skills. Novice students do not necessarily receive adequate guidance, and their prior education may not have supported the requirements of higher education writing. Position-taking is at the core of argumentation, but students are often hesitant to make their point. Furthermore, they may have an incorrect and one-sided perception about an argument, leading them to avoid alternative positions in their argumentative writing. The study aims to explore starting level skills of novice students’ argumentative writing, namely their position-taking. The participants were 196 first-year students from diverse fields of study in two Finnish higher education institutions. They were required to solve a problem and write an argumentative essay based on five documents that were given to them. The essays were analyzed using qualitative content analysis applying abductive approach. Substantial variation was detected in students’ position-taking. We identified four groups of writers based on their position-taking. First two groups were more or less explicit in their position-taking. Most of the students (72%) belonged to these two groups. However, a minority of them were consistent in their position-taking. Writers in the third group (15%) implied their position, and writers in the fourth group (12%) stuck to summarizing sources without position-taking. The findings invite teachers to support novice students in their basic argumentation. Co-operation between faculty teachers and writing teachers is encouraged.

Introduction

Generic skills have been considered vital for success in higher education studies ( Barrie, 2006 ; Shavelson, 2010 ; Hyytinen et al., 2019 ). They are universal expert skills, such as communication, problem solving and argumentation, and they are equally important in all fields, enabling learning discipline-specific skills and knowledge ( Hyytinen et al., 2021a ). The central generic skill is argumentation ( Andrews, 2009 ; Mäntynen, 2009 ; Wolfe, 2011 ; Wingate, 2012 ). Argumentation, and more specifically argumentative writing, is required of the students from the moment they apply and enter a higher education institution, until graduation, in the form of essays, examinations, and dissertations (see Wolfe, 2011 ; Wingate, 2012 ). Even more important, it is not just a technical skill, to pull through assignments, but argumentation also facilitates learning ( Asterhan and Schwarz, 2016 ; Iordanou et al., 2019 ; Kuhn, 2019 ). Research on generic skills often focuses on clusters of skills, their importance, and students’ experiences of them (e.g., Barrie, 2006 ; Tuononen et al., 2019 ; Virtanen and Tynjälä, 2019 ). However, such an approach offers few practical insights for higher education teachers who often struggle between teaching discipline-specific knowledge and supporting students in their generic skills. Instead, gaining a more detailed understanding of students’ strengths and weaknesses in each generic skill, such as argumentation, will help in developing tools for teachers.

Several studies show that even advanced higher education students have gaps in their basic argumentation skills, such as combining claims and evidence, or presenting diverse viewpoints ( Marttunen, 1994 ; Ivanič, 1998 ; Andrews et al., 2006 ; Laakso et al., 2016 ; Hyytinen et al., 2017 , 2021b ; Breivik, 2020 ). Students may be unsure about what an argument is ( Andrews, 2009 ; Wingate, 2012 ; Breivik, 2020 ). They may also have difficulties in identifying rhetoric situations and their expectations and adapting their writing for the requirements of each assignment ( Zimmerman and Risemberg, 1997 ; Johns, 2008 ; Roderick, 2019 ). It has been suggested that prior education does not provide sufficient argumentative skills, but students in higher education still feel that they do not receive adequate guidance or instructions on elements of argumentative writing ( Andrews, 2009 ). Teachers often assume that students either already master these skills or learn as they go. Surprisingly, even though argumentative writing has been thought to be the Achilles’ heel in the transition to higher education, little research has focused on actual novice students’ starting level skills. We know a lot more about advanced students’ or even senior scholars’ argumentative skills. The present study focuses on novice students’ basic skills in argumentative writing, namely describing the variation in the ways of their position-taking, which is viewed as the core of argumentation ( Andrews et al., 2006 ; Wingate, 2012 ).

Argumentation and Argumentative Writing in Higher Education

The objective of an argument is to support one’s claims and conclusions with reasons or evidence ( Toulmin, 2003 ; Halpern, 2014 ). In academic contexts, the claims and conclusions are backed with prior research and/or empirical data ( Swales, 1990 ; Wolfe, 2011 ). In argumentative guidebooks, an argument is often presented as a simple one or two sentence structure, but in practice it is often integrated in broader entities such as written essays or articles, or spoken addresses or debates (see Andrews, 2009 ). Most assignments that a higher education student—across disciplines—encounters during their studies require argumentative writing ( Wolfe, 2011 ). Assignments that require argumentation have also been considered a valuable tool for learning. Such assignments have been found to be a particularly advantageous method when learning about complex topics with diverse viewpoints and complex skills such as critical thinking ( Asterhan and Schwarz, 2016 ; Iordanou et al., 2019 ; Kuhn, 2019 ).

There is no template for constructing an argumentative text, but the writer must identify the requirements of the situation, and the best ways to fulfill those requirements (see Johns, 2008 ). A major decision in argumentative writing is related to choosing the placing of claims or conclusions and evidence. These rhetorical strategies are culture-specific to some degree; in other words, one strategy may be favored over another, across genres and communities. For instance, Finnish writers have been found to prefer to present all evidence and elements of uncertainty before their conclusion (final focus), in contrast to Anglo-American writers who prefer to present their inference first and then proceed to evidence (initial focus) ( Mauranen, 1993 ; Mikkonen, 2010 ; see also Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca, 1969 ).

In addition to variation across cultures, argumentative skills have also been suggested to be, at least in part, discipline-specific ( Andrews, 2009 , 2015 ). Accordingly, there are disciplinary differences in the epistemologies that influence how to evaluate an argument (e.g., Hetmanek et al., 2018 ). However, beyond the varying conventions of cultures and disciplines, arguments and argumentative texts have more generic features. This includes development and presentation of one’s position ( Andrews, 2009 ; Wingate, 2012 ), and micro- and macrostructures of argumentation, such as claim or conclusion and evidence, and introduction, counterarguments, and discussion ( Kuhn, 1991 ; Toulmin, 2003 ; Breivik, 2020 ). To learn the discipline-specific conventions of argumentation, it is necessary to master the generic features. Consequently, the ability to use generic features of argumentation is eminently important for novice students who are new to higher education. They are not yet integrated in their study program or academic writing community ( Swales, 1990 ; Donald, 2002 ). However, despite the lack of relevant skills, novice students receive little guidance in argumentative writing. In the absence of proper guidance to academic requirements, they are tapping into the skills they have learnt in their prior education ( Bereiter and Scardamalia, 1987 ; Andrews et al., 2006 ). In Finland, it has been suggested that argumentation is not sufficiently emphasized in the upper secondary school, and its final exams, the Matriculation Examination ( Mäntynen, 2009 ; Komppa, 2012 ). However, evidence-based information about Finnish novice higher education students’ argumentative writing is scarce. While we know that they have some problems in consistency of their arguments ( Hyytinen et al., 2017 ), there is no research on more generic features in argumentative writing.

Position-Taking in Argumentative Writing

Taking a position is at the core of argumentation ( Andrews, 2009 ; Wingate, 2012 ). Typically, the position is seen as the viewpoint the writer intends to support, or the main point the writer intends to make. The position conveys the writer’s explicit presence in the text ( Mauranen, 1993 ; Hyland, 2005 ). Additionally, to strengthen the argument, the position can be challenged with alternative positions (see Andrews, 2009 ). Failing to take a position can lead to problems in higher education studies where argumentation skills are vital (e.g., Wolfe, 2011 ). Such problems often go hand in hand with problems in deep learning and meaning construction ( Biggs, 1988 ; see also Petrić, 2007 ).

In argumentative writing, the position is often expressed as a thesis, a holistic main claim that summarizes the writer’s point of view ( Kakkuri-Knuuttila and Halonen, 1998 ; Mikkonen, 2010 ; Wolfe, 2011 ). However, the position is not always expressed as explicitly as a thesis. Indeed, it has been found that higher education students have challenges in emphasizing their position, and instead, they may lean toward research sources, as well as summarizing, and attributing ( Lea and Street, 1998 ; Petrić, 2007 ; Mäntynen, 2009 ; McCulloch, 2012 ; Laakso et al., 2016 ; Lee et al., 2018 ). Consequently, they do not take a position, but they rather display their knowledge on the topic (see Petrić, 2007 ). Higher education students can feel inadequate for making a strong point ( Ivanič, 1998 ; Andrews, 2009 ; Mendoza et al., 2022 ). They may avoid making a holistic statement like a thesis by making so called local arguments. These are claims that encompass a short proportion of the text, and do not summarize the point of view of the entire text ( Mauranen, 1993 ; Wolfe, 2011 ). However, writers may also imply their position in more subtle ways than stating an explicit thesis or even making local arguments. Linguists talk about interactional features, referring to elements that convey writer’s relation with their text ( Hyland and Tse, 2004 ; Hyland, 2005 ). Writers might withhold (hedge) or emphasize (boost) their commitment, express their affective attitudes (attitude marker), or use first-person forms to remind reader of their presence in the text (self-mention) ( Hyland, 2005 ).

Discussion of diverse viewpoints, i.e., alternative positions, is an important yet challenging part of argumentation ( Kuhn, 1991 ; Andrews, 2009 ; Wingate, 2012 ; Kuhn et al., 2016b ). In its strongest form, a rebuttal, an explicit position is taken against some evidence. Just as they may be hesitant in their position-taking, as discussed above, even advanced higher education students may have challenges in introducing alternative positions in their argumentation ( Laakso et al., 2016 ; Hyytinen et al., 2021b ; Kuhn and Modrek, 2021 ). Even acknowledgment of alternative positions is difficult for many, not to mention rebutting them ( Kuhn, 1991 ). This tendency has been called my-side bias, indicating an inability to see other alternatives ( Perkins, 1989 ). However, these challenges may not be about an inclination to emphasize one’s own opinion but instead they reflect the writer’s incorrect perception of an argument ( Wolfe and Britt, 2008 ; Wingate, 2012 ). Writers may see a good argument as a one-sided construction, and so they bring out all the supporting evidence, and leave out any contesting facts. The ability to develop rebuttals requires a basic understanding of position-taking, and usually, the presence of rebuttals is an indication of a higher overall quality of argumentation ( Wolfe et al., 2009 ; Kuhn et al., 2016a ).

The variation in position-taking can be a consequence of either hesitancy or uncertainty ( Ivanič, 1998 ; Andrews, 2009 ; Lee et al., 2018 ) or an incorrect perception about position-taking and the characteristics of an argument ( Wolfe and Britt, 2008 ; Andrews, 2009 ; Breivik, 2020 ). However, research has pointed out other reasons students may avoid position-taking. Cultural conventions, such as inclination to minimize writer presence in a text, can add to the challenge ( Mauranen, 1993 ). Furthermore, the tendency to reward students for showing what they know instead of constructing new meanings discourages writers from developing their own positions ( Bereiter and Scardamalia, 1987 ; Andrews, 2009 ). Overall, some writers intend to present all available evidence, in contrast to writers who intend to construct new information based on available evidence ( Bereiter and Scardamalia, 1987 ; Biggs, 1988 ). Some interesting contrasting findings suggest that assignment directions could be a culprit behind the challenges. The writer may not correctly identify the requirements of an assignment. It has been found that even when explicit requests are made for position-taking, writers may fall back on a strategy of summarizing sources ( Macbeth, 2006 ; Andrews, 2009 ; Paldanus, 2017 ). However, when the directions come across, higher education students and even younger adolescents are able to present an explicit position ( Marttunen, 1994 ; Marttunen and Laurinen, 2004 ; Mikkonen, 2010 ).

The Research Gap and Objective of the Study

Argumentative writing is demanding, and novice students cannot be expected to master the conventions and hidden rules of the academic context ( Swales, 1990 ; Ivanič, 1998 ; Macbeth, 2006 ; Johns, 2008 ; Andrews, 2009 ). To understand where novice students stand in their argumentative writing skills, all dimensions of argumentation need to be studied; implementing logic, rhetoric, and dialectic approaches. A tendency in the research of argumentation in the higher education studies is to focus on the validity and quality of arguments (cf. Andrews, 2009 ; Wingate, 2012 ). However, if students do not understand what an argument is or are not able to formulate their arguments on a textual level, teaching more abstract and often discipline-specific aspects of argumentation, such as validity, may be futile. Furthermore, novice students’ preparedness for argumentative writing in the academic context has been questioned, but research-based understanding of the matter is insufficient. Thus, the present study investigates novice students’ argumentative writing on a very basic level, namely focusing on their position-taking skills. Such investigation will bring insights into supporting novice students in their studies. The growing understanding of novice students’ starting level skills will help not only writing teachers, but all teachers in higher education who are involved in giving writing assignments.

The aim of our study was to explore starting level skills of novice higher education students’ argumentative writing. In more detail, we investigate how they take a position in an argumentative essay, and how they present alternative positions. Our specific research questions were:

RQ1: What kind of variation is there in students’ presentations of their position?

RQ2: What kind of variation is there in students’ presentations of alternative positions?

RQ3: What types of argumentative writers can be identified based on the findings in RQ1 and RQ2?

Materials and Methods

Context of the study.

Higher education admissions in Finland are extremely competitive ( OECD, 2019 ). Until recently, all applicants have participated in discipline-specific entrance examinations, but recently more emphasis was put on academic achievement in prior education ( Kleemola and Hyytinen, 2019 ). The upper secondary school in Finland consists of a general and a vocational track. The aim of the general track is to give students extensive general knowledge and to prepare them for further education either in higher education or in vocational training. While the general track introduces all subjects to all students, different emphases are allowed, such as mathematics, natural sciences, or languages. In contrast, the vocational track aims to give students vocational competence in their chosen field. Some general subjects are taught, but the focus is on vocational skills. It is noteworthy that both general and vocational tracks give eligibility for higher education admissions. Thus, novice students in higher education have varied academic backgrounds.

Participants and Data Collection

The data were collected in accordance with the ethical principles of research with human participants by the Finnish National Board on Research Integrity (2019) . Students gave their consent to participation. The data were collected in a national project on higher education students’ generic skills ( Ursin et al., 2021 ). Based on instructions and templates provided by the project, administrators, and teachers in participating institutions invited students via e-mail. Approximately 25% of the invited students participated. In the national project, 1538 first-year students participated in the early stages of their first study term. Participation was voluntary, and students could withdraw from the research at any time. Sixty-nine students did not complete the assessment, and they were not included in any analyses. For the purposes of the present study, a subsample of the data was selected. The aim was to sample a subgroup that would represent a wide range of disciplines, and the variation in argumentative writing within the whole data. With these aims in mind, two large multidisciplinary higher education institutions in southern Finland were selected to represent the data. The selection of students in two institutions instead of a random sample across the 18 participating institutions ensured that there was not too much contextual variation in the students of the subgroup. One of the institutions was a research-intensive university (99 students) and one was a university for applied sciences (97 students). The subgroup of 196 Finnish-speaking students covered the whole range of performance levels in the national project, assessing generic skills. Thus, it was assumed that the subsample would represent the variation in argumentative writing within the whole data. Students represented a diversity of study fields, including healthcare, humanities, biosciences, engineering, natural sciences, and social sciences, covering most of the key disciplines. While it is possible that study fields attract students with different skillsets, the present study does not report disciplinary differences, as participating novice students were not yet exposed to different disciplinary cultures. Students’ mean age was 24.83 ( SD = 6.85) and median age 22.00. While this is slightly older than the average starting age, it is worthy to note that Finns typically start in higher education older than in other countries ( OECD, 2019 ). The majority of the students (84%) had completed the general track in the upper secondary school.

Participants completed a computer-based Collegiate Learning Assessment (CLA +) that includes an open-ended performance task and a multiple-choice section. The open-ended task, used in the present study, required students to think critically and argue for their response in writing (see Klein et al., 2007 ; Kleemola et al., 2021 ). The task at hand was designed to activate argumentative writing skills in participants. Furthermore, it was suitable for assessing argumentative writing in the academic context: participants were required to develop a position by means of leaning on documents that were provided in the task. Thus, the task simulated the reality of academic contexts in that the text should be embedded in the existing research literature (see e.g., Swales, 1990 ). Performance tasks in general have been found to be motivating for students ( Kane et al., 2005 ; Hyytinen and Toom, 2019 ; Hyytinen et al., 2021c ). The task that was used in the study is confidential, but similar tasks are introduced by Shavelson (2010) and Hyytinen and Toom (2019) . In the task, students were asked to take a role of an intern in a city government, where they would have to solve a problem and give a report concerning different life expectancies in two cities, Woodby and Brookdale. They were provided five documents, namely a blog post, a podcast transcript, a memorandum, a newspaper article, and an infographic. They were asked to give their response to the problem as an essay, and their proposals for action. They were reminded to discuss any counterarguments, and to support their own claims with information in the available documents. Students had 60 min to complete the task. The length of the responses ranged from one sentence of about 10 words to several pages of about 800 words.

Data Analysis

Qualitative content analysis was used to investigate students’ texts. An abductive approach (e.g., Timmermans and Tavory, 2012 ) was adopted, namely the analysis was theory-driven to start with, but researchers kept an open mind to new discoveries based on the data. Both a group-level approach (RQ1 and RQ2) and an individual-level approach (RQ3) were used to gain a multifaceted view on the topic. The investigation proceeded in six main phases that are presented in Table 1 . The process was non-linear in that the authors discussed findings and issues continuously during the process.

Table 1. The main phases of the data analysis.

In the first phase of the analysis, all three authors became familiar with the data by reading students’ responses. During this phase, general observations were made about the data and were discussed. In the second phase of the analysis, theory-based analysis criteria for identifying the position and alternative positions were created by the first author. The criteria are described in detail below. In phase three, the analysis criteria were implemented by the first author. In addition, data-based, novel features were noted. The episodes with positions and alternative positions were located and their variation was explored and reflected in light of existing research. In phase four, the second author analyzed independently 25% of the essays that were randomly selected. The first and second authors discussed the findings, negotiated their differences, and adjusted analysis criteria where needed and integrated the data-based findings in the criteria. In phase five, the first author re-analyzed the data according to the adjusted criteria from phase four. Finally, in phase six, all authors discussed the findings, and remaining analysis challenges. Additionally, groups of argumentative writers were identified on the basis of the findings.

The analysis criteria were created and adjusted during phases two and four. The criteria aimed for describing the variation in the students’ texts instead of creating exclusive categories. To respond to RQ1, writers’ positions were analyzed, and two types of episodes were traced, namely explicit thesis-statements and other position-indicating expressions (see also Table 2 in “Results” section). The thesis was defined as the response for the main question ( Mauranen, 1993 ). In academic texts, the question is the research question or research aim. In the present study, the task question “what is the reason for the different life expectancies in the two cities?” was considered to be the relevant question. Furthermore, the thesis should be a holistic claim, summarizing the main point of the whole text ( Mauranen, 1993 ). During the analysis in phase three, it was found that some of the essays included a thesis-like statement that responded to a more generic question than the actual task question, having a different orientation (see more in “Results” section). In phase four it was determined that these were included as a thesis, but thesis orientation was to be examined. According to theories and prior studies, the thesis location could be in the introductory section of the text (initial focus), in the conclusion section of the text (final focus) or both (Nestorian order) ( Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca, 1969 ; Mauranen, 1993 ). Thus, the thesis was traced in these sections. Expressions such as “in conclusion” were first looked for, but as Finnish writing tends to include less such metatext ( Mauranen, 1993 ), the content of the sentences was examined more carefully. Consequently, typical expressions were “is caused by,” “significant factors are,” and “the reason behind—is.” A closer analysis of the variation in the thesis-statements revealed that the thesis precision varied, and thus, it was integrated in the analysis criteria in phase four and examined. It was found that some thesis-statements were vague, and some included hedges that are interactional elements implying uncertainty ( Hyland, 2005 ). In philosophical theories, such expressions have been considered to be modal qualifiers ( Toulmin, 2003 ) that assess the degree of probability of the statement, namely how likely they think the statement to be true.

Table 2. Variation in presentation of writer’s position.

If a thesis could not be found, other position-indicating expressions were traced. Interactional elements ( Hyland, 2005 ) were traced, namely attitude markers and self-mentions that appear without a thesis. Affective, and attitudinal expressions, such as “positive,” “unreliable,” “questionable,” and “cannot be trusted” were traced. In addition, the first-person forms of pronouns “I” and verbs “I recommend” (Finnish verbs have an integrated first-person form which does not require the pronoun) were traced. During the analysis, it was found that in some essays there were explicit claims that could nevertheless not be identified as a holistic thesis. These were recognized as local arguments ( Mauranen, 1993 ; Wolfe, 2011 ), that indicate a position while not expressing it holistically, in the way that the present study defined the thesis. Local arguments were integrated in the analysis criteria in phase four. Finally, in some essays we found no position-taking , neither explicit thesis nor other position-indicating expressions.

In analyzing alternative positions (RQ2), we traced episodes where the writer showed their awareness on rival explanations to the task question, namely “what else could be the reason behind the different life expectancies, but maybe is not true?” (see also Table 3 in “Results” section). Such episodes show that the writer accepts the possibility of diversity in the positions, while they do not necessarily always express an explicit position against the evidence ( Kuhn, 1991 ). Thus, we traced both rebuttals and expressions of contradictory positions . To trace these episodes, we looked for contrasting expressions such as “however,” and “on the other hand.” Furthermore, we looked for rebuttals, such as “is not significant,” “does not affect,” and “I can’t agree.” Additionally, as mentioned above in thesis-identification, content of the sentences was examined beyond metatext. Structures such as “X says Y, Z says not Y” were noted. During the analysis, variation was detected in the rebuttals, namely in the reasoning, hesitancy, and attitudes. These features were integrated in the analysis criteria in phase four.

Table 3. Variation in presentation of alternative positions.

To respond to RQ3, findings of RQ1 and RQ2 were examined carefully. At this point, the variation in the degree of writer’s presence through their position-taking was recognized as the guiding theme. Four groups were created examining the aspects of position-taking, their differences, and similarities. The differences between the groups culminated in explicitness of their position. The process of creating the groups is also presented in the “Results” section ( Figure 1 ).

Figure 1. Differentiating features between the writer groups: the process of creating the groups.

Investigator triangulation was used in the data analysis ( Denzin, 1970 ). Becoming familiar with the data in the first phase allowed all authors to evaluate findings in light of the entire dataset. While the first author performed the analyses in phases three and five, all authors discussed and evaluated findings and considered challenging features throughout the process. Additionally, in phase four, the independent analysis by the second author and discussions that followed ensured that all authors interpreted the analysis criteria similarly.

The excerpts that are presented in the “Results” section are translations from Finnish to English. Any typos were omitted in translations as they were not relevant to the present study. Some details concerning the content have been altered in order to preserve confidentiality of the task. These alterations do not influence the analysis of the position-taking that is the focus of the present study.

Variation in the Presentations of Writer’s Position

Position-indicating episodes were identified in the essays and variation was analyzed. The sources of variation are summarized in Table 2 . An explicit thesis was detected in 125 (64%) essays. The thesis-statements varied in their orientation, location, and precision. An explicit thesis could not be detected in 71 essays (36%). However, in some of these essays, a degree of writer presence and position-taking could be detected, namely interactional elements and local arguments.

Thesis Orientation

We first examined the orientation of the explicit thesis-statements. A thesis that adhered to the original definition, responding to the task question (explanation behind different life expectancies in two cities) was found in 88 essays (45%). A typical thesis is presented in example 1. A typical thesis that was oriented toward the task question explicates that the statement is about differences in the life expectancy in the two cities or about Woodby’s higher life expectancy compared with that of Brookdale. Furthermore, a typical thesis lists the most important factor or factors behind the life expectancy. The thesis is underlined in the examples.

(1) — Factors that influence Woodby’s higher life expectancy are exercise and the level of education . —

However, during the data analysis, it was discovered that some essays had a slightly different orientation. They included a thesis-like statement, making a holistic, summarizing statement based on the evidence, which did not respond to the task question. These thesis-statements ( F = 38, 19%) responded to a more generic question of factors that influence life expectancy instead of addressing the differences between the two cities. Writers of these essays would write about the factors that help individuals live longer (example 2), or that shorten the life expectancy.

(2) — In summary, it could be said that the level of education, sleep , exercise, and nutrition are keys to a long life .

These students may have falsely understood the question, or they may have failed to analyze the task materials, as responding to the actual task question required deeper problem-solving across available documents. Furthermore, they may have assumed that this generic question was in fact, what was asked, due to most of the materials addressing it. In further analyses in the present study, both thesis orientations were treated as an explicit thesis.

Thesis Location

Next, we examined the variation in the thesis location. Half of the essays with an explicit thesis ( F = 62) were using initial focus strategy, namely the thesis was situated in the introductory section of the essay. These thesis-statements were located either in the very beginning of the essay or after an orientating introduction. Some writers would open their essay by stating the reasons behind different life expectancies (example 3) and proceed by presenting the detailed evidence behind this statement. In contrast, some essays with the initial focus strategy opened with an introductory section where writers would describe general background information about the situation (example 4) or state their objectives of the text. After the introduction, they proceed to their thesis-statement, and follow with the detailed evidence.

(3) It seems that two factors are above the rest behind the higher life expectancy of Woodby: exercise and the level of education . —

(4) In the region of Brookdale-Woodby, the changes in life expectancy and reasons behind it have been followed for a long time. At the moment, there is a lot of discussion about actual reasons why people in the Woodby region live longer than the average. Based on research findings, we also can give Brookdale residents tips on how to increase their life expectancy.

There are many reasons for the long life expectancy in Woodby region. According to research findings , the two most significant differences between residents of Woodby and Brookdale are exercise and the level of education . —

The other half of the essays with an explicit thesis ( F = 61) had a final focus strategy, namely the thesis was situated toward the end of the essay, as a conclusion (examples 5 and 6). Such a thesis was mostly preceded with the presentation of evidence that supports the thesis. In some essays, an alternative position was presented after the supporting evidence, but before the thesis. In such cases, writers first listed the evidence that they thought was relevant to their own position and then listed the evidence they rebutted or considered inconsequential to the task question (see in more detail below in section “Variation in Presentations of Alternative Positions”). The thesis-statements with a final focus strategy may have been at the very end of the essay (example 5). However, most often it was followed by the proposals for action (example 6), namely what should the cities and their citizens do about the difference in life expectancies.

(5) — It can be concluded that especially the large amounts of exercise and the high level of education seem to lengthen the life expectancy and are probably contributing to the differences in life expectancy in Woodby and Brookdale .

(6) — In other words , since Woodby residents are getting more exercise and have a higher level of education, they also live longer .

Therefore, I recommend Brookdale residents to live healthier . —

In two essays, a Nestorian order was used, namely the thesis was repeated in the beginning and in the end (example 7). While the thesis was reworded, it was similar in contents in the beginning and in the end. Thesis-statements in the Nestorian order essays were not different from the above descriptions of initial and final focus strategies. However, with only two occurrences, inferences about thesis-statements in Nestorian order need to be taken with caution. Some of the essay text has been omitted from the example to save space.

(7) Woodby has a higher life expectancy compared to its neighboring town of Brookdale . The strongest contributing factors seem to be the residents’ level of education and the amount of exercise they are getting . In the Woodby that has the higher life expectancy, a larger proportion of residents —

[supporting evidence]

[rebuttal of alternative positions]

— Neither seems the sleep they are getting to be significant contributor to the difference in the life expectancy: volume of sleeps seems to be equal in both towns.

Based on the materials, it seems that the longevity of Woodby residents has to do with healthy exercise and the level of education . Therefore, I recommend the Brookdale residents to focus on their exercise in accordance with instructions by the personal trainer Maria. In addition, the educational level of Brookdale residents should be raised.

Thesis Precision

The final aspect of the explicit thesis-statements to be examined was their precision. In most essays, the thesis-statements were plainly stating the conclusion. However, in a few rare cases interactional elements, namely hedges, were found (examples 8 and 9). Hedges are modal expressions that the writer uses to define either their uncertainty about the statement, or the degree of probability, namely how likely they think the statement to be true. Hedges such as probably, perhaps, or likely were identified in the essays. The hedges are outlined in the examples.

(8) — I have been able to define two variables that most likely cause the difference in life expectancies, namely the amount of exercise and the level of education. —

(9) — The higher life expectancy in Woodby is probably mainly caused by the higher educational levels. —

While the hedges often convey uncertainty of the writer, in some cases the thesis was very vague as an example 10 (many reasons). Such statements may have indicated uncertainty as well, but it was not expressed in an explicit way as in the hedges above. The vague thesis-statements complicated distinguishing between an essay with and without a thesis. While the writer of the example 10 is vague in their response, the writer in example 11 does not explicate the factors that are influencing the life expectancy, but instead refers to the rest of the essay, the evidence.

(10) — There are possibly many reasons for the higher average life expectancy in Woodby compared with Brookdale. —

(11) — In my report, I examine factors that point to a longer life expectancy in Woodby, compared with Brookdale residents. —

In such cases the deciding factor was that to be an explicit thesis, the sentence should stand for itself without the rest of the essay. Thus, the example 11 was considered not a thesis while the example 10 was a thesis.

Position Through Interactional Elements

Many essays lacked an explicit thesis. We could not identify a thesis in altogether 70 (36%) essays. However, when we analyzed how these writers related themselves to the available evidence, we found considerable variation. While some essays were strict summaries of available documents, some included various degrees of writer presence.

Even though no thesis could be identified, in a few of these essays, writers took a strong position toward reliability of the materials. For instance, in example 12, the writer questions the trustworthiness of the author of a document.

(12) — In addition, it is notable that Doctor Dave’s identity is open to question and therefore, his information is not reliable as a source. —

Some essays with no thesis included a commentary or reflective sections. In example 13, the writer expresses their hesitancy about the evidence they are referring to by using the word “apparently.” In contrast, in example 14, the writer reflects on their opinion of the facts that they cited, characterizing them as “positive.” These are interactional elements, attitude markers to be precise. Such elements convey the writer’s affective stand toward the facts, thus implying a position.

(13) — Apparently the air quality in Woodby is excellent. —

(14) — The amount of sleep is according to statistics similar in both towns —. This is a very positive observation . —

In several essays—despite having no thesis—the writer used first-person expressions, as in examples 15 and 16. It is worth mentioning that such essays also contained passive statements of facts, so the first-person form did not cover the whole essay. First-person expressions are interactional elements similar to attitude markers. Such self-mentions indicate the writer’s presence in the text. Self-mentions are vaguer in their position-taking than attitude markers. However, it is possible to interpret that the writer agrees with the facts in the first-person sentences.

(15) — I would recommend Brookdale residents to exercise, to get an education and eat healthily. —

(16) — I noticed that all sources I browsed through, always mentioned the same problem . —

Position Through Local Arguments

More than a third of the essays without an explicit thesis had a thematic organization where the writer considered each theme in the materials at a time. For instance, they dealt first with all aspects of exercise that are related to the life expectancy in the two cities, and then moved on to the next theme. In these essays, local arguments were made, but no holistic thesis, summarizing their findings, was present (example 17). The local arguments are underlined.

(17) During the last 20 years, the Brookdale university has followed life expectancies in Woodby and Brookdale. The data shows that the life expectancy in Brookdale is 79 and in Woodby 84. What causes the 5-year difference in the life expectancies?

Research shows that getting less exercise increases the risk for a premature death. In Brookdale, 35% of the residents do not exercise at all. Instead, in Woodby, 31% of residents exercise daily, and 29% of the residents exercise regularly . This surely has a positive influence on the life expectancy in Woodby .

The educational level of residents has also a bearing. According to research, 21% of Brookdale residents has a degree in higher education, compared with 34% of Woodby residents. The difference is not that large, but the higher educational level of Woodby residents very likely influences the life expectancy .

If Brookdale residents want to lengthen their life expectancy, they should exercise more, and get a better education .

In essays with local arguments, the writer clearly takes a position. However, they fail to summarize their observations in a holistic manner. They may consider local arguments to be sufficient as a response to the task, leaving the reader to make a synthesis.

Challenges in Distinguishing Between a Thesis and No Thesis

A complication for the thesis identification was the second part of the task, asking for recommendations for Brookdale residents to improve their life expectancy. A couple of writers had integrated their conclusions and recommendations like in example 18.

(18) — Basing on the information presented above, I recommend Brookdale residents more exercise and going back to school.

These cases were interpreted as no thesis, since the response to the task question was not explicit. However, it is feasible to assume that such statements implicate students’ response and position.

Variation in Presentations of Alternative Positions

In line with the research questions, the variation in ways that writers used to present alternative positions were analyzed. The findings are summarized in Table 3 .

Alternative positions were presented in altogether 95 (48%) essays. Two main types of presenting alternative positions, namely rebuttals and contradictory positions, were identified. In rebuttals, the writer explicitly took a position against a piece of evidence within the materials. Of the essays that included alternative positions, 53 (56%) presented a rebuttal. In contrast, the rest of the essays presented contradictory positions. In this type of essay, the writer summarized opposing positions from different sources without taking a personal position toward the issue.

Variation in Rebuttals

In a stereotypical case, a rebuttal included a presentation of the piece of evidence, and an explicit rebuttal, and thorough reasons behind the writer’s choice to dismiss the evidence (example 19).

(19) — The amount of sleep seems to have a bearing on the life expectancy. — Nevertheless, when statistics about Brookdale and Woodby residents are examined, it turns out that there is no significant difference in their sleeping habits and therefore, it is not a sufficient reason to explain the higher life expectancy in Woodby. —

However, not all essays that were identified as presenting a rebuttal were this explicit in their position. Some of the essays with rebuttals simply stated their refutation without expressing reasons behind that position, as an example 20. Often writers considered that “research” was a sufficient reason to rebut a piece of evidence, as an example 21. The rebutting expressions are underlined.

(20) — The clean air in Woodby does not influence life expectancy despite news reports . —

(21) — According to the Woodby Times article, their air quality increases their life expectancy. There is no research proof on this, so I can’t agree with the claim . —

Interestingly, in a few of the essays the writer rebutted a piece of evidence, and afterward they made a U-turn, proceeding to rationalize, why that evidence could still be valid. Such is the case in example 22. This may indicate hesitancy about their position. In a similar vein, some writers were very unsure about their rebuttal, using word the hardly (example 23). This type of expression can be seen as an interactional hedge, even though in the example 22, the hedge is not expressed with a single word.

(22) — It is worth mentioning, that in according to a rumor in Woodby their air quality is rejuvenating. The air quality is undeniably good, but research has not proven that the high life expectancy could be explained by the air . A good-natured belief about a distinctive quality of air does probably not harm the residents. It could even boost their moral and encourage them to take care of themselves, which would increase the life expectancy. —

(23) — The air quality of Woodby hardly has any significant influence on the life expectancy. According to research there is no essential difference, and residents’ claims are based on individual cases instead of scientifically relevant data. —

Another type of interactional rebuttal was presented by some writers who reasoned via attitudes. For some writers their own opinion was a sufficient reason for rebuttal (example 24). In addition, some writers took an ironic position toward the evidence they were rebutting, as did the writer mentioning “ magical air ” in example 25. While these are not attitude-markers in the sense of linguistic expressions, their aim is similar.

(24) — In Woodby Times there is a claim that the air quality of Woodby could be the reason behind Woodby’s long life expectancy. Of course, it could be beneficial compared with polluted air, but hypothetically I don’t believe it is so much different from Brookdale air . —

(25) — A long life expectancy requires versatile nutrition instead of magical air . —

Contradictory Positions

In contrast to the rebuttals, there was not a lot of variation in the essays with contradictory positions. The lack of variation was probably due to the summarizing nature of these statements. In addition, there was often minimal paraphrasing of the sources.

Typically, in these essays, the writer stated that one of the sources said something that another source opposed (example 26). Sometimes, writers presented more detailed evidence, as an example 27. However, in these cases the wording followed quite closely the original wording in the source documents, indicating problems in paraphrasing (see Hyytinen et al., 2017 ).

(26) — The amount of sleep increases life expectancy according to Smith’s memorandum, but Doctor Dave says otherwise. Need to investigate more. —

(27) — However, there is contradictory information about Woodby region’s air quality. According to local Environmental Services unit, the air is rich in oxygen. In other towns with similar air quality, residents live longer than average. In their research, Woodby University has not found support on the theory about the air quality as the source for longevity, but they agree that the air is very fresh. —

The distinction between a rebuttal and contradictory evidence was mostly straight-forward, but few cases proved challenging. Above in the example 21, the writer had rebutted the evidence citing research. A different wording changes the interpretation. In example 28, the writer cites a source that rebuts the claim instead of rebutting it themselves.

(28) — An article in Woodby Times contemplates on the Woodby air quality as the secret of long life, but the claim is rebutted by a study on the air. —

Using passive voice could also indicate hesitancy as in examples 22 and 23 above, and thus, analysis of such statements is not easy. In the present study, a strict view on explicit position-taking was adopted.

Types of Argumentative Writers

Based on the analysis of variation in presentations of position and alternative positions in students’ essays, we identified that the degree of writer’s presence in the text through their position-taking was a guiding theme across the findings. Therefore, we identified four kinds of writers. Variation in all detected aspects of position-taking was taken in consideration, however, the explicitness of position-taking was found to be the differentiating feature. The process of creating writer groups, and the differentiating features are presented in Figure 1 .

Based on the analysis, we labeled the first group as Writers with strong position . These writers were consistently explicit in their position-taking. In this group, writers took an explicit position toward the evidence, stating an explicit thesis and an explicit rebuttal. Altogether 37 essays represented this group. There was variation in thesis orientation, both types were detected. Likewise, the thesis location varied. In regard to thesis precision, the majority of these essays presented an exact rather than a vague thesis (see example 10 above). Additionally, few of the thesis-statements in this group included hedges, expressing uncertainty. In addition to presenting a thesis, some of these essays also presented local arguments about each theme they discussed. There was more variation in rebuttals in the group. Rebuttal reasoning was varying, some writers presented more comprehensive reasons for their rebuttal than others, and some were more hesitant than others (see examples 19–23). All in all, interactional elements were present in most of the essays in this group. However, interestingly, some writers in this group withheld any other indications of their presence apart from the explicit thesis and the explicit rebuttal.

We labeled the second group as Writers with volatile position . These writers did take an explicit position but were more inconsistent compared to the first group. Writers either presented an explicit thesis or a rebuttal, but not both. Altogether 105 essays represented this group. The majority ( F = 89) of these essays included only a thesis, but interestingly, some essays ( F = 16) presented a rebuttal but not a thesis. Thesis orientation and thesis location varied in these essays just as in the first group. However, there was a difference in thesis precision. There was more vagueness and uncertainty compared to the first group. Half of those essays that presented only a rebuttal, had local arguments (see example 17), indicating that writers were willing to take a position, but they did not do it in a holistic manner as a thesis. The reasoning behind rebuttals were varied just as in the first group. Interestingly, most of the essays in this group that did not present a rebuttal, did not present any contradictory positions either. The presence of interactional elements was varied in this group.

The third group was labeled as Writers with implied position . Instead of being explicit in their position-taking as did writers in the first and second groups, these writers instead showed their presence in their essays using various ways to imply their position. They did not take an explicit position either in the form of a thesis or a rebuttal. Instead, the essays in this group included some interactional elements that implied their association with the evidence. Altogether 30 essays represented this group. Typically, these essays included critique (example 12), commentary or reflective sections (examples 13–14), and first-person expressions (examples 15–16). Approximately half of these essays had some local arguments (see example 17), implying some position toward the evidence. Additionally, about half of the essays in this group presented some contradictory positions.

Finally, the fourth group was labeled as Summarizing writers . These writers did not show their position toward the evidence in their essays, but they instead summarized the source materials, either by document or by theme. In other words, no thesis, no rebuttal, and no interactional elements were detected in the essays. Altogether 24 essays represented this group. The only indications toward their presence may have been the choice of summarized documents: if they thought some evidence was not relevant for the task question, they omitted it. Nevertheless, some of these essays included contradictory evidence (examples 26–27). This showed that at least some of these writers acknowledged the importance of diverse viewpoints.

The present study gives unique insights into novice students basic level argumentative writing that has received little focus in earlier research. Findings show that there is a large variation in novice students’ position-taking. On the bright side, the majority of the students are not entirely clueless about position-taking, but show inclinations to express their viewpoint, which is vital for argumentation. Some guidance by informed teachers might help these students improve their argumentative writing greatly. The findings invite higher education teachers to support novice students in their basic argumentation instead of assuming that they already master all relevant skills.

The findings are in line with earlier studies indicating that some higher education students find aspects of argumentative writing extremely difficult ( Petrić, 2007 ; Laakso et al., 2016 ; Hyytinen et al., 2021b ; Kuhn and Modrek, 2021 ). Most writers in the present study showed some position-taking regarding their supporting evidence, namely they presented a more or less comprehensive, explicit thesis, or at least made local arguments. Some degree of position-taking was detected in all the writer groups, except for Summarizing writers group. The variation in the degree of position-taking was not surprising. Earlier, it has been suggested that Finnish writers are more implicit in their argumentation, compared with Anglo-American writers ( Mauranen, 1993 ). While being implicit is not always a disadvantage, as Mauranen (1993) points out, writers should be aware of requirements and consequences of their texts. Being implicit, namely letting the reader make conclusions, is an efficient way to activate reflectivity in the reader. However, when the writer needs to be sure that the reader comes to the intended conclusion, as in the present study, an explicit thesis-statement is essential. Student writers should learn to be aware of the requirements of each situation. Furthermore, they should learn to be able to identify each situation in order to fulfill its requirements (see Johns, 2008 ). It was expected that novice students would find discussing alternative positions challenging ( Kuhn, 1991 ; Andrews, 2009 ; Wolfe et al., 2009 ; Kuhn and Modrek, 2021 ). However, half of the writers did present some version of an alternative position in their essay, indicating that many of them understood the importance of diverse viewpoints. In fact, the essays with contradictory evidence were detected in all four writer groups, while explicit rebuttals were much less frequent, and were detected only in the Writers with strong position group and few of the essays in the Writers with volatile position group. Writers often incorrectly perceive alternative positions to be a shortcoming for an argument ( Perkins, 1989 ; Wolfe and Britt, 2008 ; Wolfe et al., 2009 ), and learning how diverse viewpoints strengthen the message would benefit most students in all writer groups. Additionally, understanding similarities in position-taking regarding supporting and contradicting evidence could be helpful.

It is worth pointing out that in the present study, students used both initial focus and final focus strategies in their essays. This was surprising, as earlier studies have shown that Finnish writers have a strong preference on the final focus strategy ( Mauranen, 1993 ; Mikkonen, 2010 ). It is possible that the format of the task with a direct question influenced this outcome: initial focus strategy may simply have sprung out of an urgency to respond to the task question. An alternative, intriguing explanation to this finding could be that the globalization and exposure to Anglo-American texts with initial focus may have influenced Finns’ rhetoric preferences. However, further research with up-to-date data needs to be conducted in order to draw such conclusions.

Pedagogical Implications

The present findings invite higher education teachers to focus not only on advanced questions of argument validity but also on basic questions concerning how to build argumentation on a textual level, how to identify requirements in each situation, and how to introduce alternative explanations. All higher education teachers, not just writing teachers, should be aware that not all students have learnt basic argumentation in their prior education. Argumentation is difficult, and students need adequate, explicit guidance that focuses on basics ( Andrews, 2009 ; Wingate, 2012 ; Paldanus, 2020 ). Fortunately, studies show that even small interventions such as tutorials or exposures to multifaceted texts can help students in their argumentative writing ( Wolfe et al., 2009 ; Kuhn and Modrek, 2021 ). For instance, analysis of texts with explicit position-taking and summarizing strategies (see Paldanus, 2020 ), and asking guiding questions about the writer’s position could be helpful (see Wingate, 2012 ). Such small interventions would nudge the Writers with strong position and Writers with volatile position toward stronger argumentation. However, interventions are not a magic bullet. If students have deficiencies in the basics of composition, as did students in the Summarizing writers group, they require more work and guidance. Furthermore, some of the challenges students have in their position-taking may be due to their self-doubt. Novice students—and even senior students—may feel they are not competent in expressing any position ( Ivanič, 1998 ; Andrews, 2009 ; Mendoza et al., 2022 ), and teachers should address such perceptions. Giving more space for discussions and debates would benefit all students in developing their expertise and self-confidence. A vital task of higher education is not only to build expertise but to strengthen the sense of expertise in students.

Co-operation between faculty teachers and writing teachers could be beneficial in integrating learning of argumentation with discipline-specific studies. Supporting students in their position-taking and argumentation has wide-ranging benefits to other generic skills that are needed in higher education. Argumentative skills help in developing students’ critical thinking, academic writing, and overall communicative skills, in addition to supporting knowledge acquisition ( Wingate, 2012 ; Asterhan and Schwarz, 2016 ; Iordanou et al., 2019 ; Kuhn, 2019 ). However, argumentative assignments are not beneficial for learning if students do not receive guidance in the basics of argumentation ( Iordanou et al., 2019 ).

Higher education teachers should be aware that prior education may give little guidance to argumentation and rhetoric ( Andrews, 2009 ). The emphases are culture-specific, and for instance in the Finnish context, the upper secondary education does not focus on such skills ( Marttunen and Laurinen, 2004 ; Mäntynen, 2009 ; Mikkonen, 2010 ; Komppa, 2012 ). The consequence of this shortcoming is that higher education students need even more support in their academic writing, and teachers should not assume that novice students are fully prepared to take on the academic genre.

In the present study, some students did not answer the question prompted in the task, but their response reflected a broader and more generic topic. Earlier research has similar observations. Students may have difficulties in understanding task assignments and what is expected of them ( Bereiter and Scardamalia, 1987 ; Macbeth, 2006 ). Understanding principles of the argumentation is futile if students cannot identify situational requirements ( Swales, 1990 ; Mauranen, 1993 ; Johns, 2008 ). Consequently, teachers across disciplines are encouraged to focus on clear and precise directions when giving assignments. Giving students opportunities to discuss assignment requirements can help in facing novel situations (see Johns, 2008 ).

Methodological Reflections

In the present study, two types of triangulation were used, namely investigator triangulation and theory triangulation ( Denzin, 1970 ), strengthening the findings. In investigator triangulation, multiple researchers participated in the data analysis, ensuring that any alternative interpretations were considered and integrated in the analysis. In theory triangulation, multiple theoretical approaches were integrated, namely pedagogical, linguistic, and philosophical theories. This allowed for a practical approach, to support higher education teachers, and not to limit to one theoretical framework.

In the study design and the implementation of the assessment, some limitations were observed. In future studies, these points need to be addressed. The possible ambiguity of assignments needs to be acknowledged in the future. In the present task, students were prompted to write an essay, which is an ambiguous concept at best (see Johns, 2008 ), and is often associated with study assignments, or exams. While the intention of the task was for the student to take the role of an intern in a city government, the use of the word “essay” may have led some students to associate the assignment with their studies. Such association may have activated a knowledge-display mode instead of argumentative writing (e.g., Bereiter and Scardamalia, 1987 ; Petrić, 2007 ). On the other hand, the task was not a part of students’ real studies, and thus, not assessed as an assignment related to their studies. This may have had influence on students’ motivation and effort they have put to the task. Additionally, students worked under time pressure, having 60 min to complete the task. This may have influenced their performance as they may have run out of time. The time limitation could even discourage students from engaging in complex cognitive processes ( Bereiter and Scardamalia, 1987 ; Paldanus, 2020 ). In future studies of argumentative writing, students should be allowed to take their time, to obtain a realistic picture of their skills. However, working under time pressure may possibly reveal about which skills students can effortlessly use in a tight situation and which skills come less easily to them. In any case, all participants in the present study had the same time constraint. Finally, it is important to recognize that a study of end products, i.e., finished texts, does not tell us about strategies and processes students use while writing the text or decisions they make (e.g., Bereiter and Scardamalia, 1987 ; Hyytinen et al., 2021c ). For instance, based on our findings, we do not know, if the Summarizing writers made a conscious decision about not expressing their position, or if Writers with strong position stumbled across their thesis-statement instead of goal-oriented writing. In future, combining study of texts with cognitive laboratories allowing investigating cognitive processes during writing, would bring a more thorough understanding of argumentative skills and strategies of novice students.

Data Availability Statement

The data analyzed in this study is subject to the following licenses/restrictions: The dataset is not readily available, as it may reveal information that comes under the copyright of the test developer. Requests to access these datasets should be directed to corresponding author.

Ethics Statement

Ethical review and approval was not required for the study on human participants in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. The patients/participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.

Author Contributions

KK contributed to the theoretical background. KK and HH contributed to the data analysis. All authors contributed to writing, and revision of the manuscript, approved the submitted version, and contributed to the design of the study and data collection.

This work was supported by the Finnish Ministry of Education and Culture (Grant Nos. OKM/44/240/2018 and OKM/280/523/2017).

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank the Council for Aid to Education (CAE) for providing the CLA + International, the participating institutions for administering the assessments and recruiting participants and the Kappas project team for their efforts.

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Keywords : argumentative writing, higher education, novice students, generic skills, position

Citation: Kleemola K, Hyytinen H and Toom A (2022) The Challenge of Position-Taking in Novice Higher Education Students’ Argumentative Writing. Front. Educ. 7:885987. doi: 10.3389/feduc.2022.885987

Received: 28 February 2022; Accepted: 21 April 2022; Published: 09 May 2022.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2022 Kleemola, Hyytinen and Toom. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Katri Kleemola, [email protected]

This article is part of the Research Topic

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