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Human Resources Management Theories, Policies and Practices: A Review of Literature

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480) matrix, we empirically explore the state of the art in human resource management (HRM) research. The data were obtained through a questionnaire directed to HRM scholars all over the world, in which they were asked about their particular theoretical and methodological approaches. The evidence obtained shows clearly that HRM scholars are progressively abandoning the universalistic perspective and completing their models with contingent and contextual variables. Trying to classify the different contributions proposed and discuss their integration, HRM is described as a field of research with three dimensions: subfunctional, strategic and international. The paper concludes that to provide reliable explanations and valid responses to professional problems, HRM research must advance simultaneously in these three dimensions. As follows from our analysis, there are certain HR issues that still need to be addressed: (1) the strategic use of HR practices, (2) their international applicability, (3) global HR strategies and (4) the synergic integration of HR activities. Nevertheless, to advance our knowledge in these issues, it seems necessary to integrate previous research in subfunctional, strategic and international aspects of HRM.

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Drawing on Snow and Thomas's (Journal of Management Studies, 31 (1994), pp. 457–480) matrix, we empirically explore the state of the art in human resource management (HRM) research. The data were obtained through a questionnaire directed to HRM scholars all over the world, in which they were asked about their particular theoretical and methodological approaches. The evidence obtained shows clearly that HRM scholars are progressively abandoning the universalistic perspective and completing their models with contingent and contextual variables. Trying to classify the different contributions proposed and discuss their integration, HRM is described as a field of research with three dimensions: subfunctional, strategic and international. The paper concludes that to provide reliable explanations and valid responses to professional problems, HRM research must advance simultaneously in these three dimensions. As follows from our analysis, there are certain HR issues that still need to be addressed: (1) the strategic use of HR practices, (2) their international applicability, (3) global HR strategies and (4) the synergic integration of HR activities. Nevertheless, to advance our knowledge in these issues, it seems necessary to integrate previous research in subfunctional, strategic and international aspects of HRM.

Human Resource Management Theories: Evaluation of their Significance on People Management Practices in Competitive Organisations

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Abstract Human resources are at the centre of management of contemporary organisations in order for them to be both resilient to change and competitive. Managing people requires to be grounded in the attendant theories of Human Resources Management (HRM), hence the concept of Strategic Human Resources Management (SHRM). Whereas theories exist, there has been limited linkage of people management strategies and these theories. The purpose of this paper was to evaluate HRM theories and their significance in HRM in competitive organisation. Eleven (11) HRM theories were evaluated, and their strategic role in HRM documented. In addition, their strengths and weaknesses were also developed. It was concluded that HRM theories are very relevant and essential in SHRM in competitive organisations and all HRM ought to understand their relevance and applicability in people management for their organisations to be competitive. Keywords: human resources, theories, competitive organisations, human resources management

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The research–practice gap in the field of HRM: a qualitative study from the academic side of the gap

• Review Paper
• Published: 15 June 2020
• Volume 15 , pages 1465–1515, ( 2021 )

Cite this article

• Jesús de Frutos-Belizón   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-3194-6910 1 ,
• Fernando Martín-Alcázar 1 &
• Gonzalo Sánchez-Gardey 1  

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9 Citations

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In recent studies, researchers agree that there is a substantial gap between research and practice in the field of human resource management (HRM). The literature exploring the causes and consequences of this gap does not represent a finely structured discourse; it has focused on analysing the gap from the practitioner side, and it is based on opinions and theoretical discussions rather than on empirical evidence. In this paper, we try to shed some light on this so-called “valley of death”. We attempt to identify the causes underlying the disconnect between academics and professionals in our field by drawing on empirical qualitative evidence obtained from interviews with 15 expert academics in the field of HRM. Thus, the approach presented in our work differs from that of the prior literature in that it is focused not on the opinions of individual authors but on the personal experiences of a larger expert sample composed of independent, experienced scholars in the area. Based on in-depth semi-structured interviews, we analyse the factors explaining why academics are not always willing to focus their research on professional needs or orientate their research outputs to the practitioner community.

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Acknowledgement

This study has benefited from financing from the Research Project ECO2014-56580-R of the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitively, and the Research Projects P12-SEJ-1810 from the Andalusia Government (Spain) and PR2016-018 (Research Projects University of Cadiz).

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Department of Business Management, University of Cádiz, Cádiz, Spain

Jesús de Frutos-Belizón, Fernando Martín-Alcázar & Gonzalo Sánchez-Gardey

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• Notes: The academics interviewed appear in alphabetical order. This order is not related to the number assigned to each academic interviewed. All information about the interviewees was obtained through Elsevier’s Scopus database and public information in their CVs
• *The Centre for Performance-led HR (CPHR) at Lancaster has been successful at bringing together world–class academic experts to work with top HR directors to overcome the most pressing issues facing senior HR specialists. It is a unique partnership between Lancaster University Management School and major corporations and was nominated as one of five Outstanding Employer Engagement Initiatives in the 2009 Times Higher Education Awards
• **NIHR Patient Safety Translational Research Centres (PSTRCs) work to pull advances in basic research with potential relevance to patient safety into an applied research setting
• ***The LINK Research Institute, based at Dublin City University Business School, sets out to understand the factors that contribute to successful organisations, both private and public, in Ireland and internationally. The LINK Research Institute enjoys mutually beneficial collaborations with a wide range of organisations. This includes various consulting projects with a wide range of organisations such as: Fáilte Ireland, Enterprise Ireland, The Electricity Supply Board, The Health Service Executive, The Department of Social Protection, Novartis, Intel, Mars, Airbus and Pfizer
• ****The Global Future of World Foundation aims to help Business, Academia and Goverments around the globe to prepare the workforce of the future for a sustainable world by detecting and predicting trends and paradigms for successful transformation ( http://globalfutureofwork.com/ )
• + The Institute for Business Research serves as the hub for externally funded business research within the Broad College of Business, and as part of the Michigan State University (MSU) campus-wide research infrastructure, collaborates with other MSU Colleges/Departments as well as the Offices of Regulatory Affairs, MSU Technology, Sponsored Programs, Business Connect and Contract and Grant Administration
• ++ The People Management Center (PMC) is an organization located with the department of Human Resource Studies at Tilburg University, which serves as a platform for global HR excellence to connect staff and students of the department, TIAS Business School and the business partners in the HR field

Appendix 2: Interview guide

According to your research experience, do you consider that research is individual or collective? What individuals or agents do you collaborate with in the development of your research projects?

Could you say that you have a stable research group? Do you have stable relationships with agents outside the group?

Could you briefly describe how work is normally organized in the research projects in which you participate?

Do you engage with professional partners in the development of research? How was this experience? What difficulties and benefits did you find in these collaborations?

Normally, what motivates your choice of research topics?

Could you specify the different steps of the research processes conducted in your group?

Which of them do you think are more important?

Do you think your research is relevant to the professional community?

Have you ever carried out a research project collaboratively with the professional community?

Do you consider that research in our field must be produced only for academics? Is it considered possible or viable to produce research jointly with the professional community?

How much time would you say that the whole process takes, from the time you have a stimulus to research until the time an output is generated?

What specific steps of the process do you feel are more time-consuming?

Do you usually change your research ideas and initial impressions after contrasting them with the rest of the members of your research team? Do you also do this with non-academic agents?

Does your research group have formal procedures (such as regular meetings) established? Do they incorporate external agents?

Could you say that the group has established routines to develop research activities?

Does your research team have a strong shared culture?

What do you think are the skills, knowledge or experience necessary to carry out a successful academic career? How would you describe a successful researcher in terms of knowledge, skills and experience?

How are these skills distributed in your group? Are there members specialized in some specific activities or phases of the research process?

How would you describe internal relationships within your research team?

Have you ever had communication problems between the members of the unit? How would you describe your communication with external and/or professional agents?

How is your research normally funded?

Do you receive funding from non-academic institutions, such as firms or professional foundations?

How do you think that the prevalent academic culture affects the development of your research?

Could you describe the process through which your research results are disseminated?

What are the criteria used to select the specific means through which research results are disseminated? To what extent do you make use of non-academic or professional channels?

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de Frutos-Belizón, J., Martín-Alcázar, F. & Sánchez-Gardey, G. The research–practice gap in the field of HRM: a qualitative study from the academic side of the gap. Rev Manag Sci 15 , 1465–1515 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11846-020-00397-x

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Received : 27 June 2017

Accepted : 01 June 2020

Published : 15 June 2020

Issue Date : August 2021

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s11846-020-00397-x

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Human Resource Practices and Policies: A Literature Review

This study aims to determine the dimensions of HR Practices and Policies contained in various previous literatures. Journal analysis was carried out using a systematic literature review (SLR) method obtained from Scopus in 2016-2021 following inclusion and exclusion criteria with the keywords HR Policies and Practices in order to obtain 15 journals. The journal articles obtained related to HRM practices and policies were found with various specific topics ranging from age-related HRM, Green HRM, hospitality HRM, Austerity HRM, Gen-Z HRM, Health Workers HRM, HRM Strategy, SR-HRM, Promoting Women to seniors. and HRM in the University. There are various dimensions of HR Practices and Policies categorized on macro, meso and micro measures. Most of the research methods used in the article are qualitative. For future researchers, it is expected to combine quantitative and qualitative approaches to make it more comprehensive with a wider research sample.

Aggarwal, et.al. (2020). Gen Z entering the workforce: Restructuring HR policies and practices for fostering the task performance and organizational commitment. Journal of Public Affairs, hlm. 1–18.

Ahmed, R., & Philbin, S. P. (2021). Systematic literature review of project manager ’ s leadership competencies. 28(1), 1–30.

Aydogan, E. and Arslan, Ö. (2021), “HRM practices and organizational commitment link: Maritime scope”, International Journal of Organizational Analysis, Vol. 29 No. 1, pp. 260-276.

Bagader, A., & Adelhadi, A. (2021). The need to implement green human resource management policies and practice in construction industries. Academy of Strategic Management Journal, 20(SpecialIssue2), 1–7.

Barrena-Martínez, et.al (2019). Towards a configuration of socially responsible human resource management policies and practices: findings from an academic consensus. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 30(17), 2544–2580.

Barrena-Martínez, et.al, (2017). Socially responsible human resource policies and practices: Academic and professional validation. European Research on Management and Business Economics, 23(1), 55–61.

Biswas, K., et.al,. (2017). A mediated model of the effects of human resource management policies and practices on the intention to promote women: An investigation of the theory of planned behaviour. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 28(9), 1309–1331.

Boehm, S. A., et.al, (2021). Age-Related Human Resource Management Policies and Practices: Antecedents, Outcomes, and Conceptualizations. Work, Aging and Retirement, 7(4), 257–272.

Crimmins, G. (2017). Feedback from the coal-face: how the lived experience of women casual academics can inform human resources and academic development policy and practice. International Journal for Academic Development, 22(1), 7–18.

Daft, R. L. (2015). Organization theory and design. Boston: Cengage Learning

DeNisi, & Murphy. (2017), “Performance appraisal and performance management: 100 years of progress?”, Journal ofApplied Psychology, Vol. 102 No. 3, p. 421.

Gaffar, V. (2020). Systematic Literature Review: an Introduction. FPEB Online Discussion.

Hadji, S., et.al (2022). Diagnosing of human resource performance management based on lack of ambidextrous learning themes: a case study of public Iranian banking system. International Journal of Ethics and Systems, ahead-of-p(ahead-of-print).

Kelana, et.al,. (2021). The Effect of HR Sustainability Practice To HR Policy at SMEs Manufacturing in Malaysia. Academy of Entrepreneurship Journal, vol. 27(SpecialIssue 2), 1–5.

Khan, Rasli, & Qureshi. (2017). Greening human resource management: A review policies and practices. Advanced Science Letters, Vol. 23(9), hlm. 8934–8938.

Mohammadi, & Sharifzadeh, F. (2017), “Designing a performance management model with a human resources development approach in the public sector”, Quarterly Journal of Human Resources Training and Development, Vol. 15 No. 4, pp. 133-153

Niati, D. R., Siregar, Z. M. E., & Prayoga, Y. (2021). The Effect of Training on Work Performance and Career Development: The Role of Motivation as Intervening Variable. Budapest International Research and Critics Institute (BIRCI-Journal): Humanities and Social Sciences, 4(2), 2385–2393. https://doi.org/10.33258/birci.v4i2.1940

Onnis, L. ann. (2019). Human resource management policy choices, management practices and health workforce sustainability: remote Australian perspectives. Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources, Vol. 57(1), hlm. 3–23.

Paraschi, & Georgopoulos, A. (2020). Austerity HRM practices, work deterioration and possible recovery policies: A cross-European survey in the airport workplace. Economic and Industrial Democracy, Vol. 41(4), hlm. 860–886.

Serafini & Szamosi. (2021). Variations and differences in the application of HR policies and practices by US hotel multinational firm’s subsidiaries across coordinated and transitional periphery economies: a case approach. International Journal of Human Resource Management, Vol. 32(17), p. 3659–3695.

Shah, M. M., et al. (2020). The Development Impact of PT. Medco E & P Malaka on Economic Aspects in East Aceh Regency. Budapest International Research and Critics Institute-Journal (BIRCI-Journal) Volume 3, No 1, Page: 276-286.

Tsymbaliuk, et.al,. (2021). Green human resource management policies and practices in Ukraine. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, Vol. 915(1).

Upamanyu, & Shivnani, T. (2016). HR policies and practices: A study of Hotel Sarovar Portico and Hotel Fortune Select Metropolitan of Jaipur city. International Journal of Applied Business and Economic Research, Vol.14(No. 12), hlm. 8399–8407.

Wahono, R. S. (2015). A Systematic Literature Review of Software Defect Prediction: Research Trens, Datasets, Methods and Framework. Journal of Software Engineering Vol. 1 (1), 1-16.

Werdhiastutie, A. et al. (2020). Achievement Motivation as Antecedents of Quality Improvement of Organizational Human Resources. Budapest International Research and Critics Institute-Journal (BIRCI-Journal) Volume 3, No 2, Page: 747-752.

Xie & Cooke. (2019). Quality and cost? The evolution of Walmart’s business strategy and human resource policies and practices in China and their impact (1996–2017). Human Resource Management. Vol. 58(No. 5), hlm. 521–541.

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Analysis of human resource management challenges in implementation of industry 4.0 in Indian automobile industry

Top management green commitment and green intellectual capital as enablers of hotel environmental performance: the mediating role of green human resource management, the study of knowledge employee voice among the knowledge-based companies: the case of an emerging economy.

PurposeA review of previous studies on the voices of employees and knowledge workers clarifies that paying attention to employees' voice is critical in human resource management. However, limited studies have been conducted on it, and much less emphasis has been placed compared to other human resource management activities such as human resource planning. Therefore, the voice of knowledge employees has been one of the critical issues that have attracted a great deal of attention recently. Nonetheless, there is no evidence of various comprehensive and integrated voice mechanisms. As a result, this study aims to design knowledge workers' voice patterns in knowledge-based companies specialising in information and communication technology (ICT) in Iran in May and June 2020.Design/methodology/approachThis study is a qualitative grounded theory research. We collected the data from a target sample of 15 experts in knowledge-based ICT companies using in-depth semi-structured interviews. Since all the participants had practised the employee voice process, they were regarded as useful data sources. Data analysis was also performed using three-step coding (open, axial and selective) by Atlas T8, which eventually led to identifying 14 components and 38 selected codes. We placed identified components in a paradigm model, including Personality Characteristics, Job Factors, Economic Factors, Cultural Factors, Organisational Policies, Organisational Structure, Climate Of Voice in the Organisation, Management Factors, Emotional Events, Communications and Networking, Contrast and Conflict and, etc. Then, the voice pattern of the knowledge staff was drawn.FindingsThe results showed that constructive knowledge voice influences the recognition of environmental opportunities and, additionally, it helps the competitive advantages among the employees. By forming the concept of knowledge staff voice, it can be concluded that paying attention to knowledge staff voice leads to presenting creative solutions to do affairs in critical situations. The presentation of these solutions by knowledge workers results in the acceptance of environmental changes, recognition and exploitation of new chances and ideas, and sharing experiences in Iranian knowledge-based companies.Practical implicationsStrengthening and expanding the voice of employees in knowledge-oriented companies can pave the way to growth and development towards a higher future that prevents the waste of tangible and intangible assets.Originality/valueCompanies' ability to engage in knowledge workers is a vital factor in human resource management and strategic management. However, the employee voice has not been involved integrally in the context of corporate.

Achieving Human Resource Management Sustainability in Universities

The sustainability of human resource management (HRM) is the basis for an organization’s future growth and success. This study aims to investigate achieving HRM sustainability in universities. We use a quantitative research method design to investigate the factors that affect HRM sustainability at universities. The study was conducted during the spring and summer of 2020 at Iranian state universities. As the study’s statistical population included 2543 employees, a sample size of 334 employees was calculated using the Cochran formula. A questionnaire with 32 statements based on a 5-point Likert scale was used to collect the data, which were analyzed using PLS3 software. The findings show that human resource practices, social factors, psychological factors, employer branding, and economic factors have positive and significant effects on HRM sustainability at universities. Findings indicate that it is essential to consider the implementation of adequate HRM practices and related socio-economic and psychological supports for HRM sustainability in universities that can lead to the competitiveness of the higher education institutions such as universities.

Relationship Model between Human Resource Management Activities and Performance Based on LMBP Algorithm

The research on the relationship between human resource management activities and performance is an important topic of enterprise human resource management research. There are some errors between the relationship between human resource management activities and performance and the real situation, so it is impossible to accurately predict the performance fluctuation. Therefore, the relationship model between human resource management activities and performance based on the LMBP algorithm is constructed. Using the Levenberg–Marquardt (LM) algorithm and BP (back-propagation) neural network algorithm to establish a new LMBP algorithm, control the convergence of the new algorithm, optimize the accuracy of the algorithm, and then apply the LMBP algorithm to predict the risk of performance fluctuation under human resource management activities of enterprises, the indicators of human resource management activities of enterprises are determined, to complete the mining of enterprise performance data, the grey correlation analysis is combined, and the relationship model between human resource management activities and performance is built. The experimental samples are selected from CSMAR database, and the simulation experiment is designed. Using different algorithms to forecast the fluctuation of enterprise performance, the experimental results show that the LMBP algorithm can more accurately reflect the relationship between enterprise HRM and performance.

Inclusive human resource management in freelancers' employment relationships: The role of organizational needs and freelancers' psychological contracts

Student leadership programme: igniting the young minds.

Learning outcomes This case will help students to understand the following: Develop a basic understanding of competency building processes. Learn about the mentoring process and its application in leadership development. Develop awareness about the methodology for assessment of the effectiveness of training. Case overview/synopsis Dr A. R. K. Pillai founded the Indian Leprosy Foundation in 1970 in response to the national call by late Mrs Indira Gandhi, prime minister of India, to the public-spirited people to take up leprosy eradication. It collaborated with international agencies to reduce leprosy drastically in India from four million, in 1982 to around a hundred thousand cases in 2006. In 2006, the Indian Leprosy Foundation was renamed as Indian Development Foundation (IDF) as the trustees decided to expand the work of IDF in the areas of health, children’s education and women’s empowerment. Dr Narayan Iyer, Chief Executive Officer (CEO) of IDF initiated a leadership development intervention called the Students’ leadership programme (SLP) for children in the age group of 12 to 14, from the urban poor households in 2014. It was a structured mentoring programme spanning over three months in collaboration with the schools. It aimed at incubating skills in the areas of leadership, teamwork, personality, behavioural traits and provided career guidance. It had a humble beginning in 2014 with a coverage of 50 students. Initially, IDF welcomed executives from the corporate sector as mentors. As there was a need to rapidly expand the scope of SLP to the other cities of India, IDF tied up with the graduate colleges and invited the students to be the mentors. The other objective behind this move was to create social awareness among the students from more affluent strata of society. IDF was able to dramatically increase the participation of the students through SLP by approximately up to 100,000 by 2020. However, rapid progress threw up multiple challenges. The teachers complained about the non-availability of the students for regular classes to teach the syllabus as the students were busy with SLP. The schools forced IDF to shorten the duration of SLP to two months. Also, many undergraduate mentors were unable to coach the participants due to lack of maturity and found wanting to strike a rapport with them. There was a shortage of corporate executives who volunteered for the mentoring, due to work pressures. Dr Narayan, CEO & National Coordinator and Ms Mallika Ramchandran, the project head of SLP at IDF, were worried about the desired impact of SLP on the participants and its sustainability due to these challenges. So, with the support of Dr Narayan, she initiated a detailed survey to assess the ground-level impact of SLP. The objective was to get clarity about what was working for SLP and what aspects needed to improve, to make the programme more effective. Overall feedback from the survey was very positive. The mothers had seen very positive changes in the participants’ behaviour post-SLP. The teachers had specific concerns about the effectiveness of undergraduate mentors. The need for a refresher course to inculcate ethical behaviour and the inadequacy of the two-month duration of the SLP to reinforce values were highlighted. Respondents also voiced the requirement to build responsible citizenship behaviours among the participants. Mallika was all for preparing a model to further enhance the effectiveness of SLP. Dr Narayan and Mallika embraced the challenge and they were raring to go to develop SLP as a cutting-edge leadership programme and to take it to new heights. Complexity academic level This case can be used in courses on human resource management in postgraduate and graduate management programmes. It can also be used in the general and development management courses and during executive education programmes to teach methodologies for evaluating the effectiveness of the training interventions, with emphasis on the voluntary sector. Supplementary materials Teaching notes are available for educators only. Subject code CSS 6: Human Resource Management.

Sustainable human resource management: six defining characteristics

Socially responsible human resource management and employee ethical voice: roles of employee ethical self‐efficacy and organizational identification, feasibility of implementing the human resource payroll management system based on cloud computing.

PurposeThe present study is descriptive research in terms of purpose, descriptive analysis in terms of nature and cross-sectional research in terms of time. The study’s statistical population includes all employees and managers of the China City Organization selected as sample members using random sampling method and Krejcie table of 242 people. The questionnaire was modified and revised based on the goals, tasks and mission of the target organization to collect information. In data analysis, due to the normality of data distribution, the structural equation modeling method is used to evaluate the causal model, reliability and validity of the measurement model. Evaluation and validation of the model are done through the structural equation model. Questionnaire-based model and data are analyzed using Smart PLS 3.0. The main purpose of this study is to assess the feasibility of implementing the human resource payroll management system based on cloud computing technology.Design/methodology/approachNew technologies require innovative approaches for creating valuable opportunities in an organization to integrate the physical flows of goods and services and financial information. Today, cloud computing is an emerging mechanism for high-level computing as a storage system. It is used to connect to network hosts, infrastructure and applications and provide reliable services. Due to advances in this field, cloud computing is used to perform operations related to human resources. The role, importance and application of cloud computing in human resource management, such as reducing the cost of hardware and information software in hiring, job planning, employee selection, employee socialization, payroll, employee performance appraisal, rewards, etc., is raised. This way, human resource management teams can easily view resumes, sort candidates and observe and analyze their performance. Cloud computing is effective in implementing human resource payroll management systems. Therefore, the primary purpose of this study is to assess the feasibility of implementing the human resource payroll management system based on cloud computing technology.FindingsTesting the research hypotheses shows that the dimension desirability of ability and acceptance is provided in dimensions related to the minimum conditions required to implement cloud computing technology in the organization. For this reason, the feasibility of implementing the systems based on cloud computing in companies must be considered.Research limitations/implicationsThis study also has some limitations that need to be considered in evaluating the results. The study is limited to one region. It cannot be assured that the factors examined in other areas are effective. The research design for this study is a cross-sectional study. It represents the static relationship between the variables. Since cross-sectional data from variable relationships are taken at a single point in time, they are collected in other periods. As a proposal, future researchers intend to investigate the impact of Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) systems based on cloud computing.Practical implicationsThe research also includes companies, departments and individuals associated with systems based on cloud computing.Originality/valueIn this paper, the feasibility of implementing the human resource payroll management system based on cloud computing is pointed out, and the approach to resolve the problem is applied to a practical example. The presented model in this article provides a complete framework to investigate the feasibility of implementing the human resource payroll management system based on cloud computing.

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Scientific Consensus

It’s important to remember that scientists always focus on the evidence, not on opinions. Scientific evidence continues to show that human activities ( primarily the human burning of fossil fuels ) have warmed Earth’s surface and its ocean basins, which in turn have continued to impact Earth’s climate . This is based on over a century of scientific evidence forming the structural backbone of today's civilization.

NASA Global Climate Change presents the state of scientific knowledge about climate change while highlighting the role NASA plays in better understanding our home planet. This effort includes citing multiple peer-reviewed studies from research groups across the world, 1 illustrating the accuracy and consensus of research results (in this case, the scientific consensus on climate change) consistent with NASA’s scientific research portfolio.

With that said, multiple studies published in peer-reviewed scientific journals 1 show that climate-warming trends over the past century are extremely likely due to human activities. In addition, most of the leading scientific organizations worldwide have issued public statements endorsing this position. The following is a partial list of these organizations, along with links to their published statements and a selection of related resources.

American Scientific Societies

Statement on climate change from 18 scientific associations.

"Observations throughout the world make it clear that climate change is occurring, and rigorous scientific research demonstrates that the greenhouse gases emitted by human activities are the primary driver." (2009) 2

American Association for the Advancement of Science

"Based on well-established evidence, about 97% of climate scientists have concluded that human-caused climate change is happening." (2014) 3

American Chemical Society

"The Earth’s climate is changing in response to increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases (GHGs) and particulate matter in the atmosphere, largely as the result of human activities." (2016-2019) 4

American Geophysical Union

"Based on extensive scientific evidence, it is extremely likely that human activities, especially emissions of greenhouse gases, are the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century. There is no alterative explanation supported by convincing evidence." (2019) 5

American Medical Association

"Our AMA ... supports the findings of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s fourth assessment report and concurs with the scientific consensus that the Earth is undergoing adverse global climate change and that anthropogenic contributions are significant." (2019) 6

American Meteorological Society

"Research has found a human influence on the climate of the past several decades ... The IPCC (2013), USGCRP (2017), and USGCRP (2018) indicate that it is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-twentieth century." (2019) 7

American Physical Society

"Earth's changing climate is a critical issue and poses the risk of significant environmental, social and economic disruptions around the globe. While natural sources of climate variability are significant, multiple lines of evidence indicate that human influences have had an increasingly dominant effect on global climate warming observed since the mid-twentieth century." (2015) 8

The Geological Society of America

"The Geological Society of America (GSA) concurs with assessments by the National Academies of Science (2005), the National Research Council (2011), the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2013) and the U.S. Global Change Research Program (Melillo et al., 2014) that global climate has warmed in response to increasing concentrations of carbon dioxide (CO2) and other greenhouse gases ... Human activities (mainly greenhouse-gas emissions) are the dominant cause of the rapid warming since the middle 1900s (IPCC, 2013)." (2015) 9

Science Academies

International academies: joint statement.

"Climate change is real. There will always be uncertainty in understanding a system as complex as the world’s climate. However there is now strong evidence that significant global warming is occurring. The evidence comes from direct measurements of rising surface air temperatures and subsurface ocean temperatures and from phenomena such as increases in average global sea levels, retreating glaciers, and changes to many physical and biological systems. It is likely that most of the warming in recent decades can be attributed to human activities (IPCC 2001)." (2005, 11 international science academies) 1 0

U.S. National Academy of Sciences

"Scientists have known for some time, from multiple lines of evidence, that humans are changing Earth’s climate, primarily through greenhouse gas emissions." 1 1

U.S. Government Agencies

U.s. global change research program.

"Earth’s climate is now changing faster than at any point in the history of modern civilization, primarily as a result of human activities." (2018, 13 U.S. government departments and agencies) 12

Intergovernmental Bodies

Intergovernmental panel on climate change.

“It is unequivocal that the increase of CO 2 , methane, and nitrous oxide in the atmosphere over the industrial era is the result of human activities and that human influence is the principal driver of many changes observed across the atmosphere, ocean, cryosphere, and biosphere. “Since systematic scientific assessments began in the 1970s, the influence of human activity on the warming of the climate system has evolved from theory to established fact.” 1 3-17

Other Resources

List of worldwide scientific organizations.

The following page lists the nearly 200 worldwide scientific organizations that hold the position that climate change has been caused by human action. http://www.opr.ca.gov/facts/list-of-scientific-organizations.html

U.S. Agencies

The following page contains information on what federal agencies are doing to adapt to climate change. https://www.c2es.org/site/assets/uploads/2012/02/climate-change-adaptation-what-federal-agencies-are-doing.pdf

Technically, a “consensus” is a general agreement of opinion, but the scientific method steers us away from this to an objective framework. In science, facts or observations are explained by a hypothesis (a statement of a possible explanation for some natural phenomenon), which can then be tested and retested until it is refuted (or disproved).

As scientists gather more observations, they will build off one explanation and add details to complete the picture. Eventually, a group of hypotheses might be integrated and generalized into a scientific theory, a scientifically acceptable general principle or body of principles offered to explain phenomena.

1. K. Myers, et al, "Consensus revisited: quantifying scientific agreement on climate change and climate expertise among Earth scientists 10 years later", Environmental Research Letters Vol.16 No. 10, 104030 (20 October 2021); DOI:10.1088/1748-9326/ac2774 M. Lynas, et al, "Greater than 99% consensus on human caused climate change in the peer-reviewed scientific literature", Environmental Research Letters Vol.16 No. 11, 114005 (19 October 2021); DOI:10.1088/1748-9326/ac2966 J. Cook et al., "Consensus on consensus: a synthesis of consensus estimates on human-caused global warming", Environmental Research Letters Vol. 11 No. 4, (13 April 2016); DOI:10.1088/1748-9326/11/4/048002 J. Cook et al., "Quantifying the consensus on anthropogenic global warming in the scientific literature", Environmental Research Letters Vol. 8 No. 2, (15 May 2013); DOI:10.1088/1748-9326/8/2/024024 W. R. L. Anderegg, “Expert Credibility in Climate Change”, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences Vol. 107 No. 27, 12107-12109 (21 June 2010); DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1003187107 P. T. Doran & M. K. Zimmerman, "Examining the Scientific Consensus on Climate Change", Eos Transactions American Geophysical Union Vol. 90 Issue 3 (2009), 22; DOI: 10.1029/2009EO030002 N. Oreskes, “Beyond the Ivory Tower: The Scientific Consensus on Climate Change”, Science Vol. 306 no. 5702, p. 1686 (3 December 2004); DOI: 10.1126/science.1103618

2. Statement on climate change from 18 scientific associations (2009)

3. AAAS Board Statement on Climate Change (2014)

4. ACS Public Policy Statement: Climate Change (2016-2019)

5. Society Must Address the Growing Climate Crisis Now (2019)

6. Global Climate Change and Human Health (2019)

7. Climate Change: An Information Statement of the American Meteorological Society (2019)

8. American Physical Society (2021)

9. GSA Position Statement on Climate Change (2015)

10. Joint science academies' statement: Global response to climate change (2005)

11. Climate at the National Academies

12. Fourth National Climate Assessment: Volume II (2018)

13. IPCC Fifth Assessment Report, Summary for Policymakers, SPM 1.1 (2014)

14. IPCC Fifth Assessment Report, Summary for Policymakers, SPM 1 (2014)

15. IPCC Sixth Assessment Report, Working Group 1 (2021)

16. IPCC Sixth Assessment Report, Working Group 2 (2022)

17. IPCC Sixth Assessment Report, Working Group 3 (2022)

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Computer Science > Human-Computer Interaction

Title: a design space for intelligent and interactive writing assistants.

Abstract: In our era of rapid technological advancement, the research landscape for writing assistants has become increasingly fragmented across various research communities. We seek to address this challenge by proposing a design space as a structured way to examine and explore the multidimensional space of intelligent and interactive writing assistants. Through a large community collaboration, we explore five aspects of writing assistants: task, user, technology, interaction, and ecosystem. Within each aspect, we define dimensions (i.e., fundamental components of an aspect) and codes (i.e., potential options for each dimension) by systematically reviewing 115 papers. Our design space aims to offer researchers and designers a practical tool to navigate, comprehend, and compare the various possibilities of writing assistants, and aid in the envisioning and design of new writing assistants.

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