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• Published: 23 August 2021

The reinvention of potato

• Martin Mascher 1 , 2 ,
• Murukarthick Jayakodi 1 &
• Nils Stein   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3011-8731 1 , 3  

Cell Research volume  31 ,  pages 1144–1145 ( 2021 ) Cite this article

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• Genomic analysis
• Plant molecular biology

True-seed potato has been the holy grail of potato breeding for decades; genetic improvement, notably resistance breeding, has lagged behind in this vegetatively propagated, polyploid staple crop. A recent study by Zhang et al. in Cell shows how genomics can greatly expedite the transition from tuber to seed crop and boost yields by growing F1 hybrids of custom-made inbred lines developed from plant genetic resources.

“Mom” and “Dad” are the first words a child learns, and it is understood that mother and father are separate entities. Most plant species reproduce sexually like us, but many of them can self-fertilize so that their offspring have only one parent. Repeated self-fertilization leads to inbreeding, i.e, the fixation of all alleles in homozygous state. Inbreeding has been favored by early farmers, presumably because it helped fix and maintain recessive domestication traits, most of which, such as loss of seed or fruit dehiscence and adaptation to new photoperiod regimes, involved novel, recessive mutations. 1

Many of the world’s leading crops are inbreeders, such as rice, wheat, and soybean. However, geneticists have known for more than a century that the offspring of two inbred lines outperforms its parents, often to quite a spectacular degree. The reasons for this hybrid vigor (also known as heterosis) have remained elusive, but may include the complementation of recessive deleterious alleles and the additive action of dominant beneficial alleles. 2 Plant breeders have combined the best of both worlds: rapid and durable fixation of alleles by inbreeding and heterosis by judicious selection of heterotic groups of inbred lines to pair in crosses (Fig.  1 ). The six-fold yield increases in maize in the 20th century are in large part due to the development of hybrid breeding to supersede open-pollinated landraces. 3 The development of hybrid rice by the late Longping Yuan made him a national hero in China and helped safe-guard global food security. 4

It can take scientists decades to set up all the prerequisites for hybrid breeding and to translate them into applied breeding. After the discovery of diploid potatoes in the 1970s, progress towards hybrid potato has been stalled for decades. With the help of genomics, Sanwen Huang and co-workers were able to develop plant genetic resources into heterotic inbred lines within two years. The examples of rice and maize show that once all the tools are in place, hybrids take over rapidly. We wonder whether we will eat French fries from hybrid potato by 2030.

It is obvious then to ask: can we turn all crops into hybrids? Scientists have figured out some of the prerequisites of hybrid breeding, e.g., the development of so-called heterotic groups of complementary inbred lines. 5 At first glance, potato ( Solanum tuberosum L.) may seem an unlikely target for a hybrid crop. Commercial potato varieties are self-incompatible, meaning that the development of heterotic groups of inbred lines from elite varieties is not possible. Moreover, potato is autotetraploid, combining in one nucleus four sets of freely recombining chromosomes, complicating the fixation of beneficial alleles. 6 However, these challenges made the prospect of true-seed potato only more alluring. 7 As there are no pure-breeding lines, farmers plant tubers that are clones of a few commercially grown varieties, some of which have been in use for decades. Since pathogen populations have long adapted to these varieties, potato yields can only be maintained by generous application of pesticides.

Sanwen Huang and colleagues were not deterred by the intricacies of potato genetics and genomics. They devised a clever combination of plant genetic resources, traditional genetics, modern genome sequencing to put the design of potato hybrids on a rational basis, fast-tracking it at the same time. Their four-step pipeline from heterozygous plant genetic resource to high-yield hybrid is described in a recent Cell paper by Zhang et al. 8 and works as follows. First, Zhang et al. selected four diverse diploid clones from genebanks carrying self-compatibility factors. 9 , 10 The genomes of these four clones were sequenced and the number of deleterious mutations was counted. Zhang et al. settled on two clones, named PG6359 and E86-69, to feed them into the second step of their pipeline: finding the most promising selfers. Albeit self-compatible and harboring fewer deleterious variants than others, the selected clones were still highly heterozygous, masking most recessive deleterious alleles, which would manifest themselves as weak or infertile selfed progeny. Zhang et al. scanned the genomes of selfed progeny for their selected regions where one parental allele is much more prevalent than expected by chance, pinpointing regions where the other parent carries a deleterious allele. One notable obstacle they encountered was a previously unknown large-effect deleterious allele tightly linked to the desirable Y allele conferring yellow, nutritional tuber flesh. Thanks to frequent recombination on the chromosome harboring both genes, Zhang et al. found progeny that carried Y , but lacked the deleterious allele. After 2–4 generations of selfing in the most promising inbreeders, success was ascertained by genome sequencing and highly homozygous lines were chosen for the fourth and final step. F 1 hybrids were developed by crossing two of their custom-made inbred lines and their vigor was assessed in the field and the greenhouse. Mini-tubers harvested from F 1 were grown in small plots. The best of them outyielded its parents by > 3-fold. More importantly, the projected per-hectare yield of the diploid hybrids (40 t/ha) was very close to that of China’s leading tetraploid potato variety Lishu 6 (45 t/ha). And to share with our readers one candid detail that is not in the paper: Dr. Huang ensured us in a lecture given at our institute that the hybrid tubers tasted most deliciously. That is an impressive achievement accomplished in a short time frame (Fig.  1 ); yet, there is still room for improvement: the self-compatible F 1 hybrid developed too many fruits, compromising tuber yield. And of course, the genetic innovation has yet to reach the farmers.

The Zhang et al. paper is among the most thought-provoking plant genetics papers of the last decade. First of all, it is a breeder’s tale about reinventing potato as a hybrid seed crop. However, the Zhang et al. paper is not only a potato paper; its implications reach far beyond this species. Potato shares its ‘bad’ habits (from a breeder’s perspective) of outcrossing and high heterozygosity with many other crop species. Can we use the potato pipeline to turn other tuber crops like cassava and yam or even long-lived fruit trees into hybrid seed crops? Can genomics help find genetic resources to create new heterotic groups in established hybrid crops such as maize and rice?

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Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (IPK) Gatersleben, Seeland, Germany

Martin Mascher, Murukarthick Jayakodi & Nils Stein

German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (iDiv) Halle-Jena-Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany

Martin Mascher

Center for Integrated Breeding Research (CiBreed), Georg-August-University Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany

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Mascher, M., Jayakodi, M. & Stein, N. The reinvention of potato. Cell Res 31 , 1144–1145 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41422-021-00542-5

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Potato Research

The  European Association for Potato Research  (EAPR) publishes a journal,  Potato Research , which includes original scientific contributions on both fundamental and applied research on potatoes, review articles and topics of general interest. It also contains Association news and reports on section meetings (including abstracts of papers presented). A volume of the Journal (usually approximately 450 pages), consists of four issues, published in the same year. Submission of manuscripts is exclusively online via a web-based electronic submission and tracking system available at  https://www.editorialmanager.com/potr

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Understanding the significance of weather and soil microclimate for improvement of potato yield using substor and statistical models.

Potato ( Solanum tuberosum ) production at subtropical latitude is highly influenced by varying weather and soil microclimate. There is a need to quantify the requirement of key weather and soil climatic variables during the critical growth stages of potato. The present investigation was carried out to study the effect of varying weather and soil microclimatic factors during critical growth stages on potato yield in the subtropical climate. Field experiments were conducted in 2018–2019 and 2019–2020 at Kharagpur, India, to determine the relationship between key weather as well as soil microclimate factors and potato tuber yield. The experimental data were used for validation of the crop model DSSAT-SUBSTOR-Potato and simulation of potato tuber yield for varying weather. The effects of three weather variables, i.e. maximum temperature ( T max), minimum temperature ( T min), and solar radiation ( S rad), and two soil variables, i.e. soil moisture (SM) content and soil temperature (ST), on potato yield were assessed through regression analysis. During the ‘Emergence to tuber initiation’ stage, the factors T max, S rad, and SM and during ‘Tuber initiation to maturity’ stage, the factors S rad and SM had significant effects ( p  ≤ 0.05) on potato production. The optimum values of T max were 17.58 (± 1.97) and 27.39 (± 0.9) °C; S rad values were 14.28 (± 2.03) and 19.32 (± 1.96) MJ m−2 day−1; and SM values were 21.79 (± 2.35) and 21.77 (± 1.74) % during ‘emergence to tuber initiation’ and ‘tuber initiation to maturity’ stages, respectively, for increased potato production. The results stated the need for an optimum planting window for providing favourable weather and soil microclimate for potato production in subtropical climate.

Evaluation of the Thermo-tolerance Effect on Cell Suspension Culture in Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.)

In this study, the effect of heat stress pretreatment factors on cell suspension culture of potato was investigated. The duration of stress pretreatment at 5–50 °C for 20 min was evaluated by measuring cell growth and viability using the trypan blue exclusion method. Data were collected by measuring the dry weight of suspended cells, duration of heat stress, growth, and biomass content at the respective time points. Cell viability was negatively affected by 85 to 25% after pretreatment with heat stress between 35 and 50 °C. However, suspended cells exposed to 30 °C and 35 °C during the recovery period began to regain viability at 75% and 69%, respectively, after 55 h. In suspended cells treated at 40 °C or high temperatures, a complete decrease in cell viability was observed, resulting in no recovery of growth. In potato cell suspension cultures, heat treatments at 40 °C or above for 20 min not only have an immediate effect on cell viability, but also lead to subsequent cell death. Effective viability tests showed the natural heat tolerance of potato plants in cell suspension cultures. The basic parameters of cellular response to heat determined in this study will be helpful in selecting heat-tolerant potato varieties by establishing in vitro cell suspension cultures.

Enhancing Cadmium Stress Tolerance in Potato Plants Through Overexpression of the VvWRKY2 Transcription Factor

WRKY transcription factors (TF) are identified as important regulating plant proteins involved in stress response signaling pathways. Overexpression of these transcription factors in plants improved plant biotic and abiotic stress responses. In this context, we have envisaged transferring a cDNA encoding the grapevine VvWRKY2 TF in potato plants. Four transgenic lines were selected (BFW2A, BFW2C, BFW2D, and BFW2F). In the present study, their response to Cadmium (Cd) stress (50, 100, 150, and 300 μM) was evaluated in vitro. Cadmium is recognized as being among the most harmful heavy metals to plants. Its accumulation in plant cells and tissues disturbs cell homeostasis and causes numerous metabolic damages that affect productivity. The wildtype (WT) plants from the BF15 potato variety and the transgenic plants overexpressing VvWRKY2 TF were submitted to cadmium in vitro stress for 20 days. Plant growth and oxidative stress parameters were followed in these plants. All transgenic plants appeared more vigorous than WT. The BFW2A, BFW2C, and BFW2D lines showed better stem development rates than the WT and BFW2F lines. Malondialdehyde (MDA) production in both roots and leaves was reduced in BFW2A, BFW2C, and BFW2D plants as compared to BFW2F and WT plants. This result was associated with the best antioxidant activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) displayed by these genetically modified lines suggesting their better adaptation to Cd stress conditions. Cd accumulation in plant tissues was investigated, and higher levels of Cd were found in transgenic plants than in WT plants. These findings point to a functional Cd sequestration mechanism in the roots of transgenic plants expressing VvWRKY2 . These findings imply that the VvWRKY2 TF is implicated in heavy metal response signaling processes. Its overexpression in plants may be an efficient strategy to reduce the negative effects of Cd stress, promoting the growth patterns and the activity of reactive oxygen species-scavenging enzymes in potato plants.

Graphical Abstract

Evolution of indian frozen french fry industry: industrial constraints, challenges and future prospects.

Frozen food industry is gaining momentum in the developing world. Rapid urbanisation and the expansion of the fast food industry have greatly contributed to the significant expansion of India's potato processing sector, particularly in relation to the popular and fast-selling food item, French fries. Despite being the world's second-largest producer of potatoes, India processes only a small fraction, approximately 0.6%, of its total potato production into frozen French fries. In contrast, industrialised countries typically process over 80% of their potato harvest into frozen French fries. Current consumption patterns and preferences indicate that there is significant potential for further expansion in the Indian frozen French fry industry. According to an analysis of the Indian Agri-processing industry, the future demand for processing potatoes is projected to be highest for French fries, with a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 11.6% followed by dehydrated potato flakes (7.6% CAGR) and potato crisps (4.5% CAGR). Factors limiting industry expansion mainly include technical challenges (availability of poor quality seed; limited genetic base for the development of new varieties; prevalent diseases like late blight) and natural resource constraints (declining water tables associated with unpredictable and reduced rainfall). The primary issue facing the industry is consistent and assured supply of high-quality raw materials. This review describes the scenario of the Indian potato processing industry, developments in the frozen French fry industry in terms of market trends, new cultivars and technology. It also tackles concerns and highlights areas for enhancing and establishing a sustainable processing industry.

Correction to: Forecasting Potato Production in Major South Asian Countries: a Comparative Study of Machine Learning and Time Series Models

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• v.6(6); 2018 Sep

Utilization of potato peel as eco‐friendly products: A review

Haftom yemane gebrechristos.

1 Institute of Food Science and Technology CAAS, Beijing, China

Weihua Chen

2 Key Laboratory of Agro‐products Quality and Safety Control in Storage and Transport Process, Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing, China

An eco‐friendly product has been the primary agenda of twenty‐first century of the global scientists. One of the main focuses is by‐product recycling of food processing industries. It has been long time since food industry byproduct converted into energy and value added products. Potato processing is newly emerging food processing factories in developing countries, and potato is the fourth important crop globally. A dramatic food demand increment had shown in the past two decades. This leads to increase the number of food processing industries. Nowadays, food processing industries particularly processed potato manufactures are expanding and generate a huge volume of potato peel. This by‐product causes environmental pollution due to decomposition. However, food byproducts like potato peel have essential organic matter. So this review introduces the potential use of potato peel as food preservative, pharmaceutical ingredient, renewable energy, and animal feed to promote eco‐friendly food industries.

1. INTRODUCTION

In food processing industries, environmentally friendly solution for food by‐products is yet to found and is under investigation (Arapoglou, Varzakas, Vlyssides, & Israilides, 2010 ). On a global basis, potato is the fourth most important food crop following rice, wheat, and corn (Stearns, Petry, & Krause, 1994 ). Potato popularly known as “the king of vegetables” because it grows in more than 100 countries (Bhajantri, 2008 ). In developing countries, potato production has increased at an average rate of five percent per year. Currently the total share of developing countries to global potato production rose from 20% to 52%. This is a remarkable achievement, considering the past two decades (FAO, 2008 ).

Due to increasing urban populations and rising incomes of people living in developing country, the demand for processed food is dramatically increased (Maria & Freire, 2010 ). Potato Chips are the most common food processed potato product which produce a large amount of potato peel as by‐product (Stearns et al., 1994 ). Potato peel is a zero value by‐product, which occurs in huge amounts after processing. Depending on the peeling method used, it ranges from 15 to 40% of the first product mass (Sepelev & Galoburda, 2015 ).

In food processing industries, the most common cause of environmental pollution is associated with organic wastes decomposition. The decomposition occurs when bacterial and other biological forms use the compounds as a source of food (Pailthorp, Filbert, & Richter, 1987 ). To avoid such problem, use of potato waste as an antioxidant in food systems due to its high phenol content is mandatory (Sepelev & Galoburda, 2015 ). Phenolic compounds of potato peel synthesized by potato plant for protection from bacteria, fungi, viruses, and insects (Akyol, Riciputi, Capanoglu, Caboni, & Verardo, 2016 ).

Therefore, potato waste causes much impact on environmental pollution and unwanted cost loss potato processing industries so identifying an integrated, environmentally friendly solution is prompt and essential. Due to multifunctional nature of potato peel, this review carried out to promote eco‐friendly use of potato peel in food processing industries.

2. MATERIALS AND METHODS

In this review paper, 45 journals have been reviewed 70% of the journals were direct on potato peel‐related research works and the 30% of them used as indirect advice for the review basically on food waste management in particular on vegetable wastes. Generally recent available literature on potato waste and its organic nature reviewed with a specific aim on industrial applications and narrated as an option for environmentally friendly product in food processing industries.

3. UTILIZATION OF POTATO PEEL

3.1. food preservation.

Synthetic food preservatives could be used alone or in combination with natural preservatives both synthetic and natural antioxidants been used in food industry; however, application of synthetics preservatives has potential carcinogenic effects but use of natural preservatives alone has a better advantage for human health with low side effect. As a result, attention has being given to vegetable waste with rich source phenols (Sonia, Mini, & Geethalekshmi, 2016 ; Tiwari et al., 2009 ). Phenolic compound is found ubiquitously in plants and is of noticeable interest due to their antioxidant and antimicrobial properties (Pezeshk, Ojagh, & Alishahi, 2015 ).

Food processing industries generate phenolic‐rich vegetable by‐products, and this has been an area of research investigations as a sources of antioxidants and antimicrobial for food preservation (Pezeshk et al., 2015 ). The entire tissue of fruits and vegetables is rich in bioactive compounds or phenols but the by‐products have higher contents of antioxidant (Sonia et al., 2016 ). Due to the suspected long‐term negative health effect, use of synthetic antioxidants and antibacterial on food has become a common concern of consumer safety. Therefore, the food industry has enforced to seek natural alternatives food preservative. Potato peel is one of the most important waste products with sufficient amount of phenolic compound so this could be used as a replacement for the current synthetic antioxidant and antimicrobial.

3.1.1. Antioxidant

Antioxidants inhibit oxidation of lipids in foods and consumption of high concentration synthetic antioxidant has carcinogenic effect unlike the natural antioxidants (Thorat et al., 2013 ). The antioxidant activity of potato peel extracts has strong radical scavenging ability and prevents oxidation reaction in oily foods (Koduvayur Habeebullah, Nielsen, & Jacobsen, 2010 ).

The dominant phenolic compounds of potato peel extracts are chlorogenic and gallic acids. These are potent sources of natural antioxidants that prevent oxidation of vegetable oil, and this could stabilize soybean oil oxidation reaction through minimizing peroxide, totox, and p‐anisidine indices (Amado, Franco, Sánchez, Zapata, & Vázquez, 2014 ; Mohdaly, Sarhan, Mahmoud, Ramadan, & Smetanska, 2010 ). The ability on minimizing oxidation on vegetable oil, potato peel extracts has equal performance with synthetic antioxidants such as butylhydroxyanisole (BHA) and butylhydroxytoluene (BHT). In comparison with mature potato, young potato peel has excellent source of bioactive phytochemicals nature with antioxidant potential (Arun et al., 2015 ). However, as compared to the application of synthetic antioxidants, potato peel extracts need to apply in higher amount but still looking the advantage of natural antioxidants than the synthetic, it is a promising source of natural antioxidant that could be used as eco‐friendly product on food industries.

3.1.2. Antimicrobial

More than three‐quarter of the world's population has used medicinal plants for treatment of different disease. Herbal plants are important on prevention against highly pathogenic micro‐organisms, and they are safer means of food preservation (Fatoki & Onifade, 2013 ; Kadhim Hindi & Ghani Chabuck, 2013 ). Potato peel extracts have antimicrobial compounds against bacterial and fungal organisms. The antimicrobial nature could be due to the presence of flavonoids and terpenes organic compounds (Nostro et al., 2000 ). Potato peel has bacteriostatic nature with nonmutagenic behavior and safe to use in food processing industries (Amanpour, 2015 ; Sotillo, Hadley, & Wolf‐Hall, 1998 ). Therefore, potato peel extract is the future and natural against foodborne pathogenic microbial and the broad spectrum nature of the plant help to discover new chemical classes of antibiotic substances that could serve as food preservative in food processing industries.

3.2. Pharmaceutical Ingredient

Pharmaceutical ingredient is a substance used in a finished pharmaceutical product, intended to give pharmacological activity to cure, mitigation, treatment, or prevention of disease (WHO, 2011 ). Peels of various fruits and vegetables are generally considered as waste product and are normally thrown away. But they have important elements, which could be used for pharmaceutical purpose (Parashar, Sharma, & Garg, 2014 ). Potato peel has a number of pharmacological interest compounds like glycoalkaloid which could be used as precursory for steroid hormone (Schieber & Aranda, 2009 ). When we look, the highest amounts of glycoalkaloids are found in potato peel than the flesh part of potato (Chem, 2009 ). In addition to this, potato powder has a potential of wound healing activity as antiulcerogenic agent (Dudek et al., 2013 ). Therefore, use of potato peel as pharmaceutical ingredient is natural, nontoxic, and environmentally friendly. So this could be one of the solutions on prevention of the current threat of drug resistance, emerging disease effective treatment and lower the health damaging side effect of synthetic drugs.

3.2.1. Wound management

Wound is a result of disruption of normal structure of skin. To ensure proper healing process, wound tissue need free of revitalized tissue, clear of infection, and moist. Wound dressings should cut dead tissue, exudate, prevent bacterial overgrowth. Various natural topical agents are available which help wound healing process (Keast, Forest‐, & Forest‐lalande, 2004 ). Potato peel is one of the natural wound healer herbal plants that has ability to produce high tensile strength of wounded skin (Panda, Sonkamble, & Patil, 2011 ). About 2.5% in ointment form of potato could trigger cutaneous wound healing through improve cells migration and gastric ulceration through protecting gastric mucosa wrinkles (Dudek et al., 2013 ). Sterile potato peel dressings are better than gauze alone dressing particularly during the healing phase so potato peel dressings could be an alternative for wound dressing in developing countries (Van de Velde, De Buck, Dieltjens, & Aertgeerts, 2011 ). To use potato peel for wound dressing is readily available, cheap, easy to apply, less painful, and stored easily. Therefore, potato peel can fulfill the ideal dressing painless, nonadherent, nonallergic, nonantigenic, and antiseptic role.

3.2.2. Glycoalkaloids

Glycoalkaloids are naturally found in vegetable crops. Potato glycoalkaloids are known for their toxic nature but the glycoalkaloids found in potato leaves offer natural protection to the plant against pests (Ginzberg, Tokuhisa, & Veilleux, 2009 ; McCue, 2009 ). Potato peel has 43% of phenolic acids and 10% of the glycoalkaloids. The highest amounts of glycoalkaloids found in potato peel unlike of the potato flesh (Chem, 2009 ). Separation of toxic glycoalkaloids from potato peel prior applying in food processing is important to use for further pharmaceutics products. This can be performed using food grade water/ethanol solvents extraction method (Snchez Maldonado, 2014 ). The upper limit of glycoalkaloid content on food processing should not be exceeded 20 mg per 100g, and the concentrations found in the peel are 3 to 10 times than the flesh (Handling, Issue, & Cantwell, 1996 ). As a general trend, there is reduction in alkaloids due to its volatile nature. For instance, during potato processing, partial degradation of caffeic acid and glycoalkaloids occurred. However, the dried potato samples have higher steroidal alkaloids such as α‐solanine and α‐chaconine than fresh samples. The air‐drying techniques had the highest steroidal alkaloid contents than freeze and vacuüm oven‐drying (Handling et al., 1996 ; Snchez Maldonado, 2014 ). Therefore, potato peel extracts are not only used for food preservation but also could be used as pharmaceutical ingredient through separating glycoalcaliod from potato peel phenolic.

3.3. Source of renewable energy

Fossil fuel demand is increasing globally. This creates rapid depletion of the fossils fuel and influence fuel price. As all knows now the main source of environmental degradation is use of fossil fuel which is a global issue. Due to this reason, interest toward use of renewable energy is increasing from time to time (Singh, 2014 ). A biological procedure for potential retrieval of organic wastes is an anaerobic digestion that used for biogas production (Krus & Lucas, 2014 ) and (Krus & Lucas, 2014 ). To cut environmental pollution and economic benefit, food processing industries are focusing on waste reuse. Potato peel as one of the food wastes which has a remarkable potential on production of renewable energy like biogas (Adeyosoye, Adesokan, Afolabi, & Ekeocha, 2010 ). Therefore, potato peel wastes could give a lot for the worldwide green economy development of recent agenda.

3.3.1. Biogas production

Food wastes for biogas production have high potential. Fruit and vegetable such as potato peel wastes took 55 days for complete digestion to produce biogas in anaerobic condition (Deressa, Libsu, Chavan, Manaye, & Dabassa, 2015 ; Sedláček, Kubaská, Lehotská, & Bodík, 2010 ). Biogas plants also give bio‐manure also of energy production and help to solve problems about waste management and providing clean environment (Singh, 2014 ). Potato peel waste of an industrial is a mesophilic reactor of biogas production. When chemical pretreatments applied on potato peel, the biogas and CH4 yield improved (Krus & Lucas, 2014 ). Therefore, to decrease natural disasters such as environmental pollution, deforestation, and desertification, use of food waste as biogas for electric generating is prompt and essential.

3.4. Animal feed

The cost of livestock feed is increasing due to rising fertilizer costs and extreme weather. So food wastes are an alternative source of feed ingredients. This can cut feed cost and disposal cost and reduce environment pollution (Rivin, Miller, & Matel, 2012 ). Food wastes have a high nutritional value for livestock feed (Myer & Johnson, 2010 ). In developing countries, the demand for livestock products is increasing. But feed deficits are the main problem, so unconventional feed resources play an important role. Fruit and vegetable processing industries generate a huge amount of wastes. Such unconventional resources are an excellent source of nutrients for livestock (Wadhwa, Bakshi, & Makkar, 2013 ). Potato peel is one of the prominent food wastes that could be used as alternative animal feed due to natural sources of energy and fiber with low levels of protein (Chimonyo, 2017 ). Therefore, food waste materials as residual wastes used as animal feed ingredients and feed additive is essential. For a long period, wastes have also been fed to swine traditionally without processing.

3.4.1. Pig feed

Feeding food waste and garbage to swine is a common practice. Food waste has most often been used as a source of feed for swine unlike other livestock's. Waste matter provision to swine as feed is encourage due to its high disposal costs and feed conversion efficiency of the animal (Westendorf & Myer, 2015 ). Potato peel is one of the food wastes produced in bulky with high levels of moisture that led to putrefaction in a short period. This will promote their usage as dietary energy and fiber source for pigs (Chimonyo, 2017 ). Food waste must be heat‐treated before providing to swine cut the risk of animal diseases and cut harmful pathogens to safeguard pig meat consumers (Westendorf & Myer, 2015 ). Potato waste feeding has antimicrobial activity by reducing coliform bacteria and improved performance of weanling pigs (Jin et al., 2014 ). Therefore, considering the dual advantage of potato peel used as feed and antimicrobial for pig is important both environmental and financial sustainability of potato processing factories.

4. CONCLUSION

To solve the future and current problems of the global environment issue, conversion of food waste into environmentally friendly product through conversion to value added products is mandatory and timely. Therefore, due to its multiple advantages of potato waste can serve as best response for eco‐friendly industrial products. So research focus should gear toward antimicrobial, antioxidant, and other pharmaceutical ingredients from potato processing industries. Attention has given on low‐cost extraction method, and further investigation should also be vested on innovative products from similar by‐products.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

The authors declare that we do not have any conflict of interest.

ETHICAL REVIEW

This study does not involve any human or animal testing.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors wish to thank the Graduate school of Chinese Academy of Agricultural science (GSCAAS), Institute of food science and technology CAAS and Tigray Agricultural Research Institute (Ethiopia). We would like to thank Awet Estifanos for his constrictive comment.

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AI Index Report

Welcome to the seventh edition of the AI Index report. The 2024 Index is our most comprehensive to date and arrives at an important moment when AI’s influence on society has never been more pronounced. This year, we have broadened our scope to more extensively cover essential trends such as technical advancements in AI, public perceptions of the technology, and the geopolitical dynamics surrounding its development. Featuring more original data than ever before, this edition introduces new estimates on AI training costs, detailed analyses of the responsible AI landscape, and an entirely new chapter dedicated to AI’s impact on science and medicine.

Read the 2024 AI Index Report

The AI Index report tracks, collates, distills, and visualizes data related to artificial intelligence (AI). Our mission is to provide unbiased, rigorously vetted, broadly sourced data in order for policymakers, researchers, executives, journalists, and the general public to develop a more thorough and nuanced understanding of the complex field of AI.

The AI Index is recognized globally as one of the most credible and authoritative sources for data and insights on artificial intelligence. Previous editions have been cited in major newspapers, including the The New York Times, Bloomberg, and The Guardian, have amassed hundreds of academic citations, and been referenced by high-level policymakers in the United States, the United Kingdom, and the European Union, among other places. This year’s edition surpasses all previous ones in size, scale, and scope, reflecting the growing significance that AI is coming to hold in all of our lives.

Steering Committee Co-Directors

Ray Perrault

Steering committee members.

Erik Brynjolfsson

John Etchemendy

Katrina Ligett

Terah Lyons

James Manyika

Juan Carlos Niebles

Vanessa Parli

Yoav Shoham

Russell Wald

Staff members.

Loredana Fattorini

Nestor Maslej

Letter from the co-directors.

A decade ago, the best AI systems in the world were unable to classify objects in images at a human level. AI struggled with language comprehension and could not solve math problems. Today, AI systems routinely exceed human performance on standard benchmarks.

Progress accelerated in 2023. New state-of-the-art systems like GPT-4, Gemini, and Claude 3 are impressively multimodal: They can generate fluent text in dozens of languages, process audio, and even explain memes. As AI has improved, it has increasingly forced its way into our lives. Companies are racing to build AI-based products, and AI is increasingly being used by the general public. But current AI technology still has significant problems. It cannot reliably deal with facts, perform complex reasoning, or explain its conclusions.

AI faces two interrelated futures. First, technology continues to improve and is increasingly used, having major consequences for productivity and employment. It can be put to both good and bad uses. In the second future, the adoption of AI is constrained by the limitations of the technology. Regardless of which future unfolds, governments are increasingly concerned. They are stepping in to encourage the upside, such as funding university R&D and incentivizing private investment. Governments are also aiming to manage the potential downsides, such as impacts on employment, privacy concerns, misinformation, and intellectual property rights.

As AI rapidly evolves, the AI Index aims to help the AI community, policymakers, business leaders, journalists, and the general public navigate this complex landscape. It provides ongoing, objective snapshots tracking several key areas: technical progress in AI capabilities, the community and investments driving AI development and deployment, public opinion on current and potential future impacts, and policy measures taken to stimulate AI innovation while managing its risks and challenges. By comprehensively monitoring the AI ecosystem, the Index serves as an important resource for understanding this transformative technological force.

On the technical front, this year’s AI Index reports that the number of new large language models released worldwide in 2023 doubled over the previous year. Two-thirds were open-source, but the highest-performing models came from industry players with closed systems. Gemini Ultra became the first LLM to reach human-level performance on the Massive Multitask Language Understanding (MMLU) benchmark; performance on the benchmark has improved by 15 percentage points since last year. Additionally, GPT-4 achieved an impressive 0.97 mean win rate score on the comprehensive Holistic Evaluation of Language Models (HELM) benchmark, which includes MMLU among other evaluations.

Although global private investment in AI decreased for the second consecutive year, investment in generative AI skyrocketed. More Fortune 500 earnings calls mentioned AI than ever before, and new studies show that AI tangibly boosts worker productivity. On the policymaking front, global mentions of AI in legislative proceedings have never been higher. U.S. regulators passed more AI-related regulations in 2023 than ever before. Still, many expressed concerns about AI’s ability to generate deepfakes and impact elections. The public became more aware of AI, and studies suggest that they responded with nervousness.

Ray Perrault Co-director, AI Index

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Journal of the European Association for Potato Research

Volumes and issues

Volume 67 march 2024 mar 2024.

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Volume 66 March - December 2023 Mar - Dec 2023

Proceedings of the 21th Triennial Conference of the European Association for Potato Research, Krakow, Poland, July 4-8, 2022

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• Issue 2 June 2023
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Volume 65 March - December 2022 Mar - Dec 2022

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Volume 51 March - December 2008 Mar - Dec 2008

Potato in a Changing World: Proceedings of the 17th Triennial Conference of the EAPR, held in Brasov, Romania, 6-10 July 2008

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Late Blight and Genetic Modification

Volume 50 January - July 2007 Jan - Jul 2007

The Canon of Potato Science

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