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Renewable Energy Dissertation Topics

Published by Carmen Troy at January 5th, 2023 , Revised On August 11, 2023

Renewable energy refers to sustainable energy that can be constantly replenished. These energy sources include solar energy, wind energy, and thermal energy, which are naturally replenishing.  In simple words, renewable energy is the energy extracted from natural sources.

Renewable energy has become the need of the hour with potential repercussions on climate. While many used to claim in past that the emergency of climate change is false, the obvious changes today evidently ratify its importance. If not for climate change, renewable energy is essential for increasing the longevity of the earth and thus the species living on it.  Therefore, it is a matter of high significance to make some painstaking efforts and ensure the availability of renewable energy resources among all.

Suppose you are aiming to centralise your dissertation on a renewable energy-related theme. In that case, you can look at some of the current, striking, and potential topics suggested by our PHD scholars at ResearchProspect.

You may also want to start your dissertation by requesting a brief research proposal from our writers on any of these topics, which includes an introduction to the problem, research question , aim and objectives, literature review , along with the proposed methodology of research to be conducted. Let us know if you need any help in getting started.

Check our example dissertation to get an idea of how to structure your dissertation .

You can review step by step guide on how to write your dissertation here .

2022 Renewable Energy Dissertation Topics

Topic 1: exploring the economic benefits of increasing biomass conversion – a case study of the uk renewable energy industry..

Research Aim: The present study aims to explore the economic benefits of increasing biomass conversion referring to the case study of the UK renewable energy industry.

Objectives:

• To share a preliminary concept of biomass conversion and its benefits.
• To describe the economic benefits of increasing biomass conversion based on the context of the UK renewable energy industry
• To identify challenges in biomass conversion along with figuring out strategies to eradicate these challenges.

Topic 2: Inspecting the advantages of using solar energy and its role as a solution to the global threat i.e. Climate change.

Research Aim: The present study aims to investigate the benefits of using solar energy and the way it is resolving the problem of climate change.

• To elucidate the benefits of using solar energy and its growing use in different sectors.
• To explain how solar energy can be a solution for a global threat like climate change.
• To provide a stringent set of recommendations for the best possible use of solar energy to eradicate the problem of climate change.

Topic 3: Examining the strategy of embracing renewable energy by the UK retail organisations to fulfil the environmental sustainability goals.

Research Aim: The present study aims to evaluate the strategy of using renewable energy in the UK retail sector to fulfil environmental sustainability goals.

• To express the way renewable energy sources are being relevant in the UK retail industry.
• To analyse how the retail orgnisations in the UK are using renewable energy to fulfil their environmental sustainability goals.
• To share effective ideas about how renewable energy sources can be used properly by the UK retail organisations to fulfil environmental sustainability goals.

Topic 4: Critical assessment of growing concern for sustainability in UK construction industry which is driving renewable energy consumption.

Research Aim: The present study aims to assess the growing concern for sustainability in the UK construction industry that drives overall renewable energy consumption.

• To explain the increasing concern for sustainability in the UK construction industry.
• To examine how renewable energy consumption is increasing in the UK construction industry along with the growing concern for sustainability.
• To recommend the organisations in the UK construction industry to improve the use of renewable energy sources aiming to achieve sustainability goals.

Topic 5: Evaluating the impact of solar energy in sustainability practices in the UK agriculture industry.

Research Aim: The present study aims to evaluate the impacts of using solar energy in sustainability practices in the UK agriculture industry.

• To demonstrate the concept of solar energy consumption and its impacts on sustainability practices.
• To contextualise the use of solar energy in the UK agriculture industry as a part of sustainability practices.
• To provide recommendations for improving the use of solar energy thereby gaining its advantageous effects in the UK agriculture industry.

Renewable Energy Research Topics

Topic. 1: renewable energy: prospects and problems today.

Research Aim: The main aim of the research will be to identify the significance of deploying renewable energy to the masses and its implications in the long run. The research will also discuss whether or not the world is facing challenges in ensuring the availability of renewable energy; if yes, what would be the solutions or alternatives.

Topic. 2: Renewable energy for sustainable development in Africa

Research Aim: Africa leads ahead of all other regions of the world regarding the least access to renewable energy. According to one report, around 600 million people do not have access to electricity in Africa, while  900 million lack access to clean water. This research will study and evaluate how providing renewable energy can foster sustainable development in the region by advancing economic development, improving access to energy, and mitigating climate change.

Topic. 3: Implications of COVID-19 on the biofuel market

Research Aim: Covid-19 posed precarious implications for the global markets as it dismantled the buying capacity of people. It was noted that during the pandemic, the prices of biofuel plummeted dramatically as the consumer need was minimal. Keeping that in mind, you can base your research on what shifts are expected to occur in the bio-fuel market when the pandemic ends.

The prime aim of the research will include studying the impact of COVID-9 on the biofuel market and understanding its influences on biofuel policy support by policymakers.

Topic. 4: Geothermal energy; an untapped abundant energy resource

Research Aim: Geothermal energy is usually viewed as a recent and form of alternative energy. It is cheaper than other green energy sources and is clean and sustainable.  It is derived from the earth core and is more eco-friendly than the other fossil fuel sources. In this research, you can explain geothermal energy, its abundance, and how it can be leveraged and supplied to the masses to help escape the energy crisis.

Topic. 5: The Future of Wind Energy

Research Aim: The main aim of the research will be to identify the prospects of wind energy by evaluating the current and prospected policies regarding its utilisation worldwide. The research can also base on modern and future technologies to expand the utilisation and outreach of wind energy.

Topic. 6: Home wind energy: How valuable it is?

Research Aim: Recently more and more people are finding it an excellent idea to install our very own wind turbines and produce clean energy to power homes. But doing that does not come without challenges. The research can discuss the significance of wind energy, check for its practicability, and evaluate its benefits and downsides.

Topic. 7: Economic and environmental benefits of Renewable Energy

Research Aim: All of us are aware that renewable energy has vast benefits, ranging from economic to environmental benefits. The main aim of the research will be to thoroughly discuss the economic and environmental aspects, which are facilitated the most. You can study how countries are thriving economically and structuring workable policies to mitigate climate change and present a model to follow.

How Can ResearchProspect Help?

ResearchProspect writers can send several custom topic ideas to your email address. Once you have chosen a topic that suits your needs and interests, you can order for our dissertation outline service which will include a brief introduction to the topic, research questions , literature review , methodology , expected results and conclusion . The dissertation outline will enable you to review the quality of our work before placing the order for our full dissertation writing service !

Topic. 8: Why it has become more important than ever to focus on renewable energy

Research Aim: The aim of the research will be to identify the key reasons behind the much-needed attention that must be given to renewable energy. It is prime time to focus on renewable energy to ensure sustainable development and handle climate change quickly.

Today, as the world is swiftly transitioning into a technologically driven lifestyle, there are still a lot of people with no access to drinking water and electricity. Moreover, the consumption of artificial resources is responsible for curtailing the longevity of the earth and thus the species living on it. It is essential to take significant steps to help the earth and the people living on it.

Also Read: Environmental Engineering Dissertation Topics

Topic. 9: Is financing Renewable energy costly?

Research Aim: The pivotal aim of the research will be to examine the costs that it would take to finance renewable energy for the masses. Many countries around the world still have no access to clean drinking water, electricity, and therefore technology. These are the main reasons why the countries are underdeveloped, and their inhabitants are below the poverty line.

Topic. 10: Mitigating climate change; can renewable energy help?

Research Aim: The research will evaluate the impact of renewable energy in helping mitigate climate change. It will analyse all key factors that can impeccably play a role in controlling the biggest problem posed to humans.

As the years pass by, the population of humans is also growing. More people means more land acquisition, more pollution, and more requirement for resources. In such a scenario, what is suffering the most is the climate. If it is not addressed today, it will become such a big problem that it will be impossible to handle it easily.

Topic. 11: Living Green: How many have access to Renewable energy

Research Aim: With time, the energy costs are increasing, so are the effects of global warming. It has become more important than ever to ensure living green: Using renewable energy. The main aim of the research would be to do a quantitative analysis of how many people have access to renewable energy.

Topic. 12: Understanding differences between renewable and alternative energy technology

Research Aim: Many people confuse renewable and alternative energy technology and therefore question if there is such thing as renewable energy technology. The research can explain and evaluate the differences between renewable and alternative technology so that people can use them without any doubt in their minds. Renewable energy can be constantly replenished, while alternative energy is an alternative energy source used instead of fossil fuel.

Also Read: Technology Dissertation Topics

Topic. 13: Is solar energy the way forward

Research Aim: There is a persistent controversy on the advantages and disadvantages of solar energy. While some believe that it is of great benefit, it is the other way around for others.

The aim of the research will be to examine solar energy and weigh its pros and cons, and evaluate if it is going to predominate in the future. A qualitative analysis that includes surveying people’s opinions on social energy help clear this ambiguity.

Topic. 14: Approach towards renewable energy in 2030

Research Aim: The research will study the current national and international policies on renewable energy to sketch a draft on the approach towards renewable energy in 2030.  Qualitative discourse analysis can help figure out the key indicators that will prompt or prohibit a change in the upcoming years.

Topic. 15: Cost of solar energy in comparison to other renewable energy

Research Aim: The research will conduct a financial analysis on solar energy and draw a comparison against other renewable energy, i.e. hydro, biomass, tidal, and wind energy. It will evaluate the costs against different parameters and on different levels of technology.

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Topic. 16: Trends in Renewable energy

Research Aim: It is necessary to keep an eye on the current trends to make speculations about the future. The researcher can study the trends in renewable energy in 202o or 2021.  The research can also draw a comparison in the renewable trends in 2020 and 2021.

Topic. 17: Renewable energy and COVID-19

Research Aim: The research will study and explore the impacts of COVID-19 on renewable energy. It will also explain if the pandemic posed any systematic changes to trends and prospects of renewable energy.

Topic. 18: How does Geothermal energy work?

Research Aim: The research will explain a thorough explanation of how geothermal energy works and why it is more eco-friendly, economical, and valuable than fossil fuel. The researcher can describe describe the steps from scratch until it is utilised as alternative energy.

Topic. 19: Effects of renewable vs non-renewable energy

Research Aim: The researcher will empirically study the small and broad long-run effects of using renewable and non-renewable energy to create a comparison between them.

Topic. 20: A review of tidal energy technologies

Research Aim: Tidal energy is among the most efficient energies; however, it is less common as it is harnessed from tides. The aim of the research will be to study the technological advancement and development regarding the usage as an alternative for energy. The research can list different methods, devices, and technologies that are used to harness tidal energy, and which of them can be the most viable to meet our annual needs.

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• Consider global energy needs.
• Select a specific area of interest for your dissertation.

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Renewable Energy Dissertation Topics

• Updated on  
• Jan 12, 2023

Renewable energy is one of the most popular research topics. Thousands of students used these topics for their MTech and PhD theses, but a few of them struggled to find the right topic and a good paper for their graduation. Now, all thesis on renewable energy resources problems can be solved with a single phone call, which means that our Leverage Edu experts can help MTech and PhD students who are having problems with their thesis on renewable energy resources. As a master’s student, you may choose renewable energy as your thesis topic . If you decide to write a thesis on renewable energy, you may be unsure of how to begin or even what you are required to do. Don’t worry, we have you covered. In this blog, you’ll find renewable energy dissertation topics to help you write your thesis.

This Blog Includes:

Why is renewable energy important, best renewable energy research topics 2023, topic 1 .

Renewable energy is one of the fastest-growing systems in developing countries. It is widely used for “self-service” purposes. It is quite popular due to some unique advantages in its application. PhD research topics in Renewable Energy provide a distinguished platform for PhD/ MS scholars. We assist our serving hands in developing the best profile for their career.

Renewable Energy’s Untapped Potential

• Ecofriendly
• Reasonable Price
• Lower Maintenance
• Health Advantages
• Unending and also Reliable Resource

It is the “core portion of the modern power system” all at once. It aids in the regulation of low, high, and variable power generation. As a result, we are also current in all of these recent areas. As a result, we guide you in every nook and cranny of your area with the help of our expert advice.

Topic 1: Renewable Energy: Prospects and Challenges Today

Topic 2: Renewable energy for Africa ‘s long-term development

Topic 3: The Impact of COVID – 19 on the Biofuel Market

Topic 4: Geothermal energy is an untapped abundant energy resource.

Topic 5: Wind Energy’s Future

Topic 6: How valuable is home wind energy?

Topic 7: Renewable Energy’s Economic and Environmental Benefits

Topic 8: Why is it more important than ever to prioritise renewable energy?

Topic 9: Is it expensive to finance renewable energy?

Topic 10: Climate change mitigation; can renewable energy help?

Topic 11: Living Green: How many people have access to renewable energy?

Topic 12: Understanding the distinctions between renewable and alternative energy technology 

Topic 13: Is solar energy the way to go?

Topic 14: 2030 Approach to Renewable Energy

Topic 15: The cost of solar energy versus other renewable energy sources

Renewable Energy Dissertation Examples

Here are some dissertation topics for you to cover under the renewable energy topic. The examples are personalised for the UK, but you can mend them according to the country that you choose to write about.

Topic Name: Investigating the economic benefits of increasing biomass conversion – a case study of the renewable energy industry in the United Kingdom .

Aim of the Study: The current study aims to investigate the economic benefits of increasing biomass conversion using the UK renewable energy industry as a case study.

Objectives:

• To present an initial concept of biomass conversion and its benefits.
• In the context of the UK renewable energy industry, describe the economic benefits of increasing biomass conversion.
• Identifying challenges in biomass conversion and devising strategies to overcome these challenges.

Topic Name: Examining the benefits of using solar energy and its role in addressing the global threat of climate change .

Aim of the study: The current study aims to investigate the benefits of using solar energy and how it is addressing the issue of climate change.

• To explain the advantages of using solar energy and its increasing use in various sectors.
• To demonstrate how solar energy can be used to address a global threat such as climate change.
• To provide a stringent set of recommendations for the most effective use of solar energy in combating climate change.

Topic Name: Investigating UK retail organisations’ use of renewable energy to meet environmental sustainability goals.

Aim of the Study: The purpose of this research is to assess the strategy of using renewable energy in the UK retail sector to achieve environmental sustainability goals.

• To express the importance of renewable energy sources in the UK retail industry.
• To investigate how retail organisations in the United Kingdom use renewable energy to achieve environmental sustainability goals.
• To share effective ideas on how UK retail organisations can use renewable energy sources effectively to achieve environmental sustainability goals.

Topic Name: A critical assessment of the growing concern for sustainability in the UK construction industry, which is driving the use of renewable energy.

Aim of the Study: The purpose of this research is to evaluate the growing concern for sustainability in the UK construction industry, which drives overall renewable energy consumption.

• To explain why the UK construction industry is becoming increasingly concerned about sustainability.
• To investigate how renewable energy consumption in the UK construction industry is increasing in tandem with the growing concern for sustainability.
• To encourage organisations in the UK construction industry to increase their use of renewable energy sources in order to meet sustainability goals.

Topic Name: Assessing the impact of solar energy on agricultural sustainability practices in the United Kingdom.

Aim of the Study: The current study aims to assess the effects of using solar energy in sustainability practises in the UK agriculture industry.

• To demonstrate the concept of solar energy consumption and its implications for environmental practices.
• To place the use of solar energy in the UK agriculture industry within the context of sustainability practices.
• To make recommendations for improving the use of solar energy and reaping its benefits in the UK agriculture industry.

How renewable energy affects the future of our planet. Use of biomass as a renewable energy source. The limitations of fossil fuels: the significance of renewable energy and its economic benefits. Methods for extracting power from flow-structure interactions.

A thesis statement example: Solar power is an excellent alternative energy source because it is renewable, cost-effective, and does not pollute the environment.

Three obstacles to renewable energy are: Putting energy storage in place. Traditional fossil-fuel plants operate at a reduced level, producing a consistent and predictable amount of electricity Bringing together distributed systems Renewable energy reporting

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Renewable Energy Dissertation Topics

Renewable energy is a topic which is at the forefront of energy development. The global drive to manage, mitigate and prevent climate change has seen the contribution of renewable energy, as an alternative to traditional fossil fuels, to global energy generation increase significantly over the past decade. The growing importance of renewable energy as a solution to the global climate crisis has seen extensive research undertaken and necessitates substantial future research to be conducted. This has made renewable energy a highly popular choice for dissertations, both with undergraduates and for postgraduate studies.

When selecting a dissertation topic that is focused on renewable energy it is important to choose a topic which presents a novel and engaging approach. There is an extensive body of published literature which the dissertation topic should enable critical engagement with. However, it is important to ensure that a selected dissertation topic does not simply rehash previous research, the development of renewable energy is constant and presents opportunities for numerous dissertations which examine key issues and debates including those related to sustainability, energy security, justice, equality and development.

Governing the Renewable Energy Transition

Renewable energy and energy security, emerging renewable energy technologies, renewable energy in developing countries, renewable energy within the circular economy.

Governance is and will be a highly important component of the regime shift to renewable energy. Government policies have the potential to support, guide and increase the rate of the energy transition, equally, there is the potential for ineffective policies to hamper the transition to renewables-based energy sectors. A successful transition will require a transformative governance which encourages the integration of knowledge across all aspects of the energy sector and enables the development of a sustainable and just renewable energy-based society. Under this purview falls some dissertation topics which are highly relevant to current events, namely the on-going global Covid-19 pandemic and how it and similar disruptive events may have a negative impact on renewable energy deployment if not appropriately managed. The role of governance remains an on-topic aspect of renewable energy which provides for a variety of dissertation examinations. Some examples of dissertation topics which examine renewable energy and governance are:

• Is the urgency of energy sector reform reflected in government policies or is there a need for new economic incentives to facilitate the transition to a renewables-based energy sector?
• How do disruptive events impact the transition to renewable energy generation?
• Will renewable energy generation enable new forms of alternative governance structures?
• Are governments effectively engaging citizens in the process of renewable energy generation and energy conservation?
• Do grassroots innovations positively contribute to the renewable energy transition and what influence does government policy have on the success or failure of grassroots renewable energy systems?

Increasing the capacity of renewable energy provision within a nation has the potential to contribute significantly towards enhancing energy security through the development of national energy provision which does not rely on foreign energy imports. Renewables-based energy sectors have complex interactions with energy security due to the variation in energy generation potential which is observed for many renewables. Reconciling renewable energy generation with energy security is a highly important component of future energy sectors, if renewables-based energy sectors cannot provide energy security then they will not be successful. There are multiple perspectives which can be taken in dissertations investigating this aspect of renewable energy, ranging from the development of diverse renewable resources, through to energy storage and distribution. Here are a few topic suggestions which investigate this aspect of renewable energy:

• Can we store enough: The future of batteries and energy storage.
• Can renewable energy resources present a viable future: Are renewables sufficient?
• Securing the future: Are Renewables the solution?
• The justice of renewable energy in developing countries; All for one and one for all.
• Energy storage: breaking the barriers to the future of energy solutions.
• Batteries: Which is the most desirable option?
• The future of energy supply, can we meet demand?

The status of development of renewable energy technologies differs between renewable resources. Some, such as solar PV and wind turbines are well-established and current research focuses on the refinement and improvement of these technologies and their associated infrastructure. However, the energy demands of society are diverse and there is a need to ensure that renewable energy generation can meet this diversity of needs. The replacement of traditional fossil fuels poses a greater challenge in some areas compared to others, for example, the replacement of aviation fuel with a renewable and low-carbon alternative. Dissertation topics examining emerging renewable energy technologies present an interesting option which looks to the future of renewable energy and identifies gaps in our current knowledge pool. Some examples of dissertation topics based on emerging renewable energy technologies are given below:

• How ‘green’ is green hydrogen? Examining the potential for green hydrogen utilisation in a sustainable society.
• Guilt free jet setting: Can biofuels make aviation fuels carbon neutral and sustainable?
• Reconciling biofuels and food security can we achieve both?
• Why is Geothermal renewable energy underutilised?
• Are all biofuels the same: Quantifying the environmental impact of biofuel production.

The case of developing countries is highly relevant to the subject of renewable energy systems. This is due to the potential for developing countries to avoid the negative impacts of increasing energy demand with economic development if renewable energy resources are selected rather than traditional fossil fuels. This way the mistakes of developed nations and the resulting environmental degradation could potential be avoided. However, there comes into play issues regarding justice and equity, whereby it can be argued that developing countries should be afforded the same development opportunities as already developed countries and that to impose conditions on the energy sector development would be unjust. Dissertation topics in this area can be varied and the following titles are just some examples of areas you could potential explore:

• How will an energy transition to a renewables-based energy sector impact energy poverty in developing countries?
• Are decentralised, small-scale renewable energy generation systems the answer to supporting the development of rural communities?
• What are the barriers to renewable energy based economic development pathways for developing countries?
• Empowering rural communities: Renewable energy for the future.
• Can renewable-based energy transitions be just?
• Economic development and renewable futures can the two be reconciled?

The development of a sustainable future will be influenced by our approach to the use and consumption of resources. The nature of renewable energy is such that it will play a vital role in reducing the consumption of natural resources and limiting environmental degradation. The circular economy is being increasingly touted as the way forward for resource use and renewable energy resources are likely to be an integral aspect of the circular economy. However, the role of renewable energy within the circular economy is one which needs to be explored and developed, yes, the use of renewable energy has a lesser environmental impact that fossil fuels, but this does not mean that renewable energy does not have a degradative environmental impact. The sustainability of renewable energy, resource consumption and their role within the circular economy is an important area of research which is likely to receive considerable attention in the coming years and thus is a highly on-trend topic for a dissertation. Some example of dissertation titles which would fall within this area are:

• Can the sustainability of renewable energy systems be increased through the development of end-of-life component recycling?
• The place of renewable energy resources within the circular economy: Will it be possible to produce energy without consuming natural resources?
• Which renewable resource presents the most sustainable option: A life-cycle approach to calculating the environmental impact of renewable energy.
• Does the use of limited or rare natural resources in renewable energy systems mean that there is a finite lifespan of renewable energy systems?
• Powering the circular economy, what role will renewable energy systems play?
• The future of solar energy: Will it be possible to reduce resource consumption in solar energy systems?
• Do we perceive renewable energy systems as ‘greener’ than they are: A case study of the environmental impact of solar photovoltaic panel production.

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Review article, sustainable energy transition for renewable and low carbon grid electricity generation and supply.

• Industrial Engineering Department, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa

The greatest sustainability challenge facing humanity today is the greenhouse gas emissions and the global climate change with fossil fuels led by coal, natural gas and oil contributing 61.3% of global electricity generation in the year 2020. The cumulative effect of the Stockholm, Rio, and Johannesburg conferences identified sustainable energy development (SED) as a very important factor in the sustainable global development. This study reviews energy transition strategies and proposes a roadmap for sustainable energy transition for sustainable electricity generation and supply in line with commitments of the Paris Agreement aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions and limiting the rise in global average temperature to 1.5°C above the preindustrial level. The sustainable transition strategies typically consist of three major technological changes namely, energy savings on the demand side, generation efficiency at production level and fossil fuel substitution by various renewable energy sources and low carbon nuclear. For the transition remain technically and economically feasible and beneficial, policy initiatives are necessary to steer the global electricity transition towards a sustainable energy and electricity system. Large-scale renewable energy adoption should include measures to improve efficiency of existing nonrenewable sources which still have an important cost reduction and stabilization role. A resilient grid with advanced energy storage for storage and absorption of variable renewables should also be part of the transition strategies. From this study, it was noted that whereas sustainable development has social, economic, and environmental pillars, energy sustainability is best analysed by five-dimensional approach consisting of environmental, economic, social, technical, and institutional/political sustainability to determine resource sustainability. The energy transition requires new technology for maximum use of the abundant but intermittent renewable sources a sustainable mix with limited nonrenewable sources optimized to minimize cost and environmental impact but maintained quality, stability, and flexibility of an electricity supply system. Technologies needed for the transition are those that use conventional mitigation, negative emissions technologies which capture and sequester carbon emissions and finally technologies which alter the global atmospheric radiative energy budget to stabilize and reduce global average temperature. A sustainable electricity system needs facilitating technology, policy, strategies and infrastructure like smart grids, and models with an appropriate mix of both renewable and low carbon energy sources.

• The Paris Agreement of 2015 set targets to be realized to limit greenhouse gas emissions and related global warming with the objective of reducing greenhouse gas emissions and global average temperature rise.

• The cumulative effect of the Stockholm, Rio, and Johannesburg conferences made sustainable energy development (SED) a very important factor in the sustainable development.

• The energy transition seeks to transform the world order with respect to development and environment and particularly the use of energy in its many forms with priority to electricity.

• Sustainable energy transition should incorporate the three dimensions of sustainable development of social, environment and economic in addition to technical and political/institutional dimension.

• A sustainable global electricity transition will entail increased use of renewable energy sources particularly wind and solar, nuclear energy as a low carbon energy source, electrification of transport and thermal processes in industry, bioenergy, and waste to energy conversion, shift from coal and petroleum to natural gas, hydrogen as a fuel with low carbon footprint, increased energy efficiency.

• This transition can only take place successfully through collaboration between players locally and international with effective facilitating policy framework, facilitating infrastructure and technology development and adaptation, use of smart grids and various modelling and optimization facilities in decision support.

1 Introduction

Decarbonization of the global energy systems is one of the greatest and most important challenges facing man in the 21st Century. The energy sector is vital in tacking the climate change since it accounts for about two thirds of global carbon dioxide ( Quitzow, 2021 ). Energy in form of electricity and primary energy resources drive the prosperity of the world economy ( Quitzow, 2021 ). From the 1970s, the global gross domestic product (GDP) has grown by about 4.5 times, while the consumption of primary energy has grown from 155.22 EJ in 1965 to 556.63 EJ in the year 2020. The total proved energy reserves of the dominant fuels, i.e., oil, natural gas, and coal at the end of 2020 could last just 53.5 years for oil, 48.8 years for natural gas, and 139 years for coal ( BP, 2021 ). These fossil fuels account for 85% of the total primary energy consumption globally. The current era is faced with the challenge of global warming as the most prominent environmental issue thus reduction of carbon emissions is at the center of global environmental policy. It is therefore important to understand the relationship between economic development and energy consumption, and effectively improve energy efficiency for a better relationship and sustainable development ( Barasa Kabeyi and Olanrewaju, 2022 ; Jin et al., 2022 ). Electricity plays a very important role in modern economies as it provides a rising share of energy generation and consumption in all countries ( Solarin et al., 2021 ). Electricity demand is poised to increase further due to increasing household incomes, and electrification of transport and thermal energy applications as well as continues growth for digital connected devices and air conditioning ( International Energy Agency, 2019 ). Energy is a critical requirement for sustainable development and therefore optimum selection of low carbon and green energy sources remains a key objective for all nations ( Bhowmik et al., 2020 ). Electric power plays an important role in human life because all vital activities and operations today need electricity directly or indirectly ( Beaudin and Zareipour, 2015 ; Bayram and Ustun, 2017 ).

Electricity as a form of energy is extremely important for socioeconomic development. Global electricity generation stood at 4,114 GW in 2005 and increased to 5,699.3 GW in 2014 and it continues to grow annually. Fossil fuel-based electricity accounted for over 60% of this generation in 2014 and 42% of CO 2 . There is need to develop evaluation index system and models for sustainable electricity generation to sustainably cope with this ever growing demand ( Li et al., 2016 ). According to the emissions gap report, the total greenhouse gas emissions in 2018 was about 55.3 GtCO 2e of which 37.5 GtCO 2 were on account of fossil fuels combustion in various operations and activities including electricity generation [ United Nations Environmental Program(UNEP), 2019 ].

Energy sustainability or energy for sustainable development is a challenge for many countries developed and developing countries. There is need for a transition roadmap to renewable energy sources that may be unique to each country based on local resources and prevailing circumstances ( Iddrisu and Bhattacharyya, 2015 ). Energy transition is a reality for all nations because of the targets set in the Paris agreement. The global community is developing decarbonization plans aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emission in a sustainable manner ( Kabeyi and Olanrewaju, 2020b ). The process is unique to different countries because the transition is affected by local social and economic conditions. The complexity and comprehensiveness of the energy transition is influenced by the diversity of actors involved in their interests which are often in conflict with one another ( Krzywda et al., 2021 ). Electricity is a very important form of end-use energy, and it is a leading factor for economic growth and development. However, electricity generation is a leading source of greenhouse gas emissions which cause global warming and climate change which threatens sustainable development. This is because most of the global electricity is generated from fossil fuel sources of energy. Electricity accounts for a significant share of the three components that make up total energy production and consumption are electricity, transport, and heating ( Ritchie and Roser, 2021 ). The main challenges facing the electricity sector are the ever growing electricity demand, growing need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and the need realize zero-net carbon emissions in power generation in line with the Paris Agreement which seeks to limit the increase in average global temperature to 1.5°C ( Colangelo et al., 2021 ). This calls for an energy transition from the fossil fuel dominated electricity mix to one dominated by renewable sources of energy and low carbon nuclear as well as clean fuel and conversion technologies ( Kabeyi and Olanrewaju, 2020b ; Kabeyi and Olanrewaju, 2021a ).

The world has so far witnessed three typical energy transitions. The first transition involved replacement of wood with coal as the main energy source. In the second transition, oil replaced coal as the dominant energy resource. In the third transition, there is global commitment to replace fossil fuels with renewable energy. As in 2018, 80% of the global energy was derived from fossil fuel energy resources with 36% being petroleum, 13.2% for coal, and 31% was from natural gas ( Lu et al., 2020 ). Energy transition refers changes undertaken in fundamental processes in charge of evolution of human societies that drive and are driven by technical, economic, and social changes ( Smil, 2010 ). It is a new path for economic development and innovation that does not compromise the environmental integrity and sustainability motivated by challenges caused by greenhouse gas emissions, climate change and natural resource depletion ( Mostafa, 2014 ). Energy transition consists of processes of structural changes to the subsystems of society which lead to greater sustainability in the society ( Barasa Kabeyi, 2019a ). Therefore energy transitions call for changes in existing policies, technology as well as supply and demand patterns for electricity and other energy resources ( Mostafa, 2014 ). The world is said to be undergoing a fourth energy transition today having witnessed three energy transitions in the past. The main objective of this fourth transition is to fight the global climate change through decarbonization of the energy supply and consumption patterns ( Mitrova and Melnikov, 2019 ). Therefore a sustainable energy transition system must be driven by the climate change agenda, technology developments and innovation, increased energy efficiency, competitive economies, enhanced energy security, development of affordable energy solutions and measures and modernization of the energy sector from traditional energy systems ( Smil, 2010 ; Mitrova and Melnikov, 2019 ). The International Renewable Energy Agency (IRA) defines energy transition as the pathway in the transformation of the global energy sector from fossil-dominated mix to zero-carbon by the second half of the 21st century ( Inglesi-Lotz, 2021 ).

The selection criteria for development sustainable energy transition should consider the environmental, technical, social, institutional, and economic dimensions of sustainability. While choosing or selecting energy sources for electricity generation, the choice of conversion technology and cost involved play a crucial role in modern economies and societies ( Bhowmik et al., 2020 ; Kabeyi and Olanrewaju, 2020b ). With continuous increase in global population and socio-economic activities leading to increased urbanization, and industrialization around the world, the demand for natural energy resources and more so renewable energy is gradually increasing ( Ebrahimi and Rahmani, 2019 ). It is notable that the world’s population has grown by 2.5 times since 1950, while energy demand over the same period has grown by 7 times ( Şengül et al., 2015 ). These increasing energy demand is predominantly met by fossil fuel combustion and nuclear power plants ( Tunc et al., 2012 ). With ever increasing energy demand, the related challenges are depletion of fossil fuel reserves, their price volatility, and global climate change which have attracted much attention to renewable energy sources and other low carbon and cheap sources of energy for power generation. As a result, many countries have adopted policies, strategic and operational measures to support the growth of renewable energy sources and other sustainable energy measures in the energy transition ( Ebrahimi and Rahmani, 2019 ).

Sustainable energy transitions require formulation of effective policies that promote the biomass resources, increased use of renewable and low carbon sources and penalize as well as discourage the use of fossil fuels and unsustainable natural resource use. Directing agricultural resources toward food production ( Andress et al., 2011 ). Renewable energy like solar, wind power, or hydropower can be used as viable options for generating electricity. Solar power plants, for example, could be constructed in countries with vast expanses of desert land. With developing countries like China having huge coal reserves and high electricity demand, coal fired power plants will continue to dominate electricity generation in these countries and options like clean coal technologies and carbon capture and sequestration are critical options. Production of hydrogen from coal is another strategy. For countries with high electricity demand, nuclear power generation is an option for reducing GHG emissions although with a danger of proliferation for politically unstable governments with weapons agenda. Large scale penetration of renewable energy requires development of advanced batteries, high efficiency conversion technologies, and stable and resilient grids to absorb variable renewable energy sources. Electrification of transport with most electricity coming from low carbon and green sources is another strategy for the sustainable energy transition ( Andress et al., 2011 ).

There are various strategies, measures and technologies that can be used to improve sustainability. They include energy efficiency, increasing the contribution of renewable energy in electricity generation, use of Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) in fossil and biomass power plants, use of low carbon nuclear power, use of hydrogen in the transportation sector and reductions in the demand for energy and electrification as well as use of biofuels in transport services. The main challenges facing various options and technologies include lack of acceptance and behavioral changes as well as cost limitations and availability of cheap fossil fuels ( Hildingsson and Johansson, 2016 ).

1.1 Problem Statement

Most of the electricity generated globally is comes from fossil fuel-based power plants. These energy resources are generally expensive, scarce, exhaustible, polluting, and insecure since not all nations are endowed with the primary resources hence a source of energy insecurity, while the combustion of fossil fuels produces greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), Sulphur dioxide (SO 2 ), Nitrous oxides (NOx), which are the main causes of the global warming that is threatening the very existence of humanity and mother nature. This concern is the main motivation behind sustainable energy transition by increased use of renewable and low carbon clean energy sources especially solar, wind, biomass, hydro and nuclear. These renewable and low carbon sources improve and widen power supply, enhance long term access and utility in energy production, decrease dependence on fossil fuel, and reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( Rathor and Saxena, 2020a ; Nguyen et al., 2020 ).

Natural increases in CO 2 concentrations have historically been warming the Earth during ice age cycles for millions of years. These warm episodes are said to have started with slight increase in solar radiations reaching the Earth due to a slight wobble in Earth’s axis and path of rotation around the Sun that caused some notable warming. This phenomenon caused the warming of oceans leading to an increase in carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) emissions from the oceans. However, CO 2 concentration never exceeded 300 ppm during these periods that took place about a million years ago. Before the industrial revolution that started in of mid-1700s, the global average amount of carbon dioxide was about 280 ppm ( Lindsey, 2021 ). Figure 1 shows the historical growth of CO 2 emissions and concentration between 1750 and 2020.

FIGURE 1 . Concentration of carbon dioxide emissions between the year 1750 and 2020 ( Lidsey, 2020 ).

Figure 1 shows that the global CO 2 emissions remained constant between 1750 and about 1840 where they started to increase rapidly. The atmospheric concentration increased slightly between 1750 and 1960 before the rate increased between 1960 and the year 2020 mainly due to higher level of industrial activities and increasing use of fossil fuels. Therefore, it is the entry of fossil fuels in the energy mix that triggered rapid increase in CO 2 emissions as the level of industrialization developed.

Fossil fuels continue to dominate the current energy systems and therefore significantly contribute to the global carbon dioxide (CO2) and other greenhouse gases emissions to the atmosphere. To realize the global climate targets and avoid destructive climate change, there is need for a global transition in electricity generation, transmission, and distribution and as well as its consumption. Humanity must strike a balance between developmental needs and the environmental conservation and protection. The main challenges facing renewable energy sources is resource availability, resource access, resource location, security of supply, sustainability, and affordability ( Samaras et al., 2019 ). The growing demand for electricity has led to increased demand and consumption of fossil fuels and growing level of economic activities have contributed to growth of the greenhouse gas emissions and consequently, global warming ( Wang, 2019 ). The transition challenges are further compounded by the fact that efforts to promote more sustainable, more resilient, and equitable energy disrupts economic, political, and institutional relationships. As a result, issues of power and politics are now central themes in sustainability transition in energy sectors ( Lenhart and Fox, 2021 ).

This study examined sustainability in energy and particularly electricity generation systems and the challenges and opportunities of sustainability. The overall objective was to lay a framework for a sustainable transition to a green and low carbon electricity grid system as a contribution to the global effort to fight the climate change and greenhouse gas emissions. Various pathways to sustainable electricity generation are examined and proposals made on a feasible roadmap to a sustainable energy transition, particularly grid electricity generation, transmission, distribution, and consumption. The transition acknowledges the significance of nonrenewable sources and their main challenges of intermittence and variability as the global community seeks to transition to green energy sources. Using a critical discourse analysis, the study attempts to develop a roadmap that can be adopted by nations based on their local conditions to sustainably transition their electricity production and supply. Of particular concern is how the available energy sources can be used to realize the Paris targets without compromising the socio-economic and environmental set up and hence achieve sustainable energy transition.

1.2 Rationale of the Study

The Paris Agreement of the 21st UNFCCC Conference of Parties (COP21) of 2015 seeks to limit average global temperature increase below 2°C above pre-industrial levels look for measures to limit the average temperature rise to 1.5°C the pre-industrial temperature. This calls for drastic measures to reduce anthropogenic emissions and removals by sinks of greenhouse gases by second half of 21st century ( Lawrence et al., 2018 ). Studies have shown that the climate is changing mostly because of the anthropogenic activities. The report by Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) for 2021 indicates that several climate changes are already irreversible but adds that we still have hope for the future if action is taken. To mitigate further changes ( Inglesi-Lotz, 2021 ). The climate is very important to man and other living organisms on the planet, yet there is overwhelming evidence that the world is facing changing climatic conditions due to the greenhouse effect as demonstrated by the increase in average global temperature, high incidents of climate related issues like drought, storms and desertification ( Wallington et al., 2004 ). The global anthropogenic activities have led to about 1°C rise in average global temperature above prehistoric level and is further projected to reach 1.5°C between the year 2030 and 2052 if current greenhouse gas emission rates are maintained ( Fawzy et al., 2020 ).

Electricity generation accounts for about 26% of total greenhouse gas emissions making it an important target for emissions control in the war against climate change ( Kabeyi and Oludolapo, 2020a ). The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) sought to stabilize the atmospheric air carbon concentration with a target to limit concentration to 350 ppm for CO 2 while maintaining temperature rise of 2° C above the preindustrial level, a target that was ratified by many nations globally. This calls for limitation in the consumption of fossil fuels particularly in electricity generation and transport industries through substitution with renewable energy sources and electrification of transport among other measures. This calls for massive expansion in power generation capacity using renewable energy and low carbon energy sources ( Burger et al., 2012 ). The future of humanity as defined by the sustainable development goals in the face of climate change has made sustainability the concern for all major systems including energy or electricity generation, supply and consumption systems ( Vine, 2019 ). There is need for a shift from current dependence on fossil fuels for power generation, transport, and thermal applications ( Burger et al., 2012 ).

The global greenhouse gas emissions can be presented based on economic activities that lead to their production and emission. Greenhouse gases are mainly released by electricity and heat generation in the energy and related sectors, manufacturing activities, industrial operations, transportation, agriculture and forestry as well as the building industry ( Marcus, 1992 ). The sources of greenhouse gases can be classified into five economic sectors. These sectors are energy, industry, transport, buildings and AFOLU, i.e., agriculture, forestry, and other land uses ( Lamb et al., 2021 ). In Figure 4 below, the greenhouse gas emissions by sector are presented for the years 1990–2018 for the entire world and across 10 ten global regions, namely Asia pacific, Africa, East Asia, Eurasia, Europe, Latin America, Middle east, North America, South Asia, and Southeast Asia. Figure 2 below shows the contribution of greenhouse gases by five economic sectors.

FIGURE 2 . Greenhouse gas contribution by economic sector ( Boden et al., 2017 ; Lamb et al., 2021 ).

From Figure 2 , it is noted that the energy sector inn form of electricity and heat production is the largest contributor of green house gases with about 34%, industry at 24% followed by agriculture, forestry and other land activities accounting for 21%, transportation with 14%, while buildings contributed about 6% while the building sector is least with 6% in 2018 ( Lamb et al., 2021 ). Figure 2 further demonstrates that for the African region, most emissions.

The greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) for 2018 were about 11% (5.8 GtCO 2 eq) higher than GHG emission levels in 2010 (51.8 GtCO 2 eq). The energy sector accounted for close to 1/3rd of the increase in GHG emissions between 2010 and 2018 of about 1.9 GtCO 2 eq, followed by industrial sector with 1.8 GtCO 2 eq which was about 30% of the increase, then the transport accounted for 1.2 GtCO 2 eq or 20% of the increase. Emissions that came from AFOLU increased by about 0.72 GtCO 2 eq equivalent to 12% increase while the buildings sector recorded the lowest increase in emissions with about 0.22 GtCO 2 eq, or 4% ( Lamb et al., 2021 ).

A sustainable energy transition should address the energy sources, energy conversion, transmission, and consumption especially the leading sectors in energy consumptions like heat and power production, transport related activities including fuel use and conversion. These measures include a shift from fossil fuel sources to renewable and low carbon sources, efficient conversion technologies, electrification of transport with most electricity coming from renewable resources, energy conservation measures and elimination of unnecessary energy demand and consumption.

Energy is far much more than just the technical infrastructure. It is through the energy transition that we realize emergence of innovative business models and organization that drives the establishment of new practices and procedures, and new ways of life, reassign responsibilities, reorganize governance, and redistributes power structure. It is for these reasons that the sustainable energy transition calls for consideration of the social, technical, economic, political, and institutional dimensions of sustainability in addressing challenges of the energy sector in order to sustainably shift to a low-carbon economy and electricity systems which is the main focus of this research ( Quitzow, 2021 ).

2 Methodology and Novelity of the Study

In this study, low-carbon energy transitions options and strategies are considered governed and proposed in line with broader sustainability goals and requirements as specified by the dimensions of sustainability. The study sought to identify conflicts and synergies between low-carbon strategies and the attainment of both short term and longer-term environmental, economic, technical, social, and institutional objectives. The research framework is organized across the five dimensions of sustainable energy and specifically electricity development which are environmental, economic dimensions, social aspects, technical dimensions, and institutional, political dimensions. The study adopted secondary method of data collection and analysis from recent primary and secondary data found in original research findings and reports from credible peer reviewed sources. This would facilitate the voice of the common people, professional, experts, and authorities as well as governments for a cleaner global future. For this research, the term primary data refers to the data originated and carried out and presented as peer reviewed academic and professional papers and reports through personal interviews with the expert team or analysis based on primary data and presented as original reports or peer reviewed journal article. Therefore, this study is a review of the energy sustainable transitions globally. Published literature in the form of technical reports, peer reviewed journals and conference papers were reviewed by the authors. The study is a survey using credible literature from peer reviewed journals papers and energy data from various authorities globally.

Most studies on sustainable energy transition are narrow in scope as they tend to concentrate on the environmental dimension of sustainability. Researchers that look at sustainability more wholistically also tend to concentrate on the three pillars of sustainability, namely economic, environmental, and social dimensions of sustainability ( Kabeyi, 2019a ; Barasa Kabeyi, 2019b ; Krzywda et al., 2021 ). Past reviews also concentrate on energy sustainability in general. However, in this study, the focus is electricity as a secondary form of energy derived from primary sources of energy like wind, solar, hydro, nuclear, coal, and gas through indirect conversion through a generator or direct conversion as in fuel cells and solar photovoltaics.

In most studies undertaken on energy transitions, the focus has been on energy technologies and sources with main objective being minimizing emissions. Others have gone further to address variability and intermittence and to rank sources in order of potential within the framework of the three pillars of sustainability. This study is unique as it looks at technical and institutional dimensions in addition to the economic, social, and environmental and hence the role of energy storage and electrification of transport which induces additional variability to demand side. The study also brings into focus the role of the smart grid in managing the dynamic nature of electricity demand and supply in decentralized generation and with the intermittence and variability of wind and solar. The study therefore recognizes that social foundations and human behaviors have a significant role to play in the future sustainability of the energy sector ( Inglesi-Lotz, 2021 ). Therefore, the study pays attention and extensively analyses to energy and electricity models and modelling tools that wholistically considers sustainability in the energy sector and electricity systems.

3 Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Their Environmental Impacts

Greenhouse effect refers to a natural process that has taken place over millions of years but was first discovered by Jean Baptiste-Joseph de Fourier in 1827 ( Wallington et al., 2004 ; Wang, 2019 ). Greenhouse gas effect is the long-term increase in the temperature of the planet Earth as a result of accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere ( İpek Tunç et al., 2007 ). The discovery of greenhouse effect was demonstrated experimentally by John Tyndall in 1861 and quantified in 1896 by Svante Arrhenius. In the work of Svante Arrhenius, the author observed that the release of large amounts of CO 2 emissions from the combustion of fossil and doubling of atmospheric CO 2 concentration warmed the Earth by 5–6°C, as compared to current climate models which predict a 1.5–4.5°C rise by doubling the concentration of CO 2 ( Kabeyi and Oludolapo, 2020a ; Kabeyi and Oludolapo, 2020b ). Greenhouse gas effect results from the interaction between solar energy and greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. The work of Roger Revelle and Hans Suess in 1957, remarked that the build-up of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere constituted a large-scale geophysical experiment whose consequences were unknown and so should be monitored and controlled. As a result, the year 1958 was designated as the International Geophysical Year. This marked the beginning of the ongoing program of continuous measurements of atmospheric CO 2 levels at Mauna Loa, Hawaii, in the United States by Charles Keeling. This measurement demonstrated that the levels of carbon dioxide were rising steadily from 315 ppm in 1958 to 370 ppm in 2001 ( Wallington et al., 2004 ).

The global climate change is one of the leading challenges facing humanity today ( del RíoJaneiro, 2016 ). This is because the climate has been changing over time with manifestations like the global increase in average temperature, rising sea level, heat waves, several incidents of flooding, both stronger and frequent ocean waves, and drought in many parts of the world ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change(IPCC), 2007 ; Butt et al., 2012 ). The United Nations Framework Convention on climate change, attributes these directly or indirectly to human activities that change the atmospheric composition leading variation in the natural climate as observed over a long period of time. There has always been evidence that the global climate has been changing since the beginning of creation, but the current rate is alarming with several consequences already being witnessed today.

Greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) can absorb and radiate thermal energy. It is this greenhouse effect that warms the Earth and keeps its average annual temperature above the freezing point which implies that normal global warming maintains life and so is necessary ( Lindsey, 2021 ). Although carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) is less potent than methane and nitrous oxide, it is more abundant and stays longer in the atmosphere thereby making it more significant. It is for this reason that the increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide is responsible for about two-thirds of the total energy imbalance and temperature rise. Additionally, carbon dioxide has a negative impact to the sea water because when dissolved in ocean water, CO 2 reacts with water molecules to produce carbonic acid which lowers the PH of the ocean water. It is for this reason that the PH of the ocean’s water has reduced from 8.21 to 8.10 since the beginning of the industrial revolution. This is quite significant because a drop by 0.1 in PH causes about 30% increase in acidity of the ocean. The biological effect of ocean acidification is interference with marine life’s ability to extract calcium from the water to build their shells and skeletons ( Lindsey, 2021 ).

The global atmospheric of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) has been increasing particularly on the account of fossil fuel combustion in powerplants, transport and several industrial processes. This is not sustainable because the fossil fuels took many millions of years to form, only to be returned to the atmosphere in just few years, hence their lack of renewability [ United Nations Economic and Social Commission (ESCAP), 2016 ]. It is estimated that the last time the atmospheric CO₂ amounts were relatively higher was about 3 million years ago, when temperature was 2–3°C (3.6–5.4°F) above the pre-industrial era, and the sea level was 15–25 m (50–80 feet) higher than it is today ( Lindsey, 2021 ). Industrialization is the main cause for the steady rise in the concentration of carbon dioxide between 1970 and 2020 because of the use of fossil fuels in transportation, industry, and power generation. This trend is demonstrated in Figure 3 .

FIGURE 3 . Changes in carbon dioxide concentration between 1970 and 2020 ( Lindsey, 2021 ).

From Figure 3 , it is noted that the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide has increased steadily from about 328 ppm in 1970 to 412.5 ppm in 2020 up from 409.8 ppm in 2019 having increased steadily from the value of 328 in 1970. The annual rate of increase in CO 2 in the atmosphere is about 100 times faster than previous natural increases over the past 60 years, e.g., last ice age 11,000–17,000 years ago. Additionally, the ocean has absorbed enough carbon dioxide to lower its pH by 0.1 units causing a 30% increase in ocean acidity ( Lindsey, 2021 ). Although the concentration dropped in 2020, global energy-related CO 2 emissions stood 31.5 Gt, which contributed to CO 2 that made atmospheric concentration reach about 50% higher than it was at the beginning of the industrial revolution ( International Energy Agency, 2021a ).

3.1 Greenhouse Gases in Power Generation

Electricity and heat generation is a leading source of CO 2 emissions and they generated 13 billion tons of CO 2 emissions accounting for 41% of all CO 2 emissions coming from fuel combustion globally in 2017. This was due to the use of fossil fuels to generate about 16,947 TWhrs of electricity representing 63% of the total electricity generation ( Solarin et al., 2021 ) At the global scale, the key greenhouse gases emitted by human activities are carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and F gases. Energy supply is the largest contributor to global greenhouse gas emissions. About 35% of total anthropogenic GHG emissions in 2010 originated in the energy sector. The global annual growth in greenhouse gas emissions from energy supply sector increased from 1.7% per year in 1990–2000 to 3.1% in 2000–2010 mainly due to faster economic growth which increase demand for heat and electricity consumption. Most of these heat and power demand is met by fossil fuel sources of energy ( Bruckner et al., 2014a ).

3.1.1 Carbon Dioxide (CO 2 )

The Natural increases in CO 2 concentrations have been warming the Earth over time with increase in temperature during ice age cycles over millions of years. These warm episodes or interglacial started with a small increase in sunlight when the Earth had a tiny wobble in its axis of rotation around the Sun. This event led to some warming of the Earth’s surface and oceans causing increased release of carbon dioxide. The extra CO 2 in the atmosphere only magnified the initial natural warming. Among the anthropogenic greenhouse gases, CO 2 is responsible for about 60% of the greenhouse gas effect ( İpek Tunç et al., 2007 ). With the industrial revolution, manmade sources have become significant sources of atmospheric carbon dioxide through activities like fossil fuel combustion for power generation, transportation, industrial as well as domestic activities ( Lindsey, 2021 ). Other leading sources are industrial chemical reactions and operations like cement production. Carbon dioxide is mainly removed from the atmosphere or sequestration through photosynthesis [ United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 2017 ]. When carbon dioxide is heated, it absorbs and radiates heat in the form of thermal infrared energy. This radiation has the positive side because without it, the annual average temperature would be just close to 60°F. However, with the rapid increase in greenhouse gas emission, additional heat has been trapped leading to raising planet Earth’s average temperature above the pre-industrial level.

3.1.2 Methane (CH 4 )

Methane is generated from various natural and artificial processes like anerobic digestion and during the production and transport of fossil fuels like coal, natural gas, and oil [ United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 2017 ]. Therefore, methane is added to the atmosphere through natural and anthropogenic sources, with 30% of the methane flux originating from natural sources while about 70% is contributed by anthropogenic sources ( Wallington et al., 2004 ).

3.1.3 Nitrous Oxide (N 2 O)

Food production particularly the use of fertilizers is the primary source of N 2 O emissions. As well as fossil fuel combustion in power generation, industry, and transportation as a product of combustion and wastewater treatment process ( Viet et al., 2020 ). Nitrous oxide (N 2 O) is the third most abundant well mixed greenhouse gas after CO 2 and CH 4 with a life span of about 130 years. The natural sources of N 2 O come from soils and the oceans. Anthropogenic emissions originate from biomass combustion, fossil fuel combustion, and industrial production of adipic and nitric acids, and nitrogen fertilizer use in agriculture ( Wallington et al., 2004 ).

3.1.4 F Gases

The F gases result from industrial processes, refrigeration systems, and the use of some consumer products associated with emissions of F-gases. These gases include hydro fluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride (SF 6 ). Hydro fluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, sulfur hexafluoride, and nitrogen trifluoride are synthetic, and come from industrial processes. These Fluorinated gases are occasionally used as substitutes for ozone-depleting substances , e.g., chlorofluorocarbons, hydro chlorofluorocarbons, and halons. These gases have high global warming potential gases even though they are released in small quantities [ United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 2017 ].

Figure 4 below shows the global composition of the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere ( Lamb et al., 2021 ).

FIGURE 4 . Global greenhouse gas emissions by gas ( Boden et al., 2017 ).

From Figure 4 , it is noted that carbon dioxide remains the dominant greenhouse gas with most of it coming from fossil fuel combustion in industry, heat, and power generation which accounts for 65% of global emissions. Other sources of carbon dioxide are agriculture and forestry related activities which contribute 11% of the greenhouse gas emission in form of CO 2 . Methane is the second largest greenhouse gas accounting for 16% of greenhouse gas emissions, followed by nitrous oxide and F-gases respectively with 6 and 2% contribution respectively.

The global average CO 2 concentration in 2018 was about 407.4 ppm with uncertainty of + and −0.1 ppm. Today, carbon dioxide levels are the highest over the past 800,000 years ( Lindsey, 2021 ). Over 400 billion metric tons of carbon dioxide has been released to the atmosphere from fossil fuels combustion and cement production since the year 1751, of which about 200 billion metric tons originate from fossil fuel combustion since the late 1980s.

In 2014, the global carbon emissions to the atmosphere were about 36 billion tons, which is approximately 1.6 times the 1990s rates, an increase which has been associated with average global temperature rises ( Gamil et al., 2020 ). Close to 9,855 million metric tons of fossil-fuel based carbon dioxide emissions were emitted between 2013 and 2014, representing an increase of 0.8%. Liquid and solid fuels accounted for 75.1% of the global carbon emissions from fossil-fuel burning and cement production in 2014. Gaseous fuel accounted for 18.5% of the emissions which is about 1,823 million metric tons of carbon emissions from fossil fuels in 2014. In 2014, emissions from cement production were 568 million metric tons of carbon indicating, which shows a more than double increase in the last decade to represent 5.8% of global CO 2 emissions from fossil-fuel burning and cement production. Emissions from gas flaring, which accounted for about 2% of global emissions during the 1970s, reduced to less than 1% of global carbon emissions from fossil-fuel ( Boden et al., 2017 ). These statistics show that fossil fuel combustion which mainly comes from power generation and cement production in the manufacturing industry are leading polluters of the atmosphere in terms of carbon emissions.

3.2 Global Warming/Greenhouse Effect

Global warming is the effect of the imbalance between the heat received by the Earth and, the heat reradiated to the space. Terrestrial longwave radiative flux is emitted by the Earth’s surface beyond the 3–100 µm wavelength range while the surface incoming radiation is shortwave solar radiation also called global irradiance or solar surface irradiance. This is the radiation flux density reaching a horizontal unit of Earth surface in the 0.2–3 µm wavelength range ( Ming et al., 2014 ). Global warming refers to the process which leads to the average rise in the Earth’s temperature and that of the atmospheric layers close to Earth because of human activities. Climate change on the other hand is the phenomenon where other climatic factors change due to global warming. Any slight increase in the ocean temperature causes hydrological events which effectively change the physical and chemical characteristics of the water. Aquatic life is affected by change in water as it affects their life cycle, physiology, and behaviors ( Ninawe et al., 2018 ).

Global warming potential (GWP) is a measure of how much a given mass of a chemical substance adds to global warming over a specified time. It refers to the ratio of the warming caused by a substance to the warming caused by a similar mass of carbon dioxide. These therefore allocates 1 as the global warming potential of carbon dioxide. Water has the lowest global warming potential of 0, while Chlorofluorocarbon-12 has a high global warming potential of 8,500. Chlorofluorocarbon-11 has GWP of 5,000. Several hydrochlorofluorocarbons and hydrofluorocarbons have GWP potentials varying between 93 and 12,100 based on a 100-years period ( Demirel and Demirel, 2014 ). The three-time scales used to compute the GWP are 20, 100 or 500 years respectively. The main greenhouse gases from fossil fuel combustion are nitrous oxide (N 2 O), methane (CH 4 ) and carbon dioxide (CO 2 ). The value of the three main greenhouse gases varies in GWP for the time scales used in evaluation, i.e., 20, 100, and 500 years. The GWP of CO 2 is used as a reference in the computation of the relative GWP of other gases ( MacLeod et al., 2011 ; Demirel and Demirel, 2014 ). Table 1 below shows the relative global warming potential (GWP) for water, carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide based on the 20-, 100- and 500-years’ time scale.

TABLE 1 . Global warming potential for various substances/gases ( MacLeod et al., 2011 ; Demirel and Demirel, 2014 ).

From Table 1 , it is noted that the global warming potential of the major greenhouse gases various in value over the three timescales. It shows that N 2 O has the highest individual and average GWP followed by methane and carbon dioxide while water has no global warming potential.

Carbon dioxide accounts for about 60% of the anthropogenic greenhouse gases which are the cause the greenhouse gas effect with use of fossil fuels especially in power being cited as the major cause ( İpek Tunç et al., 2007 ; Tunc et al., 2012 ). The global increase in carbon emissions was about 1.4 ppm before 1995 but thereafter increased to 2.0 ppm ( Owusu and Asumadu-Sarkodie, 2016 ). Carbon dioxide concentration has grown from 277 ppm in 1750 to 397 ppm in 2014 representing about 43% and peaked at 400 ppm between March and December 2015 ( Berga, 2016 ). According to Moriarty and Honnery (2019) and Lindsey (2021) , the concentration of CO 2 in the atmosphere passed 407 ppm in 2018 with energy sector emerging as the largest emitter of the greenhouse gases ( Intergovernmental Panel o, 2007 ; Butt et al., 2012 ; Berga, 2016 ; Owusu and Asumadu-Sarkodie, 2016 ). In 2010, the energy supply sector contributed 35% of all the anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions realized. The emissions increased at average rate of 1.7% between 1990 and 2000 which increased to average of 3.1% between 2000 and 2010 on account of rapid economic growth experienced due to increased use of coal in the energy mix ( Sagan, 2011 ). Fossil fuel sources like coal, heavy fuel oil and natural gas used in power generation are significant sources of greenhouse gases ( Butt et al., 2012 ), yet fossil fuels inform of gas and coal account for over 60% of global electricity generation ( International Energy Agency, 2018 ).

With the increase in energy demand and continuous use of fossil fuels in power generation, a 62% increase in CO 2 emissions is expected between 2011 and 2050 with two thirds of these emissions coming from China and India ( Butt et al., 2012 ). It is for this reason that the Intergovernmental panel on climate change (IPCC) recommended that greenhouse gas emissions should be reduced by 50–80% by the year 2050 to avoid serious consequences of global warming, ( Butt et al., 2012 ). Among the potential consequences are more frequent extreme weather events like heat waves, storms, flooding and droughts, stress due to higher temperatures for plants and humans, rising sea level, and altering occurrence of pathogenic organisms ( Streimikienea et al., 2012 ).

3.3 Other Impacts of Greenhouse Gas Emissions

Besides global warming, some gaseous emissions have other significant negative impacts to the global and local environment. They include contamination of air by pollutants like Sulphur oxides, nitrogen oxides, particulate matter, and volatile organic compounds, which are released into the atmosphere by the combustion of fossil fuels in power plants, vehicles exhausts, industry, and building and equipment. Whereas some pollutants harm human health directly, others lead to atmospheric chemical reactions that yield harmful conditions like depletion of ozone layer besides global warming. This pollution can be controlled or limited through fuel substitution and conversion technologies that are less polluting ( United States Department, 2015 ). For example, power plants should be equipped with pollution monitoring and control systems like desulphurization systems, carbon capture systems and fuel substitution technologies.

The rise in sea level and its acidification is another threat to the global environment and mankind. GHG emissions in the atmosphere lead to changes include sea-level rise, and an increase in the frequency and intensity of certain extreme weather events like drought and storms. Carbon dioxide is also by the oceans, leading to ocean acidification. The solution is increased use of nonpolluting energy sources, carbon capture and energy efficiency measures ( Nag, 2008 ; United States Department, 2015 ; Kabeyi and Olanrewaju, 2020b ).

4 Global Electricity Generation

The ever-growing electricity demand is the main reason for growth in global CO 2 emissions from electricity which have now reached a record high. The commercial availability of low emissions generation technologies and energy sources has placed electricity at the center of the global effort to combat climate change and pollution. Decarbonization of electricity has a significant potential to provide a platform for CO 2 emissions reduction by means of increased use of electricity-based fuels such as hydrogen and biofuels. Renewable energy sources and efficiency in resource use and generation has a special role to play in increasing access to electricity globally ( International Energy Agency, 2019 ).

The shift and growth in electricity demand adopts two distinct global routes or paths. For most developed countries, demand growth is linked to increasing digitalization and electrification which is largely offset by energy efficiency measures and improvements in process energy efficiency. For the developing countries like China and India, the reasons for growing electricity demand are the growing incomes and better quality of life, industrialization, and growing services sector. It is also worth noting that the developed countries account for about 90% of global electricity demand growth, and the trend may remain so until the year 2040 ( International Energy Agency, 2019 ).

Today, Industry and building sectors are the main users of electricity accounting for over 90% of global electricity demand. Moving forward, the main drivers of electricity demand growth are motors in industry which may account for over 30% of the total growth to 2040. It is projected that industrial and domestic space cooling will account for 17% while large electrical appliances are projected to account for 10% growth while electric vehicles are projected to account for 10% growth in electricity demand. Further growth in electricity demand of about 2% is projected to come from provision of electricity access to 530 million first time users of electricity. The Sustainable Development Scenario, projects that electric vehicles will become a leading source of electricity demand moving to the future towards the year 2040 ( International Energy Agency, 2019 ).

The global energy demand and supply has been growing with supply increase of about 60% between 1990 and 2016 when supply hit 568 EJ. The international bunkers was 16.3 EJ in 2016 accounting for 3% of global total energy supply and was marked by a double growth since 1990, an indication of growing activity and hence energy consumption internationally [ United Nations(UN), 2019 ]. The global electricity generation more than doubled between 1990 and 2016, to reach about 25,000 TWh. Between 1990 and 2016, the largest absolute growth in terms of energy sources came from coal with about 5,300 TWh representing +116% growth. Natural gas supply reached 3,500 TWh representing a growth of +213%.

Renewable sources of energy represented by mainly solar, wind grew by +2,224% or 1,370 TWh over the same period. This was the fastest growth recorded for renewable sources of energy. However, over 75% of electricity in 2016 came from non-renewable sources, mainly from thermal energy accounting for 65% or 16,186 TWh and nuclear 10% or 2,608 TWh. On the positive note, between 2000 and 2016, 50% of new electricity generating capacity came from renewable energy sources [ United Nations(UN), 2019 ; Wanga et al., 2020 ]. Figure 5 below shows the changes in total energy supply between 1971 and 2019.

FIGURE 5 . World total energy supply between 1971 and 2019 ( United Nations, 2019a ; International Energy Agency, 2021b ).

From Figure 5 above, it is noted that between 1971 and 2019, the proportionate composition of primary energy mix has been changing. The total primary energy consumption increased from 254 EJ in 1973 to 606 EJ in 2019. Biofuels and wastes reduced from 10.5% in 1973 to 9.3% in 2019. Coal consumption increased from 24.7% of total primary energy consumption to 26.8% in 2019. Oil reduced from 46.2% in 1973 to 30.9% in 2019. Natural gas increased from 16.2% of consumption in 1973 to 23.1%. Nuclear increased from 0.9 to 5% while hydro increased from 1.8 to 2.5% of total primary energy consumption in 2019 ( International Energy Agency, 2021b ).

Fossil fuels generated 61% of global in the year 2020 while combined nuclear, wind and solar accounted for 35% of global electricity generation in the year. Solar energy also surpassed oil in global electricity generation 2020 where solar accounted for 3.2% compared to oil that contributed 2.8% of global electricity generation for the year 2020 ( World Energy Data, 2021 ). Figure 6 below shows global electricity generation from different sources for the year 2020.

FIGURE 6 . World electricity generation by source for 2020 ( BP, 2021 ).

From Figure 6 , it is noted that for the year 2020, fossil fuels contributed 61.3% of global electricity production, 35.2% was on account of combination of nuclear, hydro, and solar, other renewable s accounted for 2.6% while other sources accounted for 0.9%. Coal contributed 35.1% of global electricity while gas accounted for 23.4% of global electricity.

5 Sustainable Energy Development

The road to a sustainable energy future has twin challenges of energy access and mitigation of global warming by control of greenhouse gas emissions ( Kaygusuz, 2012 ). Energy is at the center of several Sustainable Development Goals. They include expansion of electricity access, improving clean cooking fuels, curbing pollution, and reducing wasteful energy subsidies. Goal number 7 also referred to as SDG 7–aims to ensure access to reliable, affordable and modern energy for all by the end of the next decade ( Birol, 2021 ). The global adoption of energy specific sustainable development goals was an important milestone towards a more sustainable and equitable society. Although energy must be at the heart of efforts to lead the world to a more sustainable pathway, the current and planned policies fall well short of realizing the critical energy-related sustainable development targets. On the positive note, there is tremendous progress in delivering universal electricity access (SDG 7.1.1) for Asia and parts of sub-Saharan Africa ( Birol, 2021 ). As in the year 2012, about 1.4 billion people globally had no access to electricity of which 85% are based in rural areas. It is projected that by the year 20130, about 2.8 billion people globally will be relying on traditional forms of energy mainly biomass, which is an increase from 2.7 billion people in the year 2012 ( Kaygusuz, 2012 ), where the number of people without access to electricity declined to 1.1 billion in 2016, from about 1.7 billion in the year 2000. However, it is projected that more than 670 million people will still have no access to electricity in 2030. Therefore a lot more remains to be done in terms of electricity access ( Birol, 2021 ).

Lack of access to affordable electricity and reliance on the inefficient and unsustainable traditional energy like fuelwood, charcoal, agricultural waste, and animal dung) are a clear manifestation as well as an indicator of poverty. Modern energy sources and electricity plays an important role in socio-economic development ( Tracey and Anne, 2008 ; Kaygusuz, 2012 ). Reliable electricity and light lengthen the day activities hence provide extra hours for economic activities. Positive contribution of electricity includes saving women and children from exposure to poisonous smoke and long hours of looking for firewood. Hospitals can better sterilise instruments and store medicines in refrigerators. Electricity improves manufacturing and service enterprises by extending the quality and range of their products hence creating more jobs and higher wage ( Kaygusuz, 2012 ).

5.1 Sustainable Development

There is need to eliminate energy poverty to achieve the Millennium Development Goals but in a way that takes the world away from dependence on the fossil fuels to avoid global warming by moving rapidly towards a green economy ( Vezzoli Vezzoliet al., 2018 ) . The three interlinked objectives that must be achieved by the year 2030 to realise sustainable energy for all are ensuring universal access to modern energy services, double the share of renewable energy in the global energy mix and double the rate of energy efficiency improvement ( Kaygusuz, 2012 ; Vezzoli Vezzoliet al., 2018 ).

Philosophers, economists and scientists introduced the closely related concepts of sustainable development and sustainability in the 18th, 19th, and early 20th centuries ( Seghezzo, 2009 ). Sustainable development can further be defined socio-economic growth that delivers the traditional positive progress and targets in an ecologically acceptable manner and with due regard of the future generations’ welfare and rights to the same ( Kabeyi and Olanrewaju, 2020b ; Kabeyi and Oludolapo, 2021a ). Sustainable is defined as sustained growth, or sustained change or can also be defined simply as development that is successful ( Lélé, 1991 ). Sustainability is necessary in energy and other resources exploitation so as man exploits resources to meet his ever-growing energy demand, he does not compromise the ability of future generations to meet their own energy needs and a stable environment ( Broman and Robèrt, 2017 ; Kabeyi and Olanrewaju, 2020b ). Because of these requirement and expectations, society must strike a balance between economic growth and the social wellbeing of the society as a whole, now and in future to realize sustainability, which is a technical, political and economic challenge ( Dyllick and Hockerts, 2002 ). Therefore, the concepts of sustainable development and sustainability has the objective of achieving economic advancement and progress while at the same time conserve the value and integrity of the environment. This calls for a tradeoff between environmental sustainability goals and economic development objectives and targets ( Emas, 2015 ).

The publication of Carson’s book called “Silent Spring” in 1962 was used as the starting point of the global concern over proper use of natural resources. This can be demonstrated by what emerged 10 years later in 1972 as the “Club of Rome” that styled itself as an independent analysts and think tank who later published a book called “The Limits to Growth” ( Jacobs et al., 1987 ; Intergovernmental Panel o, 2007 ; Akella et al., 2009 ). In this book, the authors observed that if the global economy and population grew unchecked, the planet Earth’s natural resources would approach depletion at a point in future. These narrative led to the formation of the UN “World Commission on Development and Environment”, also called the Brundtland Commission, named after its chair, Gro Harlem Brundtland, who was a former Norwegian Prime Minister ( Seghezzo, 2009 ; University of Alberta, 2021 ). The “Brundtland Commission” released its final report that was entitled, “Our Common Future” 4 years later that defined sustainable development. The report defined sustainable development as a positive change that meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs in future ( World Commission on Envir, 1987 ; University of Alberta, 2021 ). Therefore the concept of sustainable development is more concerned with whether what is acceptable today and is acceptable or not acceptable to the next generation ( Jonathan, 2001 ). Today, the strategies for sustainable development aim at promoting harmony and wellbeing among human beings and between humanity and Mother nature. Obviously, energy especially in the form of electricity has a central role in any effort to achieve sustainable development. From the use of wastes by industry to generate power and stabilize the grid, and conversion of polluting and eye soring slaughterhouse waste to clean electricity and create jobs keeping humanity clean and healthy fee of diseases, poverty, and physical harm ( Kabeyi and Olanrewaju, 2021b ; Kabeyi and Olanrewaju, 2021c ; Kabeyi and Olanrewaju, 2021d ; Kabeyi and Olanrewaju, 2021e ).

Sustainable development and the concept of sustainability calls for integration of economic benefits, social considerations and progress with environmental protection and considerations for maximum positive outcome ( Mohamad and Anuge, 2021 ). The United Nations General Assembly in 2015 adopted the 2030 Agenda for sustainable development which as a framework of 17 sustainable development goals (SDGs). This agenda calls for sustainable development which recognizes need to reduce poverty and guarantee equity and integrity of the entire global human community. These 2030 agenda calls for member countries to protect the planet Earth from further degradation by taking sustainability measures which include sustainable resource production and consumption, and sustainable management and conservation of the Earth’s natural resources and prevent climate change ( United States Department, 2015 ; Kabeyi and Oludolapo, 2020a ).

There is inherent interdependence between environmental stability and the economy which then lays a strong foundation for sustainable development ( Emas, 2015 ). There is however need for public policy that promotes investment in economic and industrial activities that seek to protect the natural environment, promote human, and social capital, and prevent the damage caused by pollution, social clashes, resource waste, and greenhouse gas emissions which are both indicators and effects of unsustainable practices ( United States Department, 2015 ). Fortunately, policies that seek to protect the environment and mother nature also promote innovation and profitability by organizations, and this should encourage enforcement, either voluntarily or by legislations. Promotion of innovation and strict environmental regulations can enhance competitiveness and hence economic performance and progress. The link between the environmental integrity and development provides a strong rationale for environmental protection ( Liu, 2014 ; Kabeyi and Olanrewaju, 2020b ).

The use of polluter pay principle in environmental protection requires authorities to impose penalties upon those who pollute the environment and hence make them bear the cost of their impact instead of leaving it with the environment or others. There is need to integrate economic, environmental, and social objects across sectors, territories, and even generations if sustainable development can be achieved. This implies that energy policy should be an integral part of the entire national and international agenda and should be therefore be integrated in other policies touching on the economy, society and the environment ( Emas, 2015 ). Sustainable energy development should also be taken as a continuous process integrating all aspects of national, local, and international development agendas ( Mohamad and Anuge, 2021 ). Therefore, sustainable energy development can only be realized through integration of energy objectives, development goals and environmental protection to avoid conflict by creating a critical synergy.

5.2 Relationship Between Sustainable Development and Energy

Energy is currently recognized as one of the most important factors that influence the rate of progress as well as sustainable development of all nations ( Kolagar et al., 2020 ). To meet the ever-growing energy demand especially electricity, increase access to electricity for the billions of people with no access to electricity and high-quality low carbon fuels, as well as to reduce greenhouse gas emissions requires a radical shift from the fossil-fuel focused energy systems. There is need for a new energy paradigm to encourage the transformation of the predominantly fossil fuel-based energy systems. Sustainability is an important paradigm in the global energy transition where all dimensions of sustainability are addressed any policy formulation and implementation, planning, operation, and dispatch of the energy resources in both generation and consumption ( Davidsdottir and Sayigh, 2012 ). For a longtime, energy did not seriously factor in sustainable development. However, sustainable development and sustainability issues now play a central role in energy and electricity by anchoring the evolution of the sustainable development paradigm ( Iddrisu and Bhattacharyya, 2015 ; Kabeyi and Olanrewaju, 2021f ).

Specific energy projects influence the economic, social, and environmental dimensions of the sustainability country or region. The triangular approach to the three dimensions of sustainable development consisting of economic, social, and environmental is used to assess the sustainability of a specific energy project ( Kolagar et al., 2020 ). Figure 7 below illustrates the triangular approach in energy project assessment.

FIGURE 7 . The dimensions of sustainability and their interrelationships ( Kolagar et al., 2020 ).

From Figure 7 , it is noted that the three dimensions of sustainability are held together by the institutional state. The economic state is the main driver of social and environmental states with the institutional state playing the coordination role.

It is at the Stockholm conference, energy was identified as a source of environmental stress, thus linking energy to the environmental dimension of sustainable development. The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) which was also referred to as the “Earth Summit,” that was held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, from 3 to 14 June 1992 led to the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, that had no specific reference to energy. Energy was however a central them theme in Chapter 9 in Agenda 21 on the protection of the atmosphere in which energy was identified as a major source of atmospheric pollution ( Quitzow, 2021 ). Agenda 21 further illustrated the need to draw a balance between economic growth, energy consumption, and its environmental impacts. Although the Commission for Sustainable Development (CSD) was established by the Rio conference of 1992, it is in 1997 when energy was placed in the agenda of the Commission for Sustainable Development ( Gibbes et al., 2020 ; Kolagar et al., 2020 ). Based on the progress of the Commission for Sustainable Development (CSD9), the 2002 Johannesburg conference made direct reference to energy as crucial for sustainable development. It is in this conference that energy was addressed within the three dimensions of sustainable development, i.e., economic, social, and environmental. The conference further clearly treated energy as a specific issue of concern rather than a subset of other issues as it was in the Rio Conference. There was strong and specific emphasis on energy use and its social attributes like access to high-quality energy as a basic human right. It is therefore from the Johannesburg conference of 2002 that the social dimension of energy was incorporated in addition to environmental and economic dimensions which had already been incorporated curtesy of the Rio and Stockholm conferences ( Gibbes et al., 2020 ; Kolagar et al., 2020 ).

Important energy issues that affect sustainability are energy research and development, training and capacity building, and technology development and transfers. Therefore, it is the cumulative effect of the Stockholm, Rio, and Johannesburg conferences that the notion of sustainable energy development (SED) as a very important factor in the sustainable development was mooted by linking energy to the environmental dimension in the Stockholm conference, economy in the Rio conference and society in the Johannesburg conference. Over time, energy consumption and energy development have become a specific issue in the three dimensions of sustainable development.

It is Article 8 from the Johannesburg declaration that we get the most comprehensive definition of sustainable energy development. Therefore, sustainable energy development involves improving access to reliable, affordable, economically viable, socially acceptable, and environmentally sound energy services and resources that consider the national specificities and circumstances. These can be achieved through means like enhanced rural electrification, decentralized electricity generation, greater use of renewable energy, use of clean gaseous and liquid fuels and improved energy use efficiency while recognizing the poor and vulnerable and their right of access to clean energy ( Davidsdottir and Sayigh, 2012 ).

5.3 Characteristics of Sustainable Energy

For energy sources and systems to contribute to sustainable development, they should possess the following characteristics.

• Energy resources and systems are sustainable if they are renewable or perpetual in nature.

• Sustainable energy system should not be wasteful but efficiently produced and used with minimum resource wastage.

• Sustainable energy and energy systems should be economically and financially viable.

• Energy is sustainable if the source is secure and diverse.

• Sustainable energy and energy systems should be equitable or readily accessible, available, and affordable.

• Sustainable energy development should bring positive social impacts.

• Sustainable energy should be associated with minimal environmental impacts ( Kolagar et al., 2020 ).

5.4 Themes/Goals of Sustainable Energy Development

By combining the characteristics or features of the Johannesburg definition with the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) definition, there ae four central goals/themes of sustainable energy development. These are.

5.4.1 Improving Energy Efficiency

This involves improvement in economic and the technical efficiency of energy systems in generation and consumption. With investment in efficient energy systems, costs will reduce as well as output from available energy resources This can be achieved through technology transfer, research, and development and good energy management practices ( Kolagar et al., 2020 ).

5.4.2 Improving Energy Security

Energy security covers the security of both supply and the energy resources infrastructure. Energy security refers to the availability of energy at all times in various forms, in sufficient quantities, and at fair prices that are affordable and predictable. Therefore, for energy to be regarded as secure, it must meet all dimensions of sustainable energy and development. Strategies to improve energy security include decentralizing power generation, wide use of renewable energy resources, investment in redundancy, diversifying energy sources, enhancing supply, more use of local energy resources. Common indicators of energy insecurity include power rationing, frequent blackouts, energy related conflicts and price instability and supply instability ( Gibbes et al., 2020 ; Kolagar et al., 2020 ).

5.4.3 Reduce Environmental Impact

Sustainable energy development calls for reduction in emission of greenhouse gas emissions, which cause global warming. This can be achieved through reduction in the lifecycle environmental impact of energy systems use and production or generation. Other strategies include waste recycling and treatment and adoption of clean technologies that ensure that disposal of wastes does not exceed the Earth’s assimilative capacity ( Kolagar et al., 2020 ). Decarbonization of the energy supply is a very important function in the transition to low carbon energy grid and economy. Besides technology, the deployment of a powerplant depends on the availability of resources, socioeconomic impact, and smooth integration with the existing electricity system. Energy system planners should consider all these to determine and prioritize energy projects and programs ( Colla et al., 2020 ).

5.4.4 Expand Access, Availability, and Affordability

Sustainable energy should be reliable in supply and access at affordable price or cost and quality. There is need to expand energy resources to ensure supply reliability. Goals one and two correspond to the economic dimension of sustainable development, while the third goal deals with environmental dimension of sustainable development. On the other hand, the fourth goal deals with the social dimension of sustainable development. Progress towards sustainable energy development can be measured by various indicators which are critical in the energy transition to sustainable energy ( Davidsdottir and Sayigh, 2012 ).

6 Sustainable Energy and Electricity Generation

Sustainable energy or electricity refers to the generation and supply of electricity in a way that does not compromise the ability of future generations to meet their own energy or electricity needs ( Hollaway and Bai, 2013 ). It can also be defined as energy sources that do not get depleted in a time frame that is relevant to humanity and hence contribute to the sustainability of all species ( Lund and Lund, 2010 ). Sustainable Energy, just like sustainable development requires significant changes in the way things are done and the exact things that we do with effects on the industrial, production, social infrastructure, and value systems. The development of clean energy would unlock many challenges to sustainable development ( Kabeyi and Oludolapo, 2020c ; Kabeyi and Olanrewaju, 2021a ; Kabeyi and Olanrewaju, 2022 ). Sustainability is a major concern today as a direct result of the serious concerns over the climate change, of which electricity generation is an important contributor ( Vine, 2019 ). Electricity is a critical product needed to support life, welfare, and global sustainable development ( Berga, 2016 ). Currently, humanity is faced with a significant challenge to realize new sustainable development Goals (SDGs) by the year 2030 ( Berga, 2016 ; Kabeyi and Oludolapo, 2020b ). Sustainable development and its correlation with energy became a significant global concern and issue in the 2002 Johannesburg world summit on sustainable development ( CS-UNIDO, 2008 ) . Determination of the most appropriate energy systems in an electricity mix is considered as a strategic approach in realization of sustainable development ( Ebrahimi and Rahmani, 2019 ; Kabeyi and Olanrewaju, 2020b ). Electricity generation systems can be assessed by a five-dimensional approach consisting of environmental, economic, social, technical, and institutional sustainability as a strong measure of energy sustainability ( Ebrahimi and Rahmani, 2019 ). Therefore, sustainability in energy development seeks to achieve technical sustainability, political or institutional sustainability, social sustainability, environmental sustainability, and economic sustainability which is greatly realized by the development and use of renewable energy resources ( Kabeyi, 2020a ). Figure 8 illustrates the five main dimensions of energy sustainability.

FIGURE 8 . Dimensions of energy sustainability ( Kabeyi, 2020a ).

Figure 8 above summarizes the main dimensions of energy sustainability particularly electricity. The main dimensions of sustainability in energy development and consumption are environmental, social, political, economic, and technical sustainability.

6.1 Technical Sustainability

Technical sustainability of electricity generation refers to the ability to meet the current and future demand in a safe and efficient manner with the use of clean sources of energy and technology ( Kabeyi, 2020a ). Unsustainable production and consumption of energy resources is the main cause of environmental damage in many organizations and countries globally ( Liu, 2014 ). To realise sustainable development calls for changes in industrial processes and systems, in terms of the type and quantity of energy and other resources for waste management, emission control as well as product and service range or type ( Krajnc and Glavic, 2003 ). Through the development and adoption of appropriate technology, humanity can make development of energy sustainable. Engineering and technology are closely linked to sustainability, but the engineering input so sustainability must be in partnership with other interests by application of constraints to the three pillars of sustainability which are social, environmental, and economic pillars. All engineering systems, products, operations, services, and infrastructure have designed and actual life after which they should be subjected to sustainability analysis by application of three measures in order of priority. These measures are reuse, recycle, and disposal ( The Royal Academy of Engineering, 2005 ).

For evaluation of energy or electricity sources, a number technical and operational indicators have to be analyzed ( Dobranskyte-Niskota et al., 2009 ). The typical technical evaluation criteria for energy systems and sources include efficiency, exergy efficiency, primary energy ration, system reliability, maturity, and safety ( Şengül et al., 2015 ). Other important powerplant performance indicators in power plant generation are specific fuel consumption, specific emissions, power plant availability, load factor, among others.

The transformative and disruptive potential of rapid technological changes, and the danger of using primitive technologies should be avoided for a sustainable transition. Even with advanced science, technology and innovation policies, and technologies, it is unlikely to deliver progress regarding global development unless the environment nurtures learning and innovation for effective management of innovation systems. Both national and international policies should promote international technology assessment and foresight and cooperation including collaborations and technology transfer. This cross border partnerships and cooperation will facilitate rapid sustainable energy development ( United Nations, 2019b ).

6.2 Environmental Sustainability

Environmental sustainability is concerned with managing the negative impact of energy production and use to the society and to magnify or extend the good ones. The environment should never be allowed to absorb more than it can contain, naturally or artificially ( Iddrisu and Bhattacharyya, 2015 ). Environmental sustainability is concerned with the integrity of natural environment and its ability to remain resilient and productive in support of humanity ( Kolagar et al., 2020 ). Environmental sustainability is further concerned with the integrity and carrying capacity of the natural environment to sustain humanity as a waste sink and source of raw materials ( Mensah, 2019 ). Thus, the environment or ecological dimension of sustainability is concerned with preservation of the environment and habitats, especially against the impacts of waste disposal, excessive consumption of Earth’s resources, and greenhouse gas emissions. The gases that lead global warming include, carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxides. Carbon emissions in the atmosphere have increased from about 280 ppm by volume during pre-industrial times to over 400 ppm today representing more than 40% increase. In the United States, fossil fuel consumption results in average annual emission of about 5.3 billion metric tons of CO 2 into the atmosphere ( Nag, 2008 ). The origin of these carbon emissions is from energy consumption, non-energy use and industrial processes like iron and cement production.

The typical environmental evaluation criteria of energy systems include emission levels for SO 2 , NO x , CO 2 , particulate emissions, non-methane volatile organic compounds, land use and requirements ( Şengül et al., 2015 ). The main environmental dimension indicators for energy technology assessment include: GHG emissions, environmental external costs, radionuclides external costs, severe accidents perceived in future and fatal accidents from the experience. Additional environmental indicators are land use and solid waste. Life cycle emissions of GHG emissions in kg (CO 2-eq .)/kWh are selected to assess electricity generation technologies according policies like the EU environmental policy on climate change mitigation ( Streimikienea et al., 2012 ). GHC emissions in kg CO 2 eq./kWh were selected instead of external costs of GHG emissions because of the large uncertainties related to evaluation of external costs of GHG emissions. Climate change is the dominating environmental concern of the international environ-mental political discussion of today. Global warming is not only an issue for the environment, but rather for human society, since rising global temperatures might have serious consequences on the economy and social life. The indicator reflects the potential negative impacts of the global climate change caused by emissions of greenhouse gases to produce 1 kWh of electricity. This indicator was used in almost all studies on energy technologies assessment survived ( Streimikienea et al., 2012 ).

Therefore, an environmentally sustainable energy systems should maintain a stable resource base, avoiding energy resource over-exploitation, and avoid depleting non-renewable resources through development of adequate substitutes. These approaches include biodiversity maintenance, atmospheric stability, as well other ecosystem functions that are not necessarily economic resources ( Jonathan, 2001 ).

6.2.1 Atmospheric Temperature Changes

For the world to have a stable atmosphere, it is recommended to maintain temperature increase of 1.5–2°C above preindustrial level which then translates to 400–450 ppm of CO 2 equivalence ( Dyllick and Hockerts, 2002 ). The most widely accepted climate change scenarios and projections predict annual temperature increase of 1–3.5°C in coming decades based on existing scenarios ( Butt et al., 2012 ), hence the need for more global commitment. The Intergovernmental panel on climate change (IPCC) predicted that greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) will lead to global temperature increase of between 1.1 and 6.4°C by the end of the 21st Century with cities like London, Los Angeles and Phoenix having already experienced about 1°C average temperature rise within a decade. The United Kingdom (UK) is expected to experience temperature rise of about 3.5°C by 2050 which will also be accompanied by increased winter precipitation of up to 20% as well as increased incidences of storms ( Hulme et al., 2002 ; Intergovernmental Panel o, 2007 ). This predicted temperature rise is higher than the target set by the Paris Conference of 2015 (COP21) of 2°C above pre-industrial levels ( Berga, 2016 ; Lu, 2017 ). These statistics paint a picture of a world that is already missing its targets that are necessary to save mother nature and humanity.

6.2.2 Ecological Sustainability

Ecologically sustainability requires organizations to use only natural resources that are consumed at rates that are below their natural reproduction or replenishment rates or at a rate less than the development rate of substitute products or resources. They should also ensure that emissions which have potential of accumulation should not be allowed to accumulate at rates that are more than the capacity of the natural removal or absorption from the ecosystem system ( Kabeyi, 2019a ; Barasa Kabeyi, 2019b ; Kabeyi, 2020b ). Sustainable organizations should never engage in actions or activities that degrade any part of their eco-system ( Dyllick and Hockerts, 2002 ). Natural resources should be consumed by mankind at rates that allow them to replenish themselves ( University of Alberta, 2021 ). Therefore, environmentally sustainable systems should maintain a stable resource base free from over exploitation of energy resources. Ecological sustainability also advocates for maintenance of biodiversity, stability of the atmosphere, and other economic and non-economic ecosystem functions and resources ( Jonathan, 2001 ), while non-renewable resource substitution by renewable sources is a solution for the depleting ad polluting resources like fossil fuels namely petroleum, coal, and gas.

Environmental management and protection are a significant indicator of peoples’ culture, values, and ethical principles. Ethics involve making decisions based on acceptable values. This calls for social movements that constitute useful sources of cultural values and environmental movement to influence the environment is managed ( Kabeyi, 2018a ; Kabeyi, 2018b ). Therefore, sustainable environmental management is a result of multiple actors and factors. Environmental management for sustainability is concerned with control of interaction with the environment to protect and enhance human health and welfare together with environmental quality. Energy production, conversion, delivery, and end use can have serious environmental consequences to air, land, and water quality which are important for preservation of human life. These environmental issues related to energy are discussed below ( Kabeyi and Olanrewaju, 2020b ).

6.2.3 Water Pollution

Energy-related processes impact on water through discharge of water polluting solid and liquid wastes, thermal pollution from waste process heat, and excessive consumption of freshwater, and negative impact on aquatic life. Chemical contaminants like acids from mining operations, and discharge of coal ash to water bodies, radioactive wastes from nuclear power plants as well as oil spills from diesel power plants are common scenes from power plants ( Raja et al., 2006 ; Rajput, 2010 ). Although considered as gaseous and hence air contaminant, Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) causes acidification of oceans with serious negative impacts on aquatic life. Process improvements and technology can help mitigate this pollution of water from energy related activities ( Nag, 2008 ; United States Department, 2015 ). Buried nuclear wastes can cause contamination of underground water source. Energy-related atmospheric emissions of conventional pollutants such as particulates, sulfur, and nitrogen compounds have been reduced through improved combustion strategies and exhaust scrubbing while transition to cleaner energy sources is also proving to be effective ( Raja et al., 2006 ; Nag, 2008 ; Rajput, 2010 ; Kabeyi, 2020a ). Used brine can also contaminate surface water in geothermal powerplants in powerplants with no reinjection ( Kabeyi, 2019b ; Kabeyi, 2020c ). Some technologies may not be water polluting but the process through which the plant and equipment are producing may be highly polluting.

6.2.4 Land Contamination

Energy and power generation related activities contaminate or pollute land in various ways . Land pollution takes many forms like deposition of atmospheric pollutants with precipitation, direct discharge, and accumulation of pollutants like coal ash from coal power plants. Oil spills from diesel power plants, soil extraction or excavation for fuel mining and production or associated with energy plant and infrastructure siting and development. Although regarded as clean power sources, wind, and solar power plants occupy huge tracts of land which may no longer be used for other economic activities like farming and human settlements. Cases of induced seismicity have been experienced in geothermal power development and generation which affects land use ( Barasa Kabeyi, 2019a ; Kabeyi, 2020c ; Kabeyi et al., 2020 ). Radioactive wastes from nuclear power plants may also be buried underground rendering the area useless for other economic activities ( Rajput, 2010 ). While liquid and gaseous emissions and effluents still must be handled by nuclear power plants. Buried nuclear wastes can cause contamination of underground water source. Energy-related atmospheric emissions of conventional pollutants such as particulates, sulfur, and nitrogen compounds have been reduced through improved combustion strategies and exhaust scrubbing while transition to cleaner energy sources is also proving to be effective ( Raja et al., 2006 ; Nag, 2008 ; Rajput, 2010 ; Kabeyi, 2020a ). Lack of reinjection in geothermal power plants can lead to land contamination by the used geothermal fluid ( Kabeyi, 2020c ; Kabeyi and Olanrewaju, 2021a ).

6.3 Economic Sustainability

Economic sustainability in energy and electricity production and use refers to the ability to meet demand in a cost-effective manner. It also a measure of access to requisite financing for energy resource development. The cost-effective operation will ensure that the energy system is s economically viable and feasible and hence makes the investment attractive to investors and financiers ( Kabeyi, 2020a ). All economies are made up of markets where transactions are made. The main activity in an economy is production of goods and services, distribution and consumption ( Mensah, 2019 ). Therefore, economic dimension of energy sustainability is concerned with the viability of individuals and organizations, products, and services in production and consumption of energy or electricity, distribution, and interactions.

Economic sustainability seeks to maintain the operational stability in terms of liquidity and cash flow and ensure fair or reasonable income and benefits to investors and other stakeholders in energy systems ( Dyllick and Hockerts, 2002 ). Electricity is the most multipurpose energy carrier globally, and therefore it is highly linked to human and economic development ( Bazmi and Zahedi, 2011 ). For economic sustainability to thrive, organizational policies, and operations should not retard economic progress, development, or affluence of society ( Hasna, 2007 ). It is through economic sustainability that humanity can maintain independence and have unlimited access to the required energy resources. Economic sustainability is realized from energy systems if they remain intact while activities and processes are equitably accessible to all to secure their livelihoods in a fair manner ( University of Alberta, 2021 ). Therefore, energy or electricity system must continuously produce goods and services to manage debts, pay bills, pay workers ensure sectorial balance with stable agricultural and industrial production ( United States Department, 2015 ). Energy systems and organizations should remain profitable and useful from one generation to another generation ( Kabeyi, 2018b ). Therefore, this implies that energy systems are economically sustainable if they are operated profitably by investors or organizations.

Energy costs are embedded in every commodity and service in an economy and therefore the economy requires better and efficient energy technologies to reduce energy costs leading to affordable electricity. This will enhance the level of economic activities through better supply reliability, reduced import bill, and a bigger market for energy goods and services. This leads to higher gross domestic product and balance of payments at a macroeconomic level ( United States Department, 2015 ). The various elements of economic dimension of energy sustainability of include corporate sustainability, energy costs, supply disruption loses, energy import bills, energy technology, and service market.

Renewable energy projects make use of local labor from rural areas, businesses, local material and business, local investors, and other services. Therefore revenue from renewable energy electricity revenue is invested back to local communities in form of taxes, payments for materials and labor as well as profits to investors which leave more economic benefits than imported fossil fuels or imported grid power ( Kumar and Okedu, 2019 ). Different renewable energy sources have different socioeconomic value. For example, biofuel projects create more jobs as compared to jobs created by solar and wind powerplants which gives the different projects a unique rank in socioeconomic evaluation of energy options. The cost and price of generated electricity is another important economic aspect of power generation projects and has a bearing on electricity sustainability ( Akella et al., 2009 ).

In economic evaluation of energy systems, typical evaluation criteria include total cost of investment, operation, and maintenance cost, fuel cost of generation, electricity cost, net present value (NPV), service value and equivalent cost of the energy system ( Şengül et al., 2015 ). The Economic dimension in sustainability assessment of energy technologies and projects is significant since energy or electricity supply cost influences technology adoption and penetration. Indicators that address economic dimension of energy sustainability assessment in electricity and heat generation and supply include the private or investors costs involved, the fuel price increase sensitivity, energy or plant average availability factor, costs involved in grid connection, energy or plant peak load response, and energy security of supply. Very important economic investment indicators are private costs, availability factor and costs of electricity grid connection ( Streimikienea et al., 2012 ). Goods and services should be produced in a continuous manner in an economically sustainable system to be realized. Should produce goods and services continuously, to maintain sustainable levels of debt, and ( Jonathan, 2001 ).

6.3.1 Energy Costs

Several factors influence the cost of energy and electricity and hence the price paid by consumers. These factors include the type of primary energy commodity used, availability of supplies or resources, primary sources price or cost, the capital costs of the power plant and operating costs incurred to convert or process the supplies into energy services like electricity, and prevailing energy demand. The variation in energy cost for various sources of energy leads to market competition among energy resources and services, with alternatives sources of energy. Unfortunately, the costs associated with energy security and environmental factors are often not fully included in the market price of energy sources. Reduced energy costs generally contribute to improved performance in many sectors of the economy, hence the need for low-cost energy and electricity supply. The reduction in cost of solar and wind power generation can significantly affect the competition with other, more traditional generation options like fossil fuels ( United States Department, 2015 ).

Energy systems respond to changes in input price and technology at different rates to in the energy sector and markets. The price of energy responds to the supply and prevailing demand which is dynamic. The factors influencing price include inventory level, level of economic activities, political factors, environmental factors, and market speculation which can drive market price volatility. These instability and volatility in energy price makes planning complicated and difficult, and hence negatively impact the entire economy. It is desirable to have a diversified portfolio comprising of many different sources of energy supply and enabling technologies to provide feasible options that can allow one to hedge the risk of being dependent on a single energy supply ( United States Department, 2015 ).

6.3.2 Energy Related Disruption and Losses

Energy disruptions can occur on the supply side, consumer side or transmission and distribution infrastructure any time, whether planned or not. Any electric power outage causes substantial economic costs and losses to the businesses and activities most of which depend on electricity. As an example, study by Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory in 2006 on the cost of power outages estimated that disruptions to the U.S. electric power system cost between $22 and $135 billion per year with common causes identified as weather-related events like falling trees, and equipment failures like transformer failures. In another study, it was found outage-related costs ranging from $20 to $50 billion per year for weather-related outages alone. These losses are worse off if damages due to extreme weather events like Hurricanes are considered. The solution to this significant loss is improvements to the transmission and distribution systems ( United States Department, 2015 ). Sustainable engage should not only be affordable but reliable in supply, generation, and transmission.

6.3.3 Energy Import Liabilities

Energy business has significant impact on the balance of payment positions for importing and exporting countries for example the US spent approximately $190 billion in 2014 on petroleum imports. Oil importing countries must content with energy insecurity and fluctuating price and supply of petroleum. Electricity can also be imported and exported between countries leading and sharing of resources with resource rich countries especially with desirable renewable and low carbon sources like hydro and nuclear. Reducing dependence on energy imports reduces the impact of supply disruptions while promoting local investment in sustainable energy options ( United States Department, 2015 ).

6.3.4 Energy Technology Markets

Electricity generation and distribution is a big business in all countries while production and export of energy resources like fossil fuel sustains many countries’ economies with some almost entirely dependent on oil and gas exports. Other commercial primary resources include coal while some countries have relied on charcoal business to generate significant revenue. Export of energy production equipment like generators, turbines, boilers, and other plant equipment represents a substantial market opportunity for many countries like the United States and often generate high-value jobs. The International Energy Agency (IEA) predicts that clean energy will supply between $7 trillion and $10 trillion investment in electricity generation of which $6 trillion will be renewable sources and $1 trillion in low carbon nuclear power generation over between 2015 and 2025. It is observed further about two-thirds of this investment will be done in emerging economies. Additionally, energy efficiency investments will account for a further $8 trillion of investment ( United States Department, 2015 ).

6.4 Social Sustainability

Social sustainability is concerned with the rights of the community as measured by the level of social acceptance and access to the energy resource and systems by the people ( Iddrisu and Bhattacharyya, 2015 ). Social sustainability is the ability to preserve desirable social values, institutions, traditions, and social characteristics of the society before and after a project or an intervention. It is also concerned with social justice and therefore addresses aspects like labour practices, variance in production standards, and promotion of equity among all people ( Kabeyi, 2018c ; Kabeyi, 2019a ; Kabeyi, 2019c ). Social sustainability can be achieved by the selection and development of technology and powerplants that provide adequate power and employment to local communities and that don’t interrupt or interfere with their established way of living and value system ( Liu, 2014 ; Kabeyi, 2020a ; Kolagar et al., 2020 ). Therefore, social sustainability implies that people are important because development is basically about the people themselves. Principles that should be applied in energy development to realize social sustainability include accountability, empowerment, participation, cultural identity, and institutional stability ( Mensah, 2019 ).

At institutional level, sustainability is grounded in environmental initiatives which were sometimes referred to as green corporate initiatives. This is the ability of an organization to endure, take care of the needy in society and ensure institutional responsibility for greater good of the human society ( Samaras et al., 2019 ), by taking care of the world’s most vulnerable people in society. Any effort to achieve financial gains for the few while ignoring the needs of the majority is no longer acceptable, reasonable, productive, or justifiable ( Kabeyi, 2020b ). Therefore, socially sustainable organizations attempt and succeed in adding value to the communities within which they operate or do business. This is achieved by increasing the human capital base of individual partners and social capital of the community. Organizations should manage social capital in a way that stakeholders do understand the objectives and motivations for general agreement and cooperation ( Dyllick and Hockerts, 2002 ). Therefore key requirements for social sustainability of energy transformation is openness and democracy in the process ( Miller et al., 2013 ). Therefore, engaging in community social responsibility (CSR) activities is a strategy for increasing social sustainability of energy activities.

Social sustainability assumes two types of sustainability, i.e., social capital and human capital. Social capital is concerned with quality of public services like good education, water, infrastructure or a supporting culture and value system. Human capital is primarily concerned human skills, level of motivation, and loyalty of employees and business partners in their own capacity ( Dyllick and Hockerts, 2002 ). Therefore, human capital is an intrinsic phenomenon of an individual or individuals while social capital is concerned with communal or common physical projects, infrastructure or facilities meant to improve the quality of human beings in each social system. This implies that sustainable energy systems should have a positive impact on both human and social capital of the society.

Individual organizations have a critical role to play to ensure social sustainability of energy systems during the energy transition. Social sustainability requires organizations to act in a manner that creates welfare to society and all its people and should be ready to take responsibility for their actions ( Mohamed et al., 2020 ). A socially sustainable organization should internalize the social costs, develop the capital stock, exceed the social carrying capacity, enhance self-renewal of natural systems, nature openness, accountability, and democracy, enhance human choices and practice fair distribution of available but scarce energy and other resources among all stakeholders. It is necessary that social sustainability should preserve human rights and human dignity and guarantee equitable access to necessities which leads to a healthy and secure society. Communities that are healthy have fair leadership which ensures that personnel, labor, and cultural rights of all are respected to the later ( University of Alberta, 2021 ). Therefore for energy resources and electricity systems to be socially sustainable, they should be characterized by equity, reliable supply of social services, address gender equity, facilitate political stability, address accountability issues, and nature participation in their governance systems ( Jonathan, 2001 ). Social sustainability requirements call for energy practitioners, organizations, and countries, local and international organizations to go beyond just energy solutions and ensure holistic approach in as far as energy transition is concerned. Energy transition should address human physical and health, system and human safety, human rights, and dignity for sustainable energy development to be achieved.

Energy policies necessary to realize sustainability should be guided by a mixture of robust, objective, empirical, and theoretical principles that consider the impact not just to the current generation, but equally on future generations. Energy resources and electricity systems should consider socio-technical impacts on man and machines for them to be socially acceptable. Adoption of new electricity or energy technologies should bear in mind that systems are operated by man and should therefore be acceptable and comfortable by design and adequate capacity building should be done for man to be comfortable and therefore embrace new ways and systems. The impact of the technology change or acquisition on current and future financial systems, school system, labour market composition, organizational culture and political aspirations of the people should be considered in the energy transition if it has to be sustainable and avoid failure or negative perception by the people ( Miller et al., 2013 ). This implies that man is a very important aspect of the energy transition and should be at the center of the transition and be involved using various participatory methodologies, otherwise the transition may never succeed.

Any social evaluation of energy systems should consider social acceptability, expected job creation, and other social benefits of the energy systems ( Şengül et al., 2015 ). Significant social indicators for energy and electricity technologies are related job opportunities, health effects, food safety and security risk and work-related accidents and fatalities. Technology specific job opportunities in person-year/kWh indicator are based on the average amount of labor used to produce a unit of electricity ( Berga, 2016 ; Lu, 2017 ). The quality of electricity or energy related work is addressed by Work Quality indicator is based on knowledge and training of average worker in each technology chain, using an ordinal scale indicator ( Streimikienea et al., 2012 ). A system is said to be socially sustainable if it guarantees distributional equity, provides social services like education, health, guarantees gender equity as well as political accountability and adequate public participation of stakeholders ( Jonathan, 2001 ).

Therefore, social sustainability of the energy transition is concerned with the value to community, democratic participation, direct benefits through addition of human and social capital, job creation and other community benefits through activities like corporate social responsibility and respect for local customs, traditions, and beliefs.

6.5 Political and Institutional Sustainability

The development of new energy technologies, new business models, and new policy priorities and frameworks need new market participation and control models and rules and regulations which require new governance and new institutional design ( De, 2021 ; Lenhart and Fox, 2021 ). Transition historical studies show that whereas technological innovations and market actors are the main drivers of change, extensive studies claims that it is governance systems that influence the distribution of the benefits of new technologies to the society which is an important requirement of sustainability ( Kuzemko et al., 2016 ; Kabeyi, 2020a ). The road to the global low-carbon transformation should deal with the climate crisis is within reach, but this requires political actions from world leaders. There is need for action along multiple approaches and models globally that can be scaled up and adapted to suit specific national prevailing circumstances. Cost-effective a low-carbon technologies are available in many fields with several under research but the rate of adoption is still a serious concern because governments need to put in place the right policies, regulations and a facilitating legal framework for faster and successful adaption ( Watson, 2014 ; Krzywda et al., 2021 ). Political or institutional dimension of energy sustainability is concerned with governance of sustainable energy transformation at all levels. This is achieved by setting and implementing policies and regulations with different political institutions influencing governance choices ( Kuzemko et al., 2016 ). This implies that the political dimension of energy sustainability is concerned with the strategic planning and definition of the energy system and related systems and processes. Therefore, political sustainability concerns address the future structure and indicates some issue on political stability and foreign policies of the energy system ( Kabeyi, 2020a ). For development to be sustainable, there is need for adequate management of the tradeoff between social equity, protection and integrity of the environment, real economic development and progress and preservation and use of natural resources for equitable use by all ( Robyns et al., 2012 ). This can only be achieved effectively when we have the political will from all if not many nations and groups that have power to influence energy policy ( Kabeyi, 2019a ).

The institutional dimension of sustainability defines the role of local participation in the control and management of energy resources and energy systems ( Kabeyi, 2019a ; Kabeyi, 2019c ). The institutional dimension embodies elements like local ownership, participation, local contributions, local skill base, local policy and regulation, protection of investors and consumers and sharing of resources and benefits accruing. This dimension is the one that defines the system structure and framework of processes, systems and policy decisions which affect the project or investment ( Iddrisu and Bhattacharyya, 2015 ; Kolagar et al., 2020 ). There is evidence that highly or adequately institutionalized countries with efficient and effective energy related institutions are more successful in managing the energy transition. This is because the institutions encourage innovation, efficient resource allocation and set desirable policy, legal and financial measures and instruments which are enables of sustainable energy transition ( Inglesi-Lotz, 2021 ).

6.5.1 Politics and Sustainable Energy Transition

Energy activities, products and services constitute big business globally. In 2015, four out of eight top Fortune 500 companies, were energy related companies like Exxon Mobil, Chevron, Phillips 66, and General Electric. Therefore, energy represents a big portion of global economy and therefore it affects jobs, people’s incomes, company performance, profits, and personal or individual economics. Within these dynamics, politics become important especially as an enabler of business through various instruments at their disposal. Internationally, government subsidies have helped the development of new technology for solar and wind power. Many governments subsidize the oil and nuclear power industries which complicates the viability of renewable energy resources and technologies ( United States Department, 2015 ).

Politics play a leading role in the coal industry which continues to survive and thrive in many countries like the United States because of exemptions from federal pollution regulations making its use competitive. The same is true for hydrologic fracturing or fracking, which has survived in the US because of the 2005 Clean Water Act. The US government also subsidizes pipelines and supports military actions in the Middle East as a strategy to ensure a stable and reliable supply of fossil fuels. Energy has also been a leading cause of most political tensions between countries. These tensions or conflicts shape the decisions all countries make about their energy resources which ultimately affects their electricity mix so as to manage costs, security and environmental concerns besides shaping international relationships ( Dufour, 2018 ).

6.5.2 Energy Policies, Regulations, and Governance

Governments should strive to meet the growing energy demand but also meet environmental requirements. To realize these demand and sustainability challenges, Governments should develop regulations and policies that seek to meet the growing energy needs and concerns over emissions and global warming. It is necessary to develop sustainable energy policies to provide relevant and suitable policy recommendations for end-users ( Lu et al., 2020 ). Policymakers should develop sustainable solutions and a conducive environment for a sustainable energy transition. Good governance in the energy sector is an important tool to realise climate change mitigation by investing in sustainable measures and projects. There is need for public intervention by putting in place what is considered as a conducive energy transition’s regulatory framework. Renewable energy projects and other sustainable energy investments, just like any other investment, require political stability, proper regulatory frameworks, good and effective governance and secure property rights ( Inglesi-Lotz, 2021 ).

Energy policy issues are political in nature, and act as instruments through which governments can influence sustainability in the society. Governments should develop energy policies which can alter consumption habits and patterns, reduce fossil fuel dependency and environmental conservation and protection while stimulating investment and development of clean energy technologies. Interest groups represent interests from energy conservation proponents to nuclear power opponents ( Marcus, 1992 ). Interest groups representing various groups and stakeholders from energy conservation to nuclear power opponents need to be heard during policy formulation on sustainable electricity ( Marcus, 1992 ). Energy policy seeks to establish security of supply, energy affordability, and minimum impact on the environment.

Institutions in energy transition generally refers to the formal and informal rules and their enforcement ( Inglesi-Lotz, 2021 ). The quality of these institutions is measured in terms of ability to create a conducing environment characterised by the following indicators and dimensions.

6.5.2.1 Voice and Accountability

This refers to the extent to which the people in a country can choose and challenge the government of the day which limits executive authority.

6.5.2.2 Peace and Political Stability

The citizens of a country have no incentive to invest in their future in environments of political instability or civil strife. This therefore makes sustainability concerns secondary to the need for immediate survival.

6.5.2.3 Government Effectiveness

Government effectiveness is the quality of public services and the degree of freedom or independence from political pressures and interference. This creates an enabling environment for private sector investment in energy.

6.5.2.4 Regulatory Quality

Regulatory quality is the ability to formulate and implement appropriate policies and regulations that facilitate private sector growth and development. This requires that government lays down fair and uniform rules of economic engagement.

6.5.2.5 Rule of Law

Investment in sustainable energy requires suitable laws governing quality of contract enforcement, private and public property rights, effective police, and courts for arbitration and the enforcement of the rules of society.

6.5.2.6 Control of Corruption

There is need for a strong anticorruption prevention for more the more economic success as a Corruption inhibits investment and increases the cost of doing business and lowers competence and efficiency of performance which in itself and indicator of lack of sustainability ( Kabeyi, 2020b ).

6.5.2.7 Ease of Doing Business

This is a measure of the multitude of aspects that influence the extent to which the regulatory environment is facilitates business operations. Investment in sustainable renewable energy projects can delayed or abandoned by too complex and lengthy bureaucratic procedures and corruption ( Inglesi-Lotz, 2021 ).

A sustainable energy transition calls for the design of an appropriate market structure for proper performance of the energy sector in terms of prices, energy efficiency, supply, and technological innovation. Governance mechanisms directly influence the market structures and influence investment decisions. Therefore, bad or improper market structure designs and policies can lead to higher costs of the energy sector unnecessarily which impacts negatively on the welfare of consumers ( Inglesi-Lotz, 2021 ).

6.5.3 Energy Security, Risks, and System Resilience

Energy security generally refers to low probability of damage to acquired values. Energy security is best defined by the four As of energy security which refer to availability, affordability, acceptability, and access to energy resources and systems ( Cherp and Jewell, 2014 ). Energy security is therefore the degree of vulnerability on vital energy resources and systems which is influenced by the degree of exposure to energy related risks, its resilience and links to important energy and social systems. Energy security issues emerged in the early 20th century with respect to the supply of oil to the military more so in the frontline. Academic reflections on energy security emerged in 1960s and became real in 1970s with the oil crisis. It remerged in the 2000s with concerns over rapid demand growth for energy in Asia and gas supply disruptions in Europe and the current pressure over emissions and global warming concerns ( Cherp and Jewell, 2014 ; Austvik, 2016 ).

Energy systems are entangled with human and national security with reliability concerns shaping public opinion and policy as well as political decisions and agenda with implications on the economy and political systems ( Austvik, 2016 ). It is the desire of everybody and every nation to have uninterrupted supply of vital energy services and hence, energy security is a priority for all nations ( Jansen and Seebregts, 2010 ). The security concerns are robustness, i.e., resource sufficiency, system reliability, stability, and affordability; sovereignty which include protection from internal and external threats; and resilience which is ability to withstand disruptions of energy systems. For many countries, energy insecurity means lack of self-sufficiency and having aging infrastructure, while insecurity issues among developing countries additionally includes lack of adequate capacity, high energy intensity, and high demand growth that is more than ability to supply. For low-income countries, multiple vulnerabilities overlap, making them seriously energy insecure ( Jacobs et al., 1987 ).

Energy security is a very important policy driver with privatization of the electricity sector being used as a tool to secure cheaper energy supplies in some countries in the short term. However, this has led to contrary effects in some places because of stiff competition, resulting in delayed and deferred development of power plant and infrastructure caused by prolonged uncertainties on viability ( Bazmi and Zahedi, 2011 ). Renewable energy sources have the potential to help nations become independent from foreign energy supplies and mitigate risks from conflicts and other disruptions to vital energy resource supplies because most of them do not rely on imports unlike fossil fuels sources ( Ölz et al., 2007 ). A typical example of an energy conflict involved the expansion of the existing pipeline between Germany and Russia through the Baltic Sea. This caused international disputes with the US warning Germany with sanctions ( Dettmer, 2019 ). In this energy project, countries like Poland and Ukraine heavily criticized the pipeline, fearing that Russia would use it for political gain and escalate regional conflicts through arming Eastern European countries ( Gurzu, 2019 ). This is because of the concern that the pipelines can deliver gas to German directly and hence by-pass Ukraine and thus escalate the conflict with Ukraine.

In another case of energy insecurity, the first oil crisis in 1973 brought about a reduction of about 30% in the supply to of oil to Japan leading to Japanese economic downturn and recession in 1974. These reminded policy makers in Japan that energy supply is a serious security issue and should be managed ( Cheng, 2009 ; Mihut and Daniel, 2013 ). The case was similar in South Korea which was also seriously affected by the first and second oil shocks of 1973 and 1979 ( Miller et al., 2013 ; Azad, 2015 ). The supply shocks demonstrated that energy supply and national security are seriously intertwined. In 2011, the Tohoku earthquake in Japan brought about massive disruptions to energy supply after Japan was forced to shut down its nuclear power plants after the nuclear accident at Fukushima Daiichi power plant leading to increased use of fossil fuels. This caused significant increase in fossil fuel demand and supply ( McCurry, 2015 ; Energy Information A, 2020 ). Today, Japan and South Korea have shifted their electricity generation from oil based and to liquefied natural gas and coal which is steal a fossil fuel but with less environmental impact ( Korea Energy Economics In, 2017 ; Ministry of Economy, 2018 ).

In yet another case of energy insecurity, Taiwan, experienced a massive power outage in the northern half of the island in 201 that lasted 5 h causing an estimated damage of three million US dollars. Although this was partly blamed on human error, and structural challenges within Taiwan Power Corporation, a critical analysis showed that operating electricity reserves had significantly reduced from 6% to just 1% within 1 week to the blackout ( Yu, 2017 ). Therefore, adequate energy planning has an important role to play in energy supply security and that unreliable or insecure energy system can be quite destructive and costly to any economy.

There are several energy related risks to national energy and electricity security, and can be broadly categorized into physical, cyber, economic, and conflict-related risks although with significant overlaps among these categories. Energy technologies must be robust and resistant to these vulnerabilities if they must be sustainable and secure.

6.5.3.1 Physical Energy Risks

Energy security risks are related to the damage and disruption of energy supply, energy storage, and delivery infrastructures. Several energy infrastructure and assets are susceptible to damage and disruptions. Energy infrastructure include the electrical grid infrastructure system, pipelines for oil and gas, and rail transport network and infrastructure, as well as road and marine systems. Examples of damages to the infrastructure include Hurricane Sandy effects and the attacks on substation facilities and power plants as a result of extreme weather with climate change raises these risks ( United States Department, 2015 ).

6.5.3.2 Cyber Security Risks

Cyber security refers to vulnerabilities that compromise the computer-based systems and related operations and functions like data inputs, data analysis, and data processing, the real time operation and coordination of electricity supply systems, energy delivery, and end-use systems control in smart grids. There is need to validate and manage all data inputs, monitor the systems for intrusion, and the need to address other vulnerabilities which come with challenges of maintaining the integrity of these systems. Electricity networks encounter cyber security threats which increase with access to the internet and other computer supported operations as in the case of the smart grid ( United States Department, 2015 ).

6.5.3.3 Economic Energy Risks

Economic energy security risks are related to resource supply and price shocks like the oil crisis of 1973 and 1978. Energy resources that are traded internationally are particularly subject to price and supply fluctuations due to various reasons that include civil war, international war, economic sanctions, and deliberate supply control. The price and supply shocks create uncertainties for energy-dependent businesses, which then invest in energy security measures including research and development of renewable and sustainable energy systems. Supplier related risks include price and supply manipulations. Manufacture of complex energy infrastructure components is often dependent on global supply chains which can be adversely affected by long lead times, long-range shipping logistics, and price volatility ( United States Department, 2015 ).

6.5.3.4 Conflict-Related Energy Insecurity

These are risks that are related to unrest in foreign countries as well as energy fueled domestic or local conflicts. International security risks include those that involve unrest in locations that are critical to global energy supply ( Austvik, 2016 ). They include conflicts in the Middle East which seriously disrupt the supply of petroleum resources. These conflicts also cause deaths, economic meltdown, and environmental disaster like oil spills and destruction of oil resources by enemies in conflicts ( United States Department, 2015 ).

In many countries, conflicts over energy resources are a common denominator. In most of these conflicts, prevailing historical differences and injustices among neighbors has been cited in various areas like religion, tribe, race or even clans and political inclinations. For example, in Syria and Iran, the conflicts appear like they are religious in nature between Sunnis, Shiite Muslims, Kurds, Turkmen, and others while. In Nigeria, it may appear as a conflict is over energy between Muslims, Christians, and other traditional groups, while in the South Sudan, the conflict looks like just differences between the Dinka and Nuer tribes. In Eastern Europe, conflicts in Ukraine, are between Ukrainian loyalists and Russian speakers aligned with Moscow. A deep scrutiny of these conflicts highlighted place energy at the epicenter of the differences, hence the reality is that these conflicts are struggles for control over the principal source of national income which is energy ( Marcus, 1992 ; Dufour, 2018 ). Therefore, it is only through proper energy resource management that social, political, and economic conflicts can be avoided or resolved. Hence, for energy to be sustainable, governments and groups have a duty to maintain peace and stability and prevent or manage existing and potential energy conflicts within their political environment.

6.5.4 Corporate Sustainability

This is an extension of institutional and political dimension of energy sustainability ( Kabeyi and Olanrewaju, 2020b ). Organizations and individuals create social impacts that are both positive and negative, through their operational activities. Societies rely on organizations for individual and common good and benefits like employment and social infrastructure, while organizations or corporations need societies to provide workforce and other critical inputs like raw materials to sustain their operations. While we have the interdependence between organizations and society, it is only a healthy and positive society that will create good workers sought organizations ( Tharp, 2012 ). Individuals within the community or society play a significant role in developing sustainable situations and circumstances but organizations can influence this by acting sustainably in their operations and relationships with society ( University of Alberta, 2021 ). Since there is mutual dependence between institution or organizations and society, there is need to have the principle of shared value while making choices and decisions. Sustainability demands for responsibility and facilitates human creativity to develop innovative ways that will further protect the shared environment, respect for all, and empower stakeholders. For organizations, sustainability is important because it creates value and provides them with competitive advantage and leaves a greater positive value to society and stakeholders as well ( Nawaz and Koç, 2019 ).

Energy sustainability programs and activities should facilitate the bridging of the gap between laws and the requirements of good business practice, which include prevention of exploitation, transparence, and accountability to all stakeholders in business or a given system under consideration. This calls for proactive risk identification, assessment, mitigation, and management. This makes sustainability a necessary value and an integral business goal and objective of all organizations including energy companies. Long term success of business operations should incorporate social, environmental, and supply issues in all their undertakings with suppliers, customers, and all other stakeholders. This in return adds value to the respective organizations in terms of corporate reputation, brand visibility, value and equity, better risk management, easier access to capital, talent attraction and retention and higher profitability and return on investment ( Kanter, 2021 ).

Corporate sustainability involves the integration of the economic, ecological, and social aspects in business practice and operations ( Dyllick and Hockerts, 2002 ). The consumption of goods and services is pivotal to enhanced organization’s operational efficiency because sustainable use of goods and services leads to reduced generation of waste during productive operations. The general objective of sustainable corporate development is to realize economic, social, and low carbon sustainability by companies. By embracing sustainable innovation practices, organizations can reduce adverse social and economic impacts of their operations which leads to better corporate performance ( Kabeyi and Oludolapo, 2020a ; Mohamed et al., 2020 ).

Environmental sustainability of an organization is an important element of corporate sustainability since it is associated with social consequences of business activities and the environment ( Darkwah et al., 2018 ; Mohamed et al., 2020 ). An organization that is environmentally proactive should accommodate their stakeholder concerns which leads to better corporate performance and profitability. Environmentally friendly practices are positively related to corporate sustainable performance because of low carbon innovation attitude ( Rosen, 2009 ; Darkwah et al., 2018 ; Mohamed et al., 2020 ). Therefore, socially responsible corporate behavior often affects environmental sustainability.

Corporate sustainability strategies incorporate sustainable development principles into business activities and mediation of the relationship between environmental, social sustainability and technology in organizational operations. Nurturing creativity helps to increase environmental, social, and economic efficiency and effectiveness by organizations and in the process, it facilitates advancement of environmentally friendly measures. Therefore, creativity impacts green innovation within organizations and so should be encouraged ( Musango et al., 2011 ; Moriarty and Honnery, 2019 ; Mohamed et al., 2020 ).

Various elements have an impact on corporate sustainability which also affects energy sustainability. Energy activities constitute a very important social enterprise with 9 out of 12 most capitalized companies globally engaging in energy business ( Miller et al., 2013 ). Organizations that are economically sustainable have guarantee that they always have sufficient cashflow to ensure liquidity while at the same time they produce above average returns to the investment. Organizations that are ecologically sustainable consume natural resources at a pace lower than the resource reproduction or substitution and they do not pollute the environment with emissions that accumulate beyond the capacity of natural systems to absorb and assimilate them ( Kabeyi, 2018b ; Barasa Kabeyi, 2019b ; Kabeyi and Oludolapo, 2020b ; Kabeyi et al., 2020 ). They also do not engage in ecosystem degrading services. Socially sustainable companies usually add value to the communities where they operate through increment of the human capital of partners. They also improve the societal capital of surrounding communities and are transparent in their activities and operations. ( Dyllick and Hockerts, 2002 ). Therefore, corporate sustainability is a critical part of the wider energy and global sustainable transition.

Therefore, institutional dimension is a very important dimension in determining and influencing investment, competitiveness, prices, investment, and performance of energy sector. The political function sets energy sector institutions, policies and regulations that govern the energy sector and therefore directly influence choices and performance of the energy transition measures and investment.

7 Strategies for Sustainable Energy and Electricity Systems

The sustainable transition strategies typically consist of three major technological changes namely, energy savings on the demand side, generation efficiency at production level and fossil fuel substitution by various renewable energy sources and low carbon nuclear ( Lund, 2007 ; Kabeyi and Oludolapo, 2021b ; Kabeyi and Olanrewaju, 2022 ). For the transition remain technically and economically feasible and beneficial, policy initiatives are necessary to steer the global electricity transition towards a sustainable energy and electricity system. ( Bruckner et al., 2014b ; IRENA, 2018 ). Whereas renewable sources energy holds the key for sustainable energy transition, large-scale renewable energy adoption should include measures to improve efficiency of existing nonrenewable sources which still have an important cost reduction and stabilization role ( Lund, 2007 ). A resilient grid with advanced energy storage for storage and absorption of variable renewables should also be part of the transition strategies ( Kabeyi and Olanrewaju, 2020b ).

7.1 Policy Measures and Initiatives for the Energy Transition

A successful energy transition requires a stable political and economic framework, and support systems, financial measures, technical and as well as well as administrative policy measures to overcome barriers existing as a result of a distorted energy market ( Fouquet, 2013 ). At the center of any sustainable energy strategies is the objective of improving the production and use of energy resources so that they contribute to sustainable development. These requires policies that seek to widen access to reliable and affordable modern energy supplies and while mitigating the negative health and environmental impacts associated with the energy processes and systems. To increase energy supplies comes with economic burdens and so the policies should also foster real socio-economic development to sustain any expansion and access. Measures be taken to make markets work more effectively, and develop new markets while modernizing and expanding old once for efficiency and sustainability in general ( Jefferson, 2000 ).

The focus areas where policy and decision makers should act are as follows.

7.1.1 Develop a Strong Synergy Between Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy

Policy makers policy design policies that combine the effect of bulk of energy-related decarbonization needs by 2050 in a cost-effective manner through efficient energy production and use ( Bruckner et al., 2014b ; IRENA, 2018 ).

7.1.2 Develop an Electric System in Which Renewables Provide a High Share of the Energy

There is need to transform the global energy system through fundamental shift in the way electric power systems are conceived and deployed. This calls for long-term system planning and a shift to policymaking that is more holistic and coordinated across all sectors and nations. There should be timely deployment of infrastructure and the redesign of rules and regulations to achieve cost-effective large-scale integration of solar and wind generation. With their massive potential and renewability with negligible emissions and environmental impact, wind and solar should be made the backbone of electric power systems by the year 2050 to meet the targets set in the Paris agreement ( Bruckner et al., 2014b ; IRENA, 2018 ).

7.1.3 Accelerate Electrification in Transport, Building, and Industry

There is need for deep and cost-effective decarbonization of transport and heat sectors by electrification with the bulk of power coming from renewable electricity. Where it is not possible to electrify transport, industry and buildings then other renewable solutions will have to be adopted ( Fouquet, 2013 ). Alternative sources of energy for direct use include modern bioenergy, solar thermal, and geothermal heat applications. The realization of this shift needs the deployment of an enabling policy framework and development of supporting technology and other related initiatives in urban planning, building, transport and industrial sectors ( Bruckner et al., 2014b ; IRENA, 2018 ).

7.1.4 Foster System-Wide Innovation

There is need to have continued technological innovation to achieve a successful global energy transition, just the same way new technologies have played a leading role in renewable energy development and deployment. Innovation effort must cover a technology’s full life cycle, that includes demonstration, technology deployment, commercialization, and final disposal. It is worth noting that innovation is broader than technology research and development (R&D) as it includes new approaches to existing energy systems and markets and development of new technical and business models. There is need for coordinated effort by regional, national governments, national and international actors, and the private sector to deliver the needed innovations to facilitate energy ( Bruckner et al., 2014b ; IRENA, 2018 ).

7.1.5 Align Socio-Economic Structures and Investment With the Transition

There is need for a globally integrated and holistic approach by alignment of socio-economic systems with the requirements of the energy transition. Implementation of the energy transition requires investments, in addition to those already incurred with respect to the adaptation to climate change. Faster realization of the energy transition would lower the climate change adaptation costs and in addition to reduced socio-economic disruption. This calls for alignment of the financial systems with broader sustainability and energy transition demands that today’s investment decisions made define the energy system of many years ahead. For smooth investment in energy transitions, there is need to allow urgent flows of capital investment to low-carbon solutions, avoid locking economies into a carbon-intensive energy systems and to minimize incidents of stranded assets ( Mullen and Dong, 2021 ).

A smooth and successful energy transition calls for establishment of regulatory and policy frameworks that give all relevant stakeholders a clear, firm, and long-term guarantee of energy systems transformations to meet the emissions and climate goals set. This will create economic incentives that are aligned to the environmental and social costs of fossil fuels and remove barriers to accelerated deployment of low carbon energy systems and solutions ( Mullen and Dong, 2021 ). Energy transition would require increased participation of both private and public institutional investors as well as community-based finance who should be facilitated and motivated with relevant incentives. The requirements and specifications of distributed investment needs including energy efficiency and distributed generation need to be addressed within the socioeconomic structures and investment transformation ( Bruckner et al., 2014b ; IRENA, 2018 ).

7.1.6 Ensure That Transition Costs and Benefits are Distributed Fairly

Policies put in place should ensure that the whole society should be involved in a collaborative manner and process to achieve the desired transition. Effective participation is only achievable if the energy transformation costs and benefits are shared and the transition itself is implemented in a fair and just manner. A key requirement and component of a fair and just transition is the universal energy access where all benefit. There is need for the transition scenarios and planning to incorporate access and convergence factors in the transition because there are huge disparities presently in availability of energy services, hence the need for energy services to cover all regions ( IRENA, 2018 ).

A successful energy transition will require the promotion and facilitation of a social accounting framework which enables and visualizes the transition contributions and obligations from the stakeholders in the transition. There is need to make advances in the definition and implementation of a fair context to share costs of transition while at the same time promoting and facilitate structures which enable fair distribution of the benefits of the transition. There is need to explicitly address a just transition considerations from the onset, at both macro, and micro levels, which will enable the creation of structures needed to provide alternatives that allow parties who have been trapped into the fossil fuel dynamics to participate effectively from the transition benefits.

The economic, social, political and technological realities and developments continuously influence the energy mix hence the need to have a rationale in energy system decision making in energy planning and generation deployment ( Streimikienea et al., 2012 ). Renewable energy is considered as a solution for mitigating climate change and environmental pollution; however, an important problem of the application of renewable energy systems (RESs) is that the evaluation of the sustainability of these systems is extremely complicated.

7.1.7 Specific Policy and Legal Measures

There is need to have appropriate policy frameworks, attractive prices for investors and consumers, and a facilitating regulatory framework to realize a sustainable energy transition. Whereas strategies to encourage sustainable energy systems are straightforward, there is need for wider acknowledgement of the challenges and stronger commitment to specific enabling policies ( Wanga et al., 2020 ). It is also necessary to ensure that electricity utilities have adequate generation capacity and that they are financially healthy for them to contribute to sustainable energy and power ( Karekezi and Kimani, 2002 ). Governments should play a proactive role in the transformation, but they cannot single handedly create desired change and the right speed without the involvement and participation of non-state actors to nature the transformation ( Pegels, 2010 ).

With electricity generation being an important contributor to global greenhouse gas emissions, a viable option in the transition is to decarbonize the grid electricity energy sources by use of low carbon and renewable sources ( Jefferson, 2000 ; Colla et al., 2020 ). Several measures should be put in place to ensure that energy systems promote sustainable socioeconomic development. The main challenges to overcome are expansion of access to affordable, reliable, and adequate energy supplies while addressing environmental impacts at all levels ( Jefferson, 2000 ). With the right policies, prices, and regulations in place, energy markets can achieve many of these objectives. But where markets do not operate or where they fail to protect important public benefits, targeted government policies, programs, and regulations are justified to achieve policy goals. Although strategies to encourage sustainable energy systems are straightforward, there is need for a wider acknowledgement of the challenges and a stronger commitment to specific policies aimed at enhancing sustainability ( Wang, 2019 ; Wanga et al., 2020 ).

7.2 Electricity/Energy Planning and Resource Allocation for the Energy Transition

It should be noted that a competitive and sustainable energy market is the most efficient allocator of energy resources and provides high levels of consumer service and satisfaction as expected. Thus, a key requirement for any sustainable energy strategy should be to maintain competitive market conditions. However, the market alone cannot meet the needs and expectations of the most vulnerable groups, protect, or preserve the natural environment, and ensure energy security in the face of a complex political environment. In general, governments and societies should put in place proper frameworks to enable competitive pricing and effective regulation of energy markets so as to achieve many of the objectives of sustainable energy ( Jefferson, 2000 ). Therefore, it is critical to have a working policy and supportive political environment.

The selection and deployment of energy and power systems is a multicriterial approach that considers all the dimensions of sustainable energy systems and sources. Figure 9 below illustrates the stages in multicriterial sustainable energy decision analysis.

FIGURE 9 . Planning for electricity sustainability.

Figure 9 above shows the recommended steps in the planning for sustainable energy and electricity solutions and options using the multicriteria approach. The process starts with the selection of sustainability indicators for use in selection and planning. Based on the appropriate indicators, appropriate technology is selected from the desirable specifications that were specified. In addition to the social, environmental, and economic indicators which define sustainable development, further considerations are needed to capture the technical and institutional/political dimensions which will guide in the deployment of the best or most appropriate energy and electric power systems.

The multicriteria analysis and decision making often requires the application of energy and electricity models for more effective decision making. The same will also become critical in real time electricity generation and supply for efficient deployment of powerplants and electricity supply as well as consumption by all category of consumers ( Bruckner et al., 2014b ; IRENA, 2018 ).

7.3 Renewable Energy in the Energy Transition

Renewable energy sources come from naturally occurring sources which replenish themselves through natural forces. As a source of clean energy that is inexhaustible, renewable energy sources have a significant role to play in the energy transition ( del RíoJaneiro, 2016 ). Although renewable in nature, their consumption should allow for natural replenishment for them to be renewable and competitive ( Owusu and Asumadu-Sarkodie, 2016 ). Strategies to improve access and consumption of renewable energy sources include improvement in conversion efficiency, use of energy storage technologies to deal with fluctuating nature and policies that discourage more consumption of fossil fuels ( Sasmaz et al., 2020 ). Renewable energy sources have been identified as the main solution for mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions and climate change, and environmental pollution ( Liu, 2014 ). Renewable energy sources (RES) can greatly contribute to economic, social, and environmental energy sustainability. The renewable energy sources can be used to improve energy access for most of the population because they are often locally available, reduce greenhouse gas emissions and may create local socioeconomic development opportunities through job creation and improved local economy. ( Jaramillo-Nieves and Del Río, 2010 ). Before the industrial revolution, solar energy was the most readily available form of energy for direct solar application like drying. This changed with the industrial revolution as fossil fuels became dominant source of energy. Fossil fuels constitute the main class of energy sources that cause severe environmental pollution and are thus the main target of substitution with renewable and low carbon sources. The challenge of this substitution is that it may impact negatively on human development ( Sasmaz et al., 2020 ). Sustainable social and economic development goals cannot be achieved without access to clean, reliable, and affordable energy resources and supplies ( Kabeyi and Oludolapo, 2020b ; Kabeyi and Olanrewaju, 2020b ; Sasmaz et al., 2020 ).

As the world’s population and economy keeps growing, so is the energy demand, a scenario that automatically increase the demand and consumption of conventional sources of energy, particularly fossil fuels ( United States Department, 2015 ; Owusu and Asumadu-Sarkodie, 2016 ). Renewable energy resources can be used as substitutes for fossil fuels. These sources are characteristically ideal to achieve sustainability in energy use as one of the basic requirements of sustainable development ( Wanga et al., 2020 ). Therefore, replacement of fossil fuels with renewable energy sources in electricity generation is an important measure to reduce carbon emissions ( Mohamad and Anuge, 2021 ).

There are increasing opportunities for companies to increase the use of renewable energy through development in data-driven technology which can help to better understand on real-time basis, internal energy consumption and demand, which may provide information required to control cost. Such information can assist investors in negotiating energy supply contracts that are more appropriate for their unique consumption and demand patterns ( Scheneider Electric Company, 2019 ). Energy planners face challenges in energy planning because of challenges like unequal distribution of natural resource, limited financial resources and other considerations. Factors considered in energy evaluation include economic, institutional, technological development, energy security, environmental protection, and prevailing state of the energy market ( Wanga et al., 2020 ). For energy systems to be sustainable, the consumption should bear in mind the limits of resource supply and the environmental and social impact ( Jefferson, 2000 ). Maximum advantage should be taken of immense resource supply for renewables like geothermal, solar, hydro and wind ( Jonathan, 2001 ).

Although renewable energy sources have significant advantages, their consumption is also associated with challenges like low conversion efficiency, unsteady supply, low conversion efficiency, and general variability and unpredictability in supply. These weaknesses can be addressed by technological advances and application of computer hardware and software which can enhance optimization and hence create stability and reliability in renewable energy supply and use ( Bishoge et al., 2019 ). Since energy production and consumption accounts for over two thirds of the total greenhouse gas emissions and over 80% of Carbon dioxide emissions, countries that seek to meet the long-term climate objectives of the Paris Agreement must develop measures and strategies to mitigate emissions from power plants and other energy related activities. Countries should individually and collectively tackle their challenges through right and effective energy policy measures ( Dufour, 2018 ). Countries may adopt different transition routes due to relative differences in endowment and competitiveness of renewable and nonrenewable energy resources.

Strategies and measures that can be adopted by countries to exploit their renewable energy resources include on site power generation which involves generating power at the location where it is used like photovoltaic panels installed on buildings, farm-based biogas plants, use of geothermal heat pumps located next to the building, and combined heat and power or cogeneration as well as energy saving and efficiency measures. Another strategy to use renewable and low carbon energy is the use of interconnectors whose role is to physically link different grids or countries for more interconnection needed to ensure the countries can import electricity from low carbon producers like France mainly from nuclear and Sweden and Ethiopia with huge hydro potential as a strategy for de-carbonization of their grid electricity ( Dutton, 2019 ). The purchase of green power through Renewable Energy Certificates (RECS) also known as green tags, green energy certificates, also called tradable renewable certificates is another important strategy in promoting electricity generation from renewable sources ( Wanga et al., 2020 ).

7.3.1 Renewable and Non-Renewable Energy Options in the Transition

Through sustainable energy, the dependence on fossil fuel sources is reduced while increasing the use of renewable sources of energy thus reducing greenhouse gases. Renewable energy technologies may be divided into three generations. The first generation commenced in the nineteenth century and relied on hydropower biomass and geothermal energy. The second generation started in the 1980s and consisted of consists of tidal, wind power, wave power, and solar energy. The third stage or generation is still under development today and is based on gasification, bio-refinery, and ocean thermal power ( Hollaway and Bai, 2013 ). As the global fossil fuel reserves and nuclear diminish, the world has an urgent need to increase the use of renewable energy resources and diversify other available resources and efficiency options. Currently renewable energy power generation has focused on solar photovoltaic (PV), hydro, and wind energy resources with limited use of geothermal and biomass. This is despite the abundance of these energy resources, underlined, for instance, by the importance of sugar-mill power generation ( CS-UNIDO, 2008 ).

There is a global energy transition back to renewable energy, after a century of fossil fuel dominance. Solar energy, wind, bioenergy and geothermal among others will play a leading role in the current transition ( Moriarty and Honnery, 2019 ). The transition will however require creativity and enhanced innovation in form of technology and institutional reforms ( Pegels et al., 2018 ). There are various options for future use of renewable energy.

1) Electricity from Intermittent wind, solar, and wave energy.

2) Dispatchable electricity from hydropower, i.e., major, mini, micro, and others based on resource availability.

3) Energy in form of thermal dispatchable power from solar, geothermal, and biomass.

4) Direct use of thermal energy from bioenergy and low-temperature geothermal energy for heating and cooling applications.

5) Biochemical conversion like biomass to biogas and fermentation to produce gaseous and liquid forms energy ( Moriarty and Honnery, 2019 ).

7.3.1.1 Hydropower

Hydroelectric plants convert energy in moving water to electricity. Conventional hydropower plants have a reservoir developed behind a dam to supply water to the hydraulic turbine for generation of a highly flexible, dispatchable electricity supply. Hydropower can be combined with wind, solar and other sources to supply reliable steady and affordable grid electricity. Hydropower can also be exploited from, run-of-the-river resources which have less environmental impact but with overreliance on steady supply of rain water whose supply is unsteady and unpredictable. Apart from power generation, reservoirs can control floods, supply water, and power from stored water even during drought ( Wikipedia, 2021 ). Hydroelectric electric power plants are useful for grid electricity sustainability particularly during peak hours where plants that generate flexible and cheaper electricity are on high demand ( Kolagar et al., 2020 ).

In 2017, whereas fossil fuels supplied 16,947 TWh or 63% of the total global electricity generation, 4,222 TWh or 16% came from hydropower ( BP, 2021 ) while in 2020, hydropower contributed 16% of global electricity generation as fossil fuels supplied 61.3% of global electricity ( International Energy Agency, 2019 ; BP, 2021 ). Hydropower is environmental-friendly and releases much less greenhouse gases (GHG) compared to fossil fuel sources like oil, natural gas, coal, and diesel. Hydropower also provides energy security as it decreases reliance on fossil fuels, besides other benefits of developing dams like irrigation, supply of water for industrial and domestic use, flood control and employment opportunities ( Solarin et al., 2021 ).

Hydropower has very low emission which vary with the size of the reservoir. Decomposing organic matter release methane and carbon dioxide while deforestation affects the local hydrology and promotes desertification besides displacing many people from their settlements ( Wikipedia, 2021 ).

7.3.1.2 Solar Energy

Solar energy is cheap because the cost of solar energy is usually negligible, beyond the initial cost outlay. The operational costs of solar are also significantly lower than the conventional power plants. Solar is an important source of energy security since it is locally available. Energy security which is guaranteed by solar energy makes a country less susceptible to external interruptions or events which may influence supply or cost. Socially and economically, solar power generation creates employment opportunities, for example in the year 2018, the solar photovoltaic industry supported more than over 3.6 million jobs globally ( Solarin et al., 2021 ). The main challenge facing solar energy is variability and intermittence in supply and relatively low electricity conversion efficiency.

7.3.1.3 Geothermal Energy

Geothermal energy is produced by drilling deep into the Earth’s crust for harnessing to generate electricity or thermal energy. Feasible geothermal resources are available where the thermal gradient is above 30°C/km, permeable rock structure, natural or artificial water replenishment, and an impervious cap rock. Geothermal contributes less than 1% of global electricity generation even though we have significant potential such that it can meet the entire energy needs of humanity at current rates of consumption ( Barasa Kabeyi, 2019a ; Kabeyi, 2020c ).

As a renewable energy resources, geothermal energy is constantly replenished from neighboring hotter regions and the radioactive decay of naturally occurring isotopes deep in the Earth’s crust. The greenhouse gas emissions from geothermal-based electricity are less than 5% of total emissions from coal-based electricity generation ( Kabeyi and Olanrewaju, 2022 ). The risks associated with geothermal energy exploitation include the risk of inducing earthquakes, water and soil pollution from brine, and releases toxic emissions like hydrogen sulphide and greenhouse gas emissions like carbon dioxide ( Kabeyi and Olanrewaju, 2021f ). The main challenge facing geothermal electricity generation is long project development period, high upfront risks and huge project costs for conventional technologies which also have low electricity conversion efficiency. The adoption of wellhead generators as a project development option can reduce the period and risks involved in development of geothermal powerplants ( Kabeyi and Oludolapo, 2020a ; Kabeyi et al., 2020 ; Kabeyi and Olanrewaju, 2021a ).

7.3.1.4 Wind Energy and Power

Wind has been used by man for a very long period to drive windmills, pumps, sailing ships and mechanical energy for industrial processes. Wind turbine generators are used to generate electric power and provided about 6% of global electricity in 2019 ( Enerdata, 2021 ). Wind generated electricity is competitive with nuclear and natural gas and is cheaper than electricity from coal Other than installing onshore, wind turbogenerators can be installed offshore where wind is stronger but will cost more in construction and maintenance ( Dreyer, 2021 ).

Wind generators have environmental impact in form of visual impact on the landscape. collisions between turbine blades with birds and bats is common while noise and flickering lights can cause annoyance and constrain human settlement near the installations ( Wang and Wang, 2015 ). Advantages of wind power is low construction energy and the plants have low water requirements but need more land and the turbine blade materials are not fully recyclable ( Huang et al., 2017 ).

7.3.1.5 Bioenergy

Bioenergy is energy that comes from biomass which is organic material that comes from animals and plants. Biomass produce heat and electricity on combustion and can also be converted into biofuels like biodiesel, ethanol, methanol, etc. for use in combustion engines ( Ayompe et al., 2021 ). Biomass or bioenergy resources include solid and liquid waste, industrial and domestic wastewater, forest resource waste, agricultural waste, and livestock waste ( Kabeyi, 2020a ). All countries around the word have bioenergy in one form or another. This makes biomass an important energy or electricity source that guarantees energy security with limited environmental harm ( Kolagar et al., 2020 ).

The feedstocks used to include how they are grown, harvested, and processed determines the climate impact of biomass sources of energy. As an example, burning wood fuel produces carbon dioxide which can be offset by photosynthesis in fast growing energy trees and well-managed forest cover since trees absorb carbon dioxide as they grow. The negative impact of bioenergy crops is that they displace natural ecosystems, cause soil degradation, and also they consume water resources and synthetic fertilizers which have some carbon value. About a 1/3 of wood used globally is unsustainably harvested and consumed. Additionally the harvesting and processing of bioenergy feedstocks requires energy for harvest, drying, and transportation which adds to its carbon footprint as greenhouse gases are emitted, although in significantly less quantities than fossil fuels ( Correa, 2019 ).

7.3.1.6 Hydrogen Energy

Hydrogen produces electricity with zero emissions at the point of usage. However, the overall lifecycle emissions of hydrogen are determined by the production process used in its production. Currently, hydrogen is mainly produced from fossil fuel sources ( Chant, 2021 ). The main method of hydrogen production is by steam methane reforming where hydrogen is made by chemical reaction between steam and methane. About 6.6–6.9 tons of CO 2 are emitted by of this process to produce one ton of hydrogen ( Bonheure et al., 2021 ). Carbon capture process can then be used to remove a large percentage of the CO 2 produced making the process cleaner. Although the overall carbon footprint of hydrogen as a fuel is yet to be fully established, it remains a cleaner fuel than natural gas, biogas or methane ( Griffiths et al., 2021 ).

In another method of hydrogen production, electrolysis by use of electricity can be used to split water molecules to hydrogen fuel. However, the process is more expensive compared to methane reforming and sustainability requires that the electricity is from green sources which for now is still a challenge in many parts of the world. Hydrogen fuel can be produced during surplus of intermittent renewable electricity and stored for use during peak and when the variable renewable disappears ( Palys and Daoutidis, 2020 ). Hydrogen can also be processed into synthetic fuels sources of energy like ammonia and methanol ( Blank and Molly, 2020 ).

Research and development are encouraged to develop hydrogen electrolyzers for use in large-scale production of hydrogen for power generation competitively. Hydrogen produces intense heat suitable for industrial production of steel, cement, glass, and chemicals. Therefore, hydrogen can act as a clean fuel in the steal steelmaking, can act as a clean energy carrier and simultaneously as low-carbon catalyst in place of coke ( Blank and Molly, 2020 ). The main limitation of hydrogen as an energy carrier is high storage and distribution costs since it is explosive and occupies a large volume. The gas also embrittles pipes hence it needs special handling facilities which have to be developed ( Griffiths et al., 2021 ).

7.3.1.7 Natural Gas

It is important to note that several cities globally have reached or are reaching epidemically poor-quality atmospheric air quality requirements and urgently need to reduce pollution from engines emissions. There is need for an immediate remedy to pollution caused by urban diesel vehicles. Natural gas as a fuel is also cheaper than refined petroleum products. In most markets around the world [ Group of Experts on Pollution & Energy (GRPE), 2001 ].

Besides direct combustion, natural gas has more hydrogen atoms making it an excellent raw material or feedstock for hydrogen production by using high-temperature steam also called, steam methane reforming, and by partial oxidation. Steam reforming and partial oxidation both produce “synthesis gas,” that produces more hydrogen when reacted with water. These processes make natural gas a pathway to the hydrogen future. This is mainly because several aspects of hydrogen and natural gas distribution and storage, fueling, station siting, and training of technicians and drivers are similar. Hence knowledge from handling of natural gas will make the transition to a hydrogen fuel smoother. Hydrogen and natural gas can also be blended with hydrogen to make transportation fuel. These can take the form of 20% by volume hydrogen also called Hythane or 30% by volume hydrogen called HCNG ( Werpy et al., 2010 ).

7.3.1.8 Marine Energy

This energy resource has one of the smallest contributions to the global energy market. Marine energy consists of tidal power, which is a maturing technology and wave power, which is steal under early stages of research and development as well as ocean thermal energy. A typical example of these resources is the Two Tidal Barrage Systems in France and in South Korea which account for 90% of world marine energy production. The environmental impact of small and single marine energy devices is little except for larger devices are less well known ( Wikipedia, 2021 ). Tidal power is a form of green energy resource, as it emits near zero greenhouse gases and occupies less space per unit power. The largest tidal powerplant project globally is the Sihwa Lake Tidal Power Station in South Korea, which has installed capacity of 254 MW established in 2011, as a development to a 12.5 km-long seawall that was built in the year 1994 to for flood control and support of farming ( Husseini, 2021 ). Tidal power has the benefit of predictability as the gravitational forces of celestial bodies won’t be going anywhere soon. The equipment is also about four times longer lasting than wind equipment and the plant has high power density with limited surface area requirements ( Wikipedia, 2021 ; Husseini, 2021 ).

The Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) is a marine technology that utilizes the solar energy absorbed by sea water to generate electricity. It takes advantage of the thermal difference between cooler deep waters and warmer shallow or surface ocean waters to operate a heat engine to generate work. The main challenge is that the temperature difference is small which poses a challenge to the technical and economic sustainability ( World Energy Council, 2013 ). This calls for more research and development for ocean thermal energy.

7.3.1.9 Nuclear Power

Nuclear power plants have been in operation since 1950s as sources of low carbon base load electricity. Nuclear power plants operate in over 30 countries generating over 10% of global electric power ( Rhodes, 2021 ; World Nuclear Association, 2021 ). As of the year 2019, over 25% of the low carbon electricity was generated from nuclear making it the 2nd largest source after hydropower. The main environmental benefit of nuclear power is that the lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions including that of mining and processing of uranium are close to emissions from renewable energy sources ( Bruckner and Fulton, 2014 ). Additionally, its land requirement per unit power output is or less than that of the major renewables, and it doesn’t pollute the local environment. Although uranium ore is a non-renewable resource, its available quantities can provide power for hundreds to thousands of years to come. Therefore, increased use of nuclear power will reduce emissions and related environmental impact ( Bruckner and Fulton, 2014 ; Dunai and De Clercq, 2019 ).

The main sustainability challenges of nuclear power generation which should be addressed are challenges of nuclear waste handling and disposal, weapon proliferation, and catastrophic accidents ( Gill et al., 2014 ). There is need to manage radioactive nuclear waste over long time scales before final disposal ( Gill et al., 2014 ), while low energy fissile material created is a feasible raw material for low energy nuclear applications including military use in weapon development ( Gill et al., 2014 ). Statistically, nuclear energy has caused fewer accidents and pollution related deaths than fossil fuel ( Ritchie, 2021 ). The challenge to the investment and hence development of nuclear power is politically motivated and is mainly over fear for weapons proliferation ( Gill et al., 2014 ).

The main challenges facing nuclear power development is long developing period, and high cost of capacity and powerplant development, hence the need to reduce cost and delivery time ( Timmer, 2021 ). Technology options include Fast breeder reactors which are capable of recycling nuclear waste hence reduce disposal challenges by reducing waste but they are yet to be commercially deployed ( Joint Research Centre, 2021 ). In terms of energy security, countries with no Uranium can resort to the use of thorium rather than uranium ( Gill et al., 2014 ). Another sustainable option is use of Small modular reactors which are smaller, cheaper and faster to deploy. While their modularization allows flexibility in capacity development for countries with low electricity demand. Modular units also generate less waste and have less risks of explosion ( Bruckner and Fulton, 2014 ; Gill et al., 2014 ).

7.3.1.10 Coal and Petroleum Resources

Coal is a leading source of energy for grid electricity while countries like Poland rely on coal for significant energy applications and source of revenue to the economy. Poland for example is the largest producer of hard coal and the second largest producer of lignite in the European union followed by Germany. Therefore, coal is an important economic product for several countries, besides being a secure energy resource. Due to abundant supply of coal as a secure energy source, coal accounted for 76.8% of its electricity in Poland. For Germany, which is another leading producer of coal, it accounted for 35.6% of electricity generation, followed by the United Kingdom which produced 5.1% of its electricity from coal. The entire European union produced 18.9% of its electricity from coal. Poland produced 68.3 million tons of hard coal in 2019, which was an 85 reduction over the 2018 production. Of all coal produced, 60.1% was consumed by the energy sector, 24.6 was used by the industry and construction while households used 15.2%. The coal industry has a positive social value worth noting. For example, in 2019, coal mining employed 94% of people in coal mining or 78,500 people in Upper Silesian Basin, of Poland while the remaining 6% worked at the Bogdanka mine in the Lublin province of Poland with monthly salaries in 2020 being twice the average salary in Poland ( Krzywda et al., 2021 ).

Although coal is a fossil fuel with huge environmental impact, it will continue to play an important role in power generation with application of clean coal technologies. Gradual substitution is recommended as coal rich economies continue transition to renewable and low carbon energy resources and diverse their economies to substitute declining coal revenue.

7.3.1.11 Shift to Natural Gas From Coal and Petroleum Fuels

The switching from coal and diesel to natural gas in power generation has significant benefits in terms of sustainability. Natural gas generates about half the emissions of coal when used in power generation and about two-thirds the emissions of coal when applied in heat production. Additionally, natural gas produces less air pollution than coal, but the challenge is to limit gas leakages since methane is highly potent as a greenhouse gas ( Information Adminitstr, 2021 ).

The shift from coal to natural gas reduces emissions as a short term measure but does not provide a long term path to the desirable net-zero emissions. Therefore these transition has the danger of causing carbon lock-in and stranded assets which must be written off or they are allowed to continue operating against the emission targets ( Gürsan and de Gooyert, 2021 ; Plumer, 2021 ).

7.3.2 Benefits and Challenges of Renewable Energy

There is a relationship between total greenhouse gas emissions and consumption of renewable energy resources. For example between 1990 and 2012, greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) in European Environmental Agency (EEA) with 33 member countries reduced by 14% while GHG emissions per capita declined by 22% over the same period ( European Environment Agen, 2016 ) due to increased use of renewable energy, a scenario that was also witnessed in the United States between 2006 and 2014 ( Owusu and Asumadu-Sarkodie, 2016 ). This brings both environmental and socioeconomic benefits with less environmental impact through substituting polluting fossils with renewable and low carbon energy sources and creation of jobs and social capital in the society [ United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 2017 ].

Renewable energy sources and technologies are competitive energy options particularly for remote areas but encounter barriers to their diffusion like lack of access to capital for the for low and medium-income population. There is need for financing for renewable energy technologies, such as solar PV, micro-hydro, wind power for water pumping and electric power generation, bio digesters and biogas installation costs and improved woodstoves production and installation ( Kabeyi and Oludolapo, 2021b ). Other barriers include:

1) Lack of competitiveness since most of these renewable energy power plants have higher investment and energy costs as compared to conventional or nonrenewable options particularly in terms of initial cost of the project.

2) Uncoordinated planning, policy and legal and financial instruments has ensured that renewable energy renewable energy projects need support against nonrenewable sources in form carbon tax, tax incentives and subsidies and regulations support to enhance their diffusion and interconnection to electricity grid and general adoption.

3) There is Lack of information, supportive infrastructure, and maintenance, for example in some cases, there is lack of technologies and infrastructure or capabilities to develop renewable energy projects or markets ( Kabeyi and Oludolapo, 2021b ).

7.4 Decentralized and Distributed Power Generation

Power transmission and distribution networks where initially conceived and designed to distribute electricity from central power stations to consumers kilometers away. This approach is no longer valid because of the increasing presence of distributed generation systems that are mainly based on variable renewable energy sources and a growing number of variable load users like, plug-in electric cars connected to the grid and lower voltage points ( Zarco-Soto et al., 2021 ). There has been a shift to the use of small and distributed powerplants as the world gradually adopts the use of renewable sources of energy for grid electricity generation which requires a bi-directional flow of power through transformers ( Colangelo et al., 2021 ). The centralized model of power generation and distribution has dominated the electricity sector in many countries while distributed energy resources (DER), are slowly being accommodated and remain dominant in remote and isolated areas. The decentralization of electricity generation gathered momentum when economies of scale stopped being significant factor owing to innovation and technology development. The main motivation was the use of diesel engines and gas turbines and the adoption of smart grids. Traditionally, decentralised systems consisted of dispatchable resources; but we have increasing use of non-dispatchable PV as a recent development. The development of decentralised generation is such that today, the global annual distributed generation capacity additions have surpassed the centralized electricity systems ( Mitrova and Melnikov, 2019 ).

For maximum use of DER technologies to be achieved, there is need to develop a systemic architecture and put in place policy measures in the power sector to balance the interests of new players with the existing centralized model players. However, an optimal combination of centralized generation and DER seems to be the most effective and efficient approach in the energy transition. This implementation requires principles and mechanisms for seamless for the integration of the centralized and decentralized for reliability in operations ( Mitrova and Melnikov, 2019 ). The main system benefit distributed renewable energy sources is that it leads to increase in nodal voltages. The growing use of variable loads on distribution networks like electric cars puts significant pressure on the need for nodal voltage control through a flexible and resilient electricity grid that goes beyond mere decentralization of grid power generation ( Zarco-Soto et al., 2021 ). With the new decentralized generation technologies, economies of scale have been turned upside down with improved viability of small energy systems. Increased use of information technologies has generated new opportunities for energy e infrastructure management in a less hierarchical and flexible manner. This combined with consumer demands for control over their energy systems has created energy communities (ECs) on the agenda hence higher opportunities for transition towards more sustainable energy through improvement in efficiency, less emissions, reduced costs, and hence a sustainable energy future.

7.5 Transition From Traditional to Smart Grids

About 10% of the total grid power is lost to transmission and distribution of which 40% is lost at the distribution side alone in the traditional grid ( Rathor and Saxena, 2020b ). The solutions to the energy or electricity related pollution and losses are significant reduction in use of fossil fuels, increased use of renewable energy sources like photovoltaics and wind, use of fuel cells and integration of energy and battery storage systems and use of plug-in electric cars ( Conejo et al., 2010 ; Azzouz et al., 2015 ; Rathor and Saxena, 2020b ). The world has witnessed significant advances in technology which includes development of better electricity carriers, decentralization of generation and increasing contribution of variable renewable sources energy to grid electricity and electrification of transport which introduces unpredictable load on the grid. All these developments call for development and use of smart grids. The smart grid uses computer programs and hardware to manage electricity generation and distribution resources and hence can help in optimization of the energy mix of both renewable and non-renewable energy for sustainable power generation and supply through smart grids. Smart grids can facilitate increased absorption of variable renewable sources of energy like wind and solar and thus displace fossil fuels from the grid. They enhance decentralization of generation provide the infrastructure and capacity needed to facilitate increased use of renewable energy help increase participation of all stakeholders in the operation and power delivery between sources and users in a two-way manner. This will greatly contribute to the dream of a sustainable grid electricity system.

The current global trend is to develop digital technologies for the entire economies and hence digitalization of the power systems is part of the global technological transition. Digitalization of electricity sector brings opportunities particularly the increased absorption of variable renewable like wind and solar which makes control very difficult ( Schiffer and Trüby, 2018 ). Lack of system flexibility reduces its resilience and hence capacity to absorb the variable sources of energy hence the need to adopt power system digitalization as a transition strategy ( Mitrova and Melnikov, 2019 ). Digitalization of operation and controls in power-generating and supply assets will increase efficiency, security of power systems as well as resilience more efficient, the electric grid more secure and resilient, thus reducing emissions and the threat of global climate change.

7.6 Research and Development of Sustainable Energy Technologies

It is not practical to achieve significant contribution of the intermittent renewable energy sources like solar, wind and hydro in power production without a combination of flexible dispatch able power, a reliable electricity transmission system, energy storage facilities, the smart grids, and demand side electricity management. To realize maximum renewable energy contribution, it is necessary to develop effective business models and policies, modern innovative energy technologies, system operational flexibility, and efficiency through continues research and development ( Gielen et al., 2019 ). The technology and approaches to enable sustainable electricity include the development of smart grids and replacement of the traditional electricity grid, decentralization of grid electricity generation and use which will lead to better absorption of renewable energy and adequate participation of consumers in demand management, electrification transport, development of energy storage technologies, demand side management strategies through measures like time dependent electricity tariff system and smart solutions like smart meters for consumers within a smart grid. Most of the critical technologies for the energy transition like smart grids and cheaper energy storage technologies are still under research and development and require funding and other forms of research support to mature.

7.6.1 Carbon Capture and Storage

Carbon capture and storage technology is an effective technology to absorb emissions, either by natural processes in bio crops or industrial scale plant processes. This process is known as bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS) can lead to net CO 2 removal from the atmosphere while carbon dioxide and other emissions from powerplants and other process plants can be absorbed and stored or buried. Unfortunately, BECCS may lead to net positive emissions based on how the biomass is produced, harvested, transported, and processed. Biomass material is grown, harvested, and transported ( Ayompe et al., 2021 ).

7.6.2 Energy Storage

Energy storage is an important solution to intermittent renewable energy supply and hence a critical aspect of a sustainable energy system. Various storage methods for use include pumped-storage hydroelectricity ( Hunt, 2020 ), and batteries especially lithium-ion batteries ( Blanco and Faaij, 2018 ). The challenge with batteries is that they have limited storage periods which calls for more research into storage technology for both utility-scale batteries and low energy density batteries makes them impractical for the very large energy storage needed to balance inter-seasonal variations in energy production. Other than pumped hydro storage and power-to-gas like hydrogen needs further research ( Koohi-Fayegh and Rosen, 2020 ).

7.6.3 Fuel Cells in Sustainable Electricity

Fuel cells are electrochemical systems that convert chemical energy of a fuel like hydrogen and oxidizing agent often oxygen to electricity through a pair of redox reactions. Unlike batteries they continuously require supply of fuel and oxygen to sustain the process. In batteries the chemical energy comes from metals and their ions or oxides that are already in the battery except for flow batteries ( Saikia et al., 2018 ). The fuel cell will produce power continuously on condition that there is a steady supply of the fuel and oxygen and are more efficient than combustion systems. The heat generated in the process of power generation can be put into thermal application thus further increasing the efficiency through cogeneration. They are able to reduce building facility energy service cost by 20–40% ( Fuel Cells, 2000 ).

Stationary fuel cells are often used for commercial, industrial, and residential primary and backup electricity generation and can be very useful for power supply in remote locations, like spacecraft, isolated weather stations, large parks, telecommunication communication centers, off grid stations including research stations, remote military applications, and standby power supply sources for power stations ( Saikia et al., 2018 ). The main advantage of fuel cell systems like hydrogen fuel cells is that they are compact, light, and have limited moving parts to attend to hence low maintenance and can realize 99.9999% reliability ( Fuel Cells, 2000 ).

7.6.4 Electrification Transport Industrial Processes and Rural Areas

It is possible to reduce emissions faster in electricity systems than many other systems because as in 2019, about 37% of global electricity generation came from low-carbon sources, i.e., renewables and nuclear energy with the rest coming from coal and other fossil fuel sources ( Bruckner et al., 2014b ). Phasing out coal fired power plants is among the easiest and fastest ways to controlling greenhouse gas emissions and in its place increase the share of renewable and low carbon electricity generation ( Ritchie, 2021 ). A leading limitation in provision of universal access to electric power is rural electrification where both off-grid and on-grid systems based on renewable energy can power villages who predominantly rely on wood fuel, kerosene and diesel generators for heat lighting and power ( Rosen, 2009 ). Wider access to reliable electricity would lead to less use of kerosene lighting particularly for the developing countries ( United Nations Develpment programme, 2016 ).

Electrification of transport is significant because transport sector accounts for about 14% of global greenhouse gas emissions which can be reduced by use of electric cars, buses, and electric trains that consume green electricity ( Bigazzi, 2019 ). The various climate change scenarios predict extensive electrification and substitution of direct fossil fuel combustion with clean electricity for heating building and for transport ( Miller et al., 2013 ). A deliberate climate policy should see double increase in energy share from electric power by 2015 from the 20% of the year 2020 ( Bruckner et al., 2014b ; IRENA, 2018 ; United Nations Develpment programme, 2016 ).

7.6.5 Energy Efficiency and Conservation

Energy efficiency and conservation have potential to provide a means to achieve global emissions and climate change targets set by the Paris agreement and other national and international protocols. Energy efficiency and conservation measures will lead to reduction in greenhouse gas emissions, reduce fuel consumption, reduce the load and strain on the electricity grid, and reduce cost of both generation and cost of electricity consumed ( Clark and Clark, 2019 ). The main challenge facing adoption of efficiency and conservation measures is lack of appropriate technology and high capital requirements which creates financial management risk and undetermined return-on-investment and hence undetermined payback periods which significantly limit their adoption ( Clark and Clark, 2019 ). Significant amount of energy in many forms including heat, electricity and even primary resource id lost or wasted through transmission, heat loss, and application of inefficient technology. This is a huge cost to consumers who must pay for the lost energy as more energy is consumed to carter for the losses resulting in more pollution for every extra unit consumed due to losses ( Department of Energy, 2021 ). Therefore, putting in place various energy efficiency measures is one of the easiest and cost-effective means of combatting climate change, limit emissions and related pollution, reduce energy costs and improve the competitiveness of businesses ( Department of Energy, 2021 ). In a sustainable energy scenario by the International Energy Agency, energy efficiency is expected to deliver more than 40% of targeted reduction in energy-related greenhouse gas emissions between 2020 and 2040 as a strategy to put the world on track to achieve international emissions and related climate change targets ( Clark and Clark, 2019 ; International Energy Agency, 2021c ).

7.6.6 Microgrids

Microgrids are becoming an important solution in the sustainable energy transition by improving reliability and resilience of electric power grids, necessary to manage distributed clean energy resources like wind and solar photovoltaic (PV) as well as generation to reduce emissions as well as supply power to off grid locations ( Wilson, 2021 ). A microgrid can be defined as a group of interconnected loads and distributed energy resources existing in a well-defined electrical boundary that is operated as single controllable unit with respect to the grid. It can connect and disconnect from the main grid to enable it to operate in both grid and off grid mode ( Valencia et al., 2021 ; Wilson, 2021 ).

A grid basically consists of a power source, consumers, wires to connect them, and a system to control generation and supply. On the other hand, a microgrid is a grid but a smaller version of it. A microgrid can cover one or several buildings and can be used to supply power to critical infrastructure, remote or small communities or business and industrial installation ( Valencia et al., 2021 ). Microgrids enable supply of clean and efficient energy, with more resiliency, and improves the operation and stability of the local electric power systems ( Wilson, 2021 ). Microgrids constitute a very important segment of the energy transition representing a shift from centralized power towards more localized and distributed generation solutions. The main benefit of microgrids is ability to isolate from the central or larger grid hence a feasible and attractive option for cities, rural areas, industrial parks, suburbs, and remote installations. With use of microgrids, it possible to balance generation from variable renewable power sources such as solar, wind, and hydro and conventional sources like gas-fueled combustion turbines, coal, and diesel powerplants ( Wilson, 2021 ).

7.7 Earth Radiation Management and the Solar Radiation Management

The current global warming mitigation efforts and future commitments are inadequate to achieve the Paris Agreement temperature targets. Although the various techniques show the physical potential to contribute to limiting climate change, many are still in the early stages of development. For this reason, the climate geoengineering techniques provide alternative or additional measures to contribute to meeting the Paris Agreement temperature goals ( Lawrence et al., 2018 ). The best way so far to reduce global warming is reduction in the anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases. However, the global economy with its ever-growing population cannot do without energy most of which is generated from fossil fuels. Replacing this energy with carbon dioxide-free renewable energies, and energy efficiency is a long term, costly, and difficult venture. By use of geoengineering schemes which use solar radiation management technologies to modify terrestrial albedo or reflect incoming shortwave solar radiation back to space provide an alternative solution to the challenge of global warming ( Lenton and Vaughan, 2009 ). We also have power-generating systems that have potential to transfer heat from the Earth surface to the upper layers of the troposphere and then to the space ( Ming et al., 2014 ). The main objective of Geoengineering is to stabilize global climate, reduce global warming and reduce anthropogenic climate changes by two main strategies namely, shortwave (0.3–3 μm) reflection where sunlight is reflected back and then secondly the use of carbon dioxide removal technologies ( Ming et al., 2014 ).

The solar radiation management geoengineering systems work by the parasol effect, i.e., reducing solar incoming radiation, but the carbon dioxide still traps the reduced heat both day and night over the entire world. The effect of solar radiation management would be only experienced during the day particularly at the equator ( Ming et al., 2014 ).

8 Results and Discussion

A good concept of sustainable development should facilitate social equity, prevent environmental degradation, and maintain a sound economic base. There is need for sustainable preservation of natural capital for sustained economic production and equity in intergeneration equity in resource exploitation. Fulfillment of basic health and participatory democracy is crucial in energy resource planning and exploitation to ensure sustainability. Sustainable transition requires governments to use policy instruments and an effective institutional mechanism to deliver working solutions to a sustainable energy future. The three main dimensions of sustainable development are economic, social, and environmental sustainability. However, sustainability in energy resource use and electricity systems has extra dimensions of technical, and political or institutional sustainability.

Humanity has increased the concentration of carbon dioxide in our atmosphere, amplifying Earth’s natural greenhouse effect. This is still ongoing and hence a continuous threat to the global environment. The global average amount of carbon dioxide hit a new record high in 2020: of 412.5 ppm. The annual rate of global increase in atmospheric CO 2 over the last 60 years is about 100 times faster than previous natural increases like those that occurred at the end of the last ice age about 11,000–17,000 years ago. As a result, the ocean has absorbed enough carbon dioxide to lower its PH by 0.1 units, from 8.21 to 8.10 since the beginning of the industrial revolution which represents about 30% increase in acidity of the ocean. This is dangerous to aquatic ecological balance due to the biological effect of ocean acidification which interferes with marine life’s ability to extract calcium from the water to build their shells and skeletons.

The energy sector is the largest contributor of global carbon dioxide emissions and second largest contributor of non-carbon dioxide greenhouse gas emissions globally. With electricity being the leading source of greenhouse gases, which are the cause of global warming, any effort to minimize greenhouse gases should address emissions from power generation. Sustainable grid electricity requires facilitating technologies and infrastructure like smart grids, decentralization of generation. A mixture of options is necessary to lower the unit cost and carbon intensity of energy systems to achieve a truly sustainable energy with low carbon world. Energy related GHG emissions are a result from conversion and delivery sectors like extraction/refining, power generation and direct transport of energy carriers in pipelines, cables, ships, tracks an end use sectors and industries like transport, buildings and construction, manufacturing, agriculture, forestry, households, and waste and hence cannot be blamed entirely on one sector or process alone.

The Intergovernmental panel on climate change (IPCC) predicted that a greenhouse gas emission (GHG) will lead to global temperature increase of between 1.1 and 6.4°C by the end of the 21st Century. The world would experience about 62% increase in CO 2 emissions between 2011 and 2050 if energy demand and use of fossil fuels to meet the demand does not change. To maintain ecologically sustainability, organizations should consume natural resources whose consumption rates are lower than the rate of natural replenishment or reproduction. Where substitutes exist, the rate of consumption should be lower than the rate of substitute development. The greenhouse gas emissions should be reduced by between 50 and 80% by the year 2050 if the world must avoid the looming consequences of global warming. The composition of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) has been rising as summarized in Table 2 above.

TABLE 2 . Increase in CO 2 concentration between 1750 and 2018.

Table 2 shows that between 1750 and 2020, the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide has increased from 277 to 412.5 ppm representing an increase of 48.92%.

For a stable atmosphere, the global average temperature increase should be maintained between 1.5 and 2°C above the preindustrial level which translates to atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration of 400–450 Energy resources are sources of various past and current political and social conflicts and therefore it is through proper energy resource management that many social, political, and economic conflicts can be avoided or resolved globally. Countries can use renewable energy sources like solar, wind and even hydro to enhance their national energy security because these resources do not need international trade to secure them and hence cushions countries against energy instigated insecurity.

Today, industry and building sectors are the main users of electricity accounting for over 90% of global electricity demand. Moving forward, the main drivers of electricity demand growth are motors in industry which may account for over 30% of the total growth to 2040, industrial and domestic space cooling will account for 17% while large electrical appliances are projected to account for 10% growth and electric vehicles are projected to account for 10% growth in electricity demand. Further growth in electricity demand of about 2% is projected to come from provision of electricity access to 530 million first time users of electricity. The sustainable development scenario, projects that electric vehicles will become a leading source of electricity demand moving to the future towards the year 2040. Therefore, a sustainable electricity transition should prepare for wider use of variable renewables, low carbon nuclear power, electrification of transportation and industrial processes, better and efficient conversion, and efficient energy use technologies and electrification of thermal application of energy.

Table 3 , it is noted that fossil fuels in the form of coal, natural gas and oil contributed 61.3% of the global electricity generation in the year 2020. Low carbon nuclear and renewable energy sources which should be the basis of the sustainable electricity transition accounted for about 38% of global electricity with undefined sources accounting for about 0.7% of the global electricity generation in the year 2020.

TABLE 3 . The global electricity generation can be summarized in Table 3 below.

A sustainable electricity transition calls for eventual transition of the 61.3% of the global electricity production to low carbon and renewable energy sources. In the short and to some extend middle term, natural gas can substitute oil and coal although with the risk of delaying the zero emissions transition and creating transition related carbon lock-in and stranded assets by developing natural gas infrastructure. Since countries with huge coal and oil reserves may find it unsustainable to make immediate transition, increase in the share of natural gas, and investment in efficient technologies like cogeneration and clean coal technology can reduce the carbon footprint.

Sustainable energy transition should address the five major dimensions. They are technical, social, economic, environmental, and institutional dimensions. These dimensions of energy sustainability are summarized in Table 4 below.

TABLE 4 . The five dimensions of energy sustainability.

From Table 4 , it is noted that there are five dimensions of energy sustainability namely environmental, economic, social, technical, and institutional/political sustainability which can be used to design and analyses energy sustainability measures.

Various energy resources have been identified as potential solution to the global transition. They are discussed in summary form in Table 5 below.

TABLE 5 . Summary of energy options for the global transition.

From Table 5 , it is noted that both renewable and nonrenewable sources of energy have a role to play in the energy transition. The nonrenewable sources like coal and oil are abundant in several countries and therefore are readily available and offer energy security. The steady release of energy by fossil fuel sources is important for reliability and stability and hence quality which are sustainable energy requirements. However, their high carbon footprint, finite supply, price, and supply interruptions and resource related conflicts make fossil fuels unreliable and unsustainable source of energy and hence the need for gradual substitution with renewable and low carbon sources of energy. The use of highly efficient conversion technology and clean coal as well as carbon capture and sequestration can greatly reduce the carbon footprint of fossil fuel sources. For natural gas, controlling leakages along the entire supply chain is paramount due to the high global warming potential of methane which is the main constituent of natural gas.

Solar and wind offer the greatest potential but suffer from unpredictable and unreliable supply challenge hence the need for advanced energy storage facilities. For grid electricity, the unreliability and unpredictable supply nature of wind and solar is a danger to energy security and the grid stability for the traditional grid. However, the use of smart grids with ability to absorb small scale producers and variable supply will greatly increase the absorption of wind and solar energy as well as small hydro sources and decentralized generation.

Various strategies or methods that can be adopted to reduce carbon emissions and hence realize the global energy/electricity transition are summarized in Table 6 below.

TABLE 6 . Summary of sustainable energy transition strategies.

From Table 6 above it is noted that various technological strategies can be adopted separately or in combination to reduce emissions and hence achieve a sustainable energy transition. They include electrification of transport which requires efficient and cost-effective energy storage systems and a resilient electricity grid to handle multiple variable consumer and supplier load. This creates the need to transition from the traditional grid to a more resilient smart grid. Electrification of the rural populations that are not electrified also provide an opportunity for increased use of renewable sources of electricity especially through decentralized generation systems. The use of decentralized generation will widen feasible grid connected generation which mostly comes from renewable energy sources. Energy efficiency by consumers will reduce demand and wastage hence avoid emissions while efficiency in generations leads to less fuel consumption and hence emissions and reduced environmental impact.

Although fossil fuels are major contributors of greenhouse gas emissions leading to global warming, most of them are price competitive, have steady release of energy hence the power plants operate at high load and capacity factors with high reliability of electricity supply, and thus provide grid stability. Therefore, their consumption now and soon is key to a stable and reliable electricity grid which is a key requirement of energy sustainability. The consumption of fossil fuels should be reduced but they will continue to supplement the intermittent and unpredictable but abundant wind and solar energy which have the key to the future sustainable energy supply in a highly optimized electricity generation and supply system where technology will play a key role in planning and decision support. The carbon footprint of fossil fuels used in power generation should minimized by adoption of efficient conversion technologies like cogeneration and trigeneration to minimize which reduce fuel consumption and maximize generation from limited energy resources. Other technologies include dual fuel diesel power, use f biofuel substitutes fuel blending with biofuels and use of combined cycle powerplants. Therefore, a sustainable transition for now should involve increase in energy efficiency to reduce the total demand and wastage of fossil fuels in an optimized system in which the grid absorbs all variable renewables. The smart grid and advanced storage technologies will play a significant role in the sustainable electricity transition.

From this study, the technical options to the energy transition can be grouped into three categories. They are substitution technologies, carbon capture and sequestration and climate geoengineering techniques.

9 Conclusion

Sustainable development cannot be achieved without sustainable energy which facilitates sustainable electricity generation. Whereas sustainable development can be analyzed within three dimensions representing the three pillar of sustainable development namely economic, social and environmental dimensions, sustainable energy is best analyzed with five dimensions namely social, economic, environmental, institutional or political, and technical, The sustainable transition strategies typically consist of three major technological changes namely, energy savings on the demand side, generation efficiency at production level and fossil fuel substitution by various renewable energy sources and low carbon nuclear. For the transition to remain technically and economically feasible and beneficial, policy initiatives are necessary to steer the global electricity transition towards a sustainable energy and electricity system. Whereas renewable sources energy holds the key for sustainable energy transition, large-scale renewable energy adoption should include measures to improve efficiency of existing nonrenewable sources which still have an important cost reduction and stabilization role. A resilient grid with advanced energy storage for storage and absorption of variable renewables should also be part of the transition strategies. The world has so far witnessed three typical energy transitions. The first transition involved replacement of wood with coal as the main energy source. In the second transition, oil replaced coal as the dominant energy resource. In the third transition, there is global commitment to replace fossil fuels with renewable energy. Through the cumulative effect of the Stockholm, Rio, and Johannesburg conferences, sustainable energy development (SED) was identified as a key requirement for sustainable development and so energy was linked energy to the environmental dimension in the Stockholm conference, economy in the Rio conference and society in the Johannesburg conference. Sustainable development is expected to bring economic and progress in an environmentally benign manner free from wastage, pollution, destructive emissions, and social strive in a facilitating political environment. Sustainable development has got three main dimensions of economic, social, and environmental aspects while sustainable energy has got two additional dimensions of technical and institutional or political environment.

The greatest sustainability challenge facing humanity today is the greenhouse gas emissions and the global climate change with fossil fuels led by coal, natural gas, and oil contributing 61.3% of global electricity generation in the year 2020. Through sustainable energy, the dependence on fossil fuel sources is reduced while increasing the use of renewable sources of energy thus reducing greenhouse gases. Renewable energy technologies may be divided into three generations. The first generation commenced in the nineteenth century and relied on hydropower biomass and geothermal energy. The second generation started in the 1980s and consisted of consists of tidal, wind power, wave power, and solar energy. The third stage or generation is still under development today and is based on gasification, bio-refinery, and ocean thermal power. Electricity is the most dominant form of energy deriving its supply from both renewable and nonrenewable sources. The optimum operation of the grid electricity system is influenced by many dynamic variables which must be determined and controlled, managed, or accommodated to deliver reliable, affordable, and clean electricity. Sustainable grid electricity transformation needs competitive and cost-effective financing mechanisms to accelerate the transition, needs reliable energy supplies, and application of effective business and operation modelling tools that can deliver sustainable electricity which also needs new technology and data capability to analyze, and optimize results on real-time basis and in medium- and long-term planning.

Technology has very important role to play in the transition to a low carbon electricity grid and economy. Technology options to facilitate the energy transition will include rapid digitalization of the energy sector which will enhance its flexibility and resilience to absorb variable renewable sources of energy particularly wind and solar. Important technology include transition from the traditional grid based on centralized generation to smart grids which support decentralized generation and ability to absorb the fluctuating renewable energy sources like solar and wind and fluctuating demand like electric cars while guaranteeing a stable and reliable electricity supply. Decentralization and enhanced use of variable renewables will further be enhanced by use of microgrid technology. With use of microgrids, it possible to balance generation from variable renewable power sources such as solar, wind, and hydro and conventional sources like gas-fueled combustion turbines, coal, and diesel powerplants. Since greenhouse gas emissions come from sectors like extraction/refining, power generation and direct transport, agriculture, industry, and homes, electrification of all industries and homes with power coming from renewable sources of energy will greatly succeed in cutting down global emissions. The broad strategies adopted for sustainable transition include liberalisation and restructuring of electricity and other energy markets which is made attractive by ever growing energy demand globally. Key polices adopted should aim at making electricity markets work better. More research and development into efficient, environmentally friendly, and competitive technology is needed to facilitate innovation and diffusion of sustainable energy technologies. To successful implement these policies calls for reduction unit cost of electricity and affordable cost of appropriate energy carriers and services, plus regulations to increase efficiency and reduce energy related environmental for greater public benefits.

The implementation of effective sustainable energy technologies to minimize carbon emissions will require the use of renewable and low carbon sources of energy and adoption of three main strategies namely conventional mitigation, negative emissions technologies which capture and sequester carbon emissions and finally technologies which alter the global atmospheric radiative energy budget to stabilize and reduce global average temperature. Besides low emissions, a sustainable electricity grid system should be stable and supply reliable, affordable, and socially acceptable electricity.

Although there is no consensus on quantitative factors and their magnitude there is agreement on the need for supportive policies, regulations, programmes, and international commitments. Other measures are the development and expansion of financial sector, and improvement on the performance and quality of energy sector institutions. This study concludes that both renewable and non-renewable sources of energy have a leading role to play in the short and long-term energy transition. They include energy sources like solar, wind, hydro, hydrogen, bioresources, marine energy, nuclear, natural gas substitute of other fossil fuels and application of clean and efficient technologies for existing fossil fuel and non-renewable systems. Important strategies include electrification of thermal applications and household, and technologies like smart grids and energy storage for variable renewables and carbon capture and sequestration, cogeneration, and energy efficiency measures to limit consumption and wastage of energy resources. Waste to energy and particularly in form of electricity will minimize solid waste load and reduce environmental pollution like water and soil contamination. With the grid connecting different energy sources and infrastructure, decision support systems and optimization models will play a key role in realizing cost effective and environmentally friendly and reliable electricity generation and supply. Technology measures to control global warming can be classified into three broad categories of carbon capture and sequestration, emission mitigation strategies and technologies that alter the radiative properties of incoming and outgoing solar radiations.

10 Recommendations for Future Research

This study lays the foundation for further research into technical and non-technical measures to ensure a sustainable transition to a low carbon electricity grid from different sources, both renewable and nonrenewable and will form a firm foundation for effective policy formulation and implementation necessary to drive the energy transition globally. Further research into practical details of the technologies and measures is recommended to guide the actual implementation of the transition measures and strategies like smart grids, decentralized generation, energy storage, decentralized generation, and computerization and optimization of electricity generation, transmission, and distribution resources to facilitate a sustainable energy future. The study further recommends identification and development of transition specific energy and electricity models to aid in planning and execution of sustainable energy and electricity production, supply and consumption by end users, utilities, and prosumers.

Author Contributions

MK developed the draft manuscript with OO reviewing and making further input including editorial.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Acknowledgments

The authors sincerely acknowledge the contribution of all individuals, reviewers, and editors for their contribution towards the production of this manuscript.

Abbreviations

CHP, Combined heat and power; CO 2-eq , Carbon dioxide equivalent; CSR, Corporate social responsibility; EJ, Exajoules; GHG, Greenhouse gases; KenGen, Kenya Electricity Generating Company PLC; KWS, Kenya Wildlife Services; PPM, Parts per million; NEMA, National Environment Management Authority.

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Keywords: renewable energy, sustainable electricity, energy and electricity sustainability, energy transition, energy security, energy transition strategies, global climate change, greenhouse gas emissions

Citation: Kabeyi MJB and Olanrewaju OA (2022) Sustainable Energy Transition for Renewable and Low Carbon Grid Electricity Generation and Supply. Front. Energy Res. 9:743114. doi: 10.3389/fenrg.2021.743114

Received: 17 July 2021; Accepted: 28 December 2021; Published: 24 March 2022.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2022 Kabeyi and Olanrewaju. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Moses Jeremiah Barasa Kabeyi, [email protected] , [email protected]

This article is part of the Research Topic

Advances Towards Deep Decarbonization of Energy Systems

Thesis subject

MSc thesis topic: Integration of Renewable Energy Systems in Urban Environments

Developing strategies for the integration of renewable energy systems, such as solar(thermal), hydro(kinetic), wind turbines, or geothermal systems, in urban environments.

The research could involve analyzing the energy demand and consumption patterns of urban areas, identifying suitable locations and technologies for renewable energy installations, and assessing the feasibility, economic viability, and environmental impacts of integrating renewable energy systems into the urban fabric.

Objectives and Research questions

• What are the suitable locations within urban environments for the installation of solar (thermal), hydro (kinetic), wind turbines, or geothermal systems, and what factors should be considered in determining their suitability?
• How can the feasibility of integrating renewable energy systems in urban environments be assessed, considering factors such as available space, infrastructure requirements, and regulatory constraints?
• What are the environmental impacts of integrating renewable energy systems in urban environments, and how do they compare to conventional energy sources in terms of greenhouse gas emissions, air quality, and land use?
• What are the potential challenges and barriers to the widespread adoption of renewable energy systems in urban environments, and how can they be overcome through policy, financial incentives, or technological advancements?

Literature and information

• Sara Gallardo-Saavedra, Alberto Redondo-Plaza, Diego Fernández-Martínez, Víctor Alonso-Gómez, José Ignacio Morales-Aragonés, Luis Hernández-Callejo, Integration of renewable energies in the urban environment of the city of Soria (Spain) , World Development Sustainability, 2022.

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The Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE) Postdoctoral Research Awards are intended to be an avenue for significant energy efficiency and renewable energy innovation. The EERE Postdoctoral Research Awards are designed to engage early career postdoctoral recipients in research that will provide them opportunities to understand the mission and research the needs of EERE and make advances in research topics of importance to EERE programs. Research Awards will be provided to exceptional applicants interested in pursuing applied research to address topics listed by the EERE programs sponsoring the Research Awards.

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S-501 Applying Data Science to Solar Soft Cost Reduction

Possible disciplines: Economics, computer science, business management

The emergence of new big data tools can revolutionize how solar technologies are researched, developed, demonstrated, and deployed. From computational chemistry and inverse material design to adoption, reliability, and correlation of insolation forecasts with load use patterns, data scientists have opportunities to dramatically impact the future scaling of solar energy.

EERE's Solar Energy Technologies Office (SETO) is seeking to support postdoctoral researchers to apply and advance cutting-edge data science to drive toward the national solar cost reduction goals.

Areas of interest include:

• Novel analysis of Green Button (smart meter) and PV performance data with the Durable Module Materials (DuraMAT) Consortium.
• Power system planning and operation modeling to better understand the performance of solar generation assets on both the transmission and distribution grid.
• Quantification of direct and total system cost and benefits of distributed energy generation and storage, especially as related to reliability and resiliency.
• Data analytics for prediction of solar generation and PV system performance.
• Computational methods for revealing insights about diffusion of solar technologies at the residential, commercial, and utility scales that integrate large administrative, geospatial, economic, and financial datasets.
• Data tools for advancing photovoltaic (PV) and concentrating solar power (CSP) to reduce the non-hardware-related costs for solar energy. Specifically this could include work related to transactive energy value, such as analysis of the potential for PV and CSP to act autonomously in response to different grid and market signals and/or creating software that can perform these activities, as well as other novel topics not included here.
• Studies of the impact of federal government funding of solar technologies and programs (e.g. connecting scientific articles, patents, and commercial press releases to understand how federal R&D dollars in clean energy are communicated to and understood by the marketplace).

S-502 Solar Systems Integration

Possible disciplines: Power systems engineering, electrical engineering, computer science, mechanical engineering, atmospheric sciences

The Systems Integration program of SETO aims to address the technical and operational challenges associated with connecting solar energy to the electricity grid. We seek postdoctoral research projects that will help address significant challenges in the following areas:

• Planning and operation models and software tools are essential to the safe, reliable and resilient operation of solar PV on the interconnected transmission and distribution grid, especially for understanding how power flows fluctuate due to clouds or other fast-changing conditions, as well as interacting with multiple inverter-based technologies.
• Sensors and cybersecurity communication infrastructures and big data analytics enable visibility and situational awareness of solar resources for grid operators to better manage generation, transmission and distribution, and consumption of energy, especially in the face of man-made or natural threats.
• Higher solar PV penetration will require more advanced protection systems in distribution grids given that normal power flow (and fault current) are no longer unidirectional. Directional and distance relays may no longer operate as expected with inverter-based distributed energy resources.
• Cybersecurity for PV systems integration into utility operations, such as isolated layers of trust and mutual authentication. Advanced PV cybersecurity may be needed to ensure access control, authorization, authentication, confidentiality, integrity, and availability for the future smart grid.
• Power electronic devices, such as PV inverters and relevant materials, are critical links between solar panels and the electric grid, ensuring reliable and efficient power flows from solar generation.
• Integrating solar PV with energy storage would help to enable more flexible generation and grid and provide operators more control options to balance electricity generation and demand, while increasing resiliency. When combined with the capability to island from the area power grid, solar -- plus energy storage microgrids -- support facility resiliency. Resiliency is particularly needed for strengthening the security and resilience of the nation's critical infrastructure (e.g. for safety, public health and national security.)
• The ability to better predict solar generation levels can help utilities and grid operators meet consumer demand for power and reliability.

S-503 Concentrating Solar Thermal for Electricity, Chemicals, and Fuels

Possible disciplines: Mechanical engineering, chemical engineering, materials science

Concentrating solar power (CSP) technologies use mirrors or other light collecting elements to concentrate and direct sunlight onto receivers.[1]  These receivers absorb the solar flux and convert it to heat. The heat energy may be stored until desired for dispatch to generate electricity, synthesize chemicals, desalinate water or produce fuels, among other applications. The dispatchable nature of solar thermal energy derives from the relative ease and cost-effectiveness of storing heat for later use, for example, when the sun does not shine or when customer demand increases or time value premiums warrant. Heat and/or extreme UV intensities from sunlight may also be used to synthesize chemicals or produce fuels. The ability to produce heat for chemical processes without the added cost of fuel and to shift electricity production to alternative energy forms can provide benefits. To realize these benefits operations must be efficient and cost-effective.

SETO seeks to develop processes that can occur at a competitive cost compared to traditional synthetic routes. Careful analysis of integrated solar thermochemical systems will be required due to the complexity of most chemical processes and the typically thin profit margins in commodity chemical markets.

Topics of interest include, but are not limited to:

• Novel thermochemical materials or cycles for high volumetric energy density storage systems (with accessible thermal energy storage densities > 3000 MJ/m3 of storage media). Of particular interest are designs that are capable of cost-effective, simple, periodic recovery from performance degradation.
• Novel concepts for using solar thermal sources to produce value-added chemicals, such as ammonia, methanol, dimethyl ether or other chemicals for which there is a sizeable market.
• Innovative catalysts, materials, and reactor designs to enhance the thermochemical conversion processes.
• Development of thermal transport systems and components. Generally, proposed innovations should support a 50% efficient power cycle (or other highly efficient end use), a 90% efficient receiver module, and multiple hours of thermal energy storage with 99% energetic efficiency and 95% exergetic efficiency, while minimizing parasitic losses. Novel concepts should also be compatible with 30 years of reliable operation at the targeted temperature conditions.

This is a broad call and postdoctoral applicants interested in using heat from solar installations to create value-added products at a national scale are encouraged to apply.

Stekli, J.; Irwin, L.; Pitchumani, R.  “Technical Challenges and Opportunities for Concentrating Solar Power With Thermal Energy Storage,” ASME Journal of Thermal Science Engineering and Applications; Vol. 5, No. 2; Article 021011; 2013; http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/1.4024143.

S-504 Photovoltaic Materials, Devices, Modules, and Systems

Possible disciplines: Materials science and engineering, electrical engineering, chemical engineering, applied physics, physics, chemistry

In photovoltaic hardware, substantial materials and system challenges remain in many current and near-commercial technologies.  Research projects are sought in applied and interdisciplinary science and engineering to improve the performance and reliability of photovoltaic materials, devices, modules, and systems in order to drive down energy costs.  Areas of interest include:

• New module architectures, module components, and innovative cell designs that enable modules to produce more electricity at lower cost and improved reliability; modules that are compatible with higher system voltage and/or have improved shading tolerance especially in monolithically integrated thin-film modules.
• Development or adaptation of new characterization techniques to evaluate defects and increase collection efficiency of absorber materials or interfaces. Projects should expand understanding of effective methods to control material quality in order to improve PV device efficiency and stability.
• Scalable, high-speed measurement and characterization methods and tools for cells, modules, panels and systems.
• Fundamental understanding of degradation mechanisms in PV devices, modules and systems. Development of models based on fundamental physics and material properties to predict PV device or module degradation and lifetime in order to enable shorter testing time and high-confidence performance prediction.
• Cost-effective methods to recycle PV modules and related components that can be implemented into the current recycling infrastructure or module architectures designed for improved recyclability.
• Stable, high-performance photovoltaic absorber materials and cell architectures to enable module efficiencies above 25% while reducing manufacturing costs.
• Transparent electrodes and carrier selective contacts to enable low-cost cell and module architectures amenable to mass production.
• Low-cost materials and high throughput, low cost processes for current collection and transport.

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116 Renewable Energy Essay Topics

🏆 best essay topics on renewable energy, 🌶️ hot renewable energy essay topics, 👍 good renewable energy research topics & essay examples, 💡 simple renewable energy essay ideas, ❓ renewable energy research questions.

• Siemens Energy: Renewable Energy System
• Solving the Climate Change Crisis by Using Renewable Energy Sources
• How Wind Turbines Convert Wind Energy into Electrical Energy?
• Renewable Energy Technology in Egypt
• Discussion of Renewable Energy Resources
• The Use of Renewable Energy: Advantages and Disadvantages
• Solar Energy and Its Impact on Environment
• Renewable Energy Sources: Popularity and Benefits Renewable fuels are not as pollutive as fossil fuels; they can be reproduced quickly from domestic resources. They became popular because of the decreasing amount of fossil fuels.
• Renewable Energy Usage: Advantages and Disadvantages This treatise attempts to support the statement that there are both advantages and disadvantages to the use of renewable energy with focus on hydroelectric power.
• Wind Energy as an Alternative Source While energy is a must for our survival, wind energy as a seemingly perpetual source of energy is the potential answer to the energy security of our generations to come.
• The G20 Countries’ Competitiveness in Renewable Energy Resources “Assessing national renewable energy competitiveness of the G20” by Fang et al. presents an assessment of competitiveness in renewable energy resources among G20 countries.
• Sunburst Renewable Energy Corporation: Business Structuring The proposed Sunburst Renewable Energy Corporation will function on a captivating value statement in product strategy and customer relationships as the core instruments of sustainable operations.
• Discussion of Realization of Solar Energy Company ABC is interested in creating a “solar” project which will fully install and staff solar panels to ensure the safe transformation of solar energy into electricity.
• Renewable Energy Sources: Definition, Types and Stocks This research report analyzes the growing interest of the use renewable energy as an alternative to the non-renewable energy.
• Environmental Degradation and Renewable Energy The global community relies on the surrounding environment for food production, transport, and economic development.
• Renewable Energy in Japan: Clean Energy Transition Renewable energy in Japan became significantly important after the Fukushima Daiichi tsunami that struck Japan in 2011.
• The Concept of Sustainability in Energy Plan for 2030-2040 The paper discusses the concept of sustainability takes a central role in the global discussion and presents of environment safety plan.
• Future of 100% Renewable Energy This article explores the future of renewable green energy and a review the topical studies related to 100% renewable energy.
• Full Renewable Energy Plan Feasibility for 2030-2040 This paper argues that green energy in its current state will struggle to meet humanity’s demand and the development of better hybrid, integrated grids is required.
• Solar Energy: Advantages and Disadvantages Renewable energy sources are being supported and invested in by governments to instigate a new environment-friendly technology.
• Profitability of Onshore and Offshore Wind Energy in Australia Undoubtedly, the recent increase in popularity of campaigns to decarbonize the globe proves renewable energy to be a current and future trend globally.
• Renewable Energy: The Use of Fossil Fuel The paper states that having a combination of renewable energy sources is becoming critical in the global effort to reduce the use of fossil fuels.
• Is Nuclear Power Renewable Energy? Renewable energy is obtained from the naturally-occurring elements, implying that it can be easily accessed, cheaply generated, and conveniently supplied to consumers.
• Solar Energy in China and Its Influence on Climate Change The influence of solar energy on climate change has impacted production, the advancement of solar energy has impacted climate change in the geography of China.
• Full Renewable Energy Plan Feasibility: 2030-2040 The paper argues that green energy in its current state will struggle to meet the humanity’s demand and the development of better hybrid, integrated grids is required.
• Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Utilization This paper aims at expounding the effectiveness of renewable energy and the utilization of energy efficiency in regard to climate change.
• Utilization of Solar Energy for Thermal Desalination The following research is set to outline the prospects of utilization of solar energy for thermal desalination technologies.
• A World With 100% Renewable Energy Large corporations, countries, and separate states have already transferred or put a plan into action to transfer to 100% renewable energy in a couple of decades.
• Renewable Energy: Why Do We Need It? Renewable sources of energy such as solar, wind, or hydropower can bring multiple environmental benefits and tackle the problems of climate change and pollution in several ways.
• Renewable Energy Programs in Five Countries Energy production is vital for the drive of the economy. The world at large should diversify the sources to reduce the over-usage of fossil energy that is a threat of depletion.
• Wind Works Ltd.: Wind Energy Development Methodology Wind Works Ltd, as the company, which provides the alternative energy sources, and makes them available for the wide range of the population needs to resort to a particular assessment strategies.
• Solar Power as the Best Source of Energy The concepts of environmental conservation and sustainability have forced many countries and organizations to consider the best strategies or processes for generating electricity.
• Installing Solar Panels to Reduce Energy Costs The purpose of the proposal is to request permission for research to install solar panels to reduce energy costs, which represent a huge part of the company’s expenses.
• Renewable Energy Sources for Saudi Arabia This paper will provide background information on the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, its energy resources, and how it may become more modern and efficient.
• Renewable Energy: Economic and Health Benefits The US should consider the adoption of renewable sources of energy, because of the high cost of using fossil fuels and expenses related to health problems due to pollution.
• Renewable Energy Systems Group and Toyota Company The application of the Lean Six Sigma to the key company processes, creates prerequisites for stellar success, as the examples of Toyota and the Renewable Energy Systems Group have shown.
• Renewable Energy Systems: Australia’s Electricity
• Accelerating Renewable Energy Electrification and Rural Economic Development With an Innovative Business Model
• Renewable Energy Systems: Role of Grid Connection
• Breaking Barriers Towards Investment in Renewable Energy
• California Dreaming: The Economics of Renewable Energy
• Marine Renewable Energy Clustering in the Mediterranean Sea: The Case of the PELAGOS Project
• Differences Between Fossil Fuel and Renewable Energy
• Addressing the Renewable Energy Financing Gap in Africa to Promote Universal Energy Access: Integrated Renewable Energy Financing in Malawi
• Causality Between Public Policies and Exports of Renewable Energy Technologies
• Achieving the Renewable Energy Target for Jamaica
• Economic Growth and the Transition From Non-renewable to Renewable Energy
• Between Innovation and Industrial Policy: How Washington Succeeds and Fails at Renewable Energy
• Increasing Financial Incentive for Renewable Energy in the Third World
• Does Financial Development Matter for Innovation in Renewable Energy?
• Financing Rural Renewable Energy: A Comparison Between China and India
• Alternative Energy for Renewable Energy Sources
• Low-Carbon Transition: Private Sector Investment in Renewable Energy Projects in Developing Countries
• Effective Renewable Energy Activities in Bangladesh
• China’s Renewable Energy Policy: Commitments and Challenges
• Analyzing the Dynamic Impact of Electricity Futures on Revenue and Risk of Renewable Energy in China
• Driving Energy: The Enactment and Ambitiousness of State Renewable Energy Policy
• Carbon Lock-Out: Advancing Renewable Energy Policy in Europe
• Big Oil vs. Renewable Energy: A Detrimental Conflict With Global Consequences
• Efficient Feed-In-Tariff Policies for Renewable Energy Technologies
• Balancing Cost and Risk: The Treatment of Renewable Energy in Western Utility Resource Plans
• Active and Reactive Power Control for Renewable Energy Generation Engineering
• Mainstreaming New Renewable Energy Technologies
• Carbon Pricing and Innovation of Renewable Energy
• Economic Growth, Carbon Dioxide Emissions, Renewable Energy and Globalization
• Figuring What’s Fair: The Cost of Equity Capital for Renewable Energy in Emerging Markets
• Distributed Generation: The Definitive Boost for Renewable Energy in Spain
• Biodiesel From Green Rope and Brown Algae: Future Renewable Energy
• Electricity Supply Security and the Future Role of Renewable Energy Sources in Brazil
• Contracting for Biomass: Supply Chain Strategies for Renewable Energy
• Advanced Education and Training Programs to Support Renewable Energy Investment in Africa
• Domestic Incentive Measures for Renewable Energy With Possible Trade Implications
• Affordable and Clean Renewable Energy
• Catalyzing Investment for Renewable Energy in Developing Countries
• Better Health, Environment, and Economy With Renewable Energy Sources
• Afghanistan Renewable Energy Development Issues and Options
• How Economics Can Change the World With Renewable Energy?
• Are Green Hopes Too Rosy? Employment and Welfare Impacts of Renewable Energy Promotion
• Marketing Strategy for Renewable Energy Development in Indonesia Context Today
• Biomass Residue From Palm Oil Industries is Used as Renewable Energy Fuel in Southeast Asia
• Assessing Renewable Energy Policies in Palestine
• Chinese Renewable Energy Technology Exports: The Role of Policy, Innovation, and Markets
• Business Models for Model Businesses: Lessons From Renewable Energy Entrepreneurs in Developing Countries
• Economic Impacts From the Promotion of Renewable Energy Technologies: The German Experience
• Key Factors and Recommendations for Adopting Renewable Energy Systems by Families and Firms
• Improving the Investment Climate for Renewable Energy
• How Will Renewable Energy Play a Role in Future Economies?
• What Are the Advantages of Renewable Energy?
• What Is the Term for a Renewable Energy Source That Taps Into Heat Produced Deep Below Ground?
• What Are the Basic Problems of Renewable Energy?
• Why Is Solar Energy the Best Resource of Renewable Energy?
• How Can You Make a Potentially Renewable Energy Resource Sustainable?
• What Is a Possible Cost of Using Renewable Energy Resources?
• What Is the Contribution of Renewable Energy Sources to Global Energy Consumption?
• How Do Renewable Energy Resources Work?
• What Is the Most Viable Renewable Energy Source for the US to Invest In?
• Why Isn’t Renewable Energy More Widely Used Than It Is?
• Is Coal Still a Viable Resource Versus Windpower Being Renewable Energy?
• What Is the Difference Between Non-renewable and Renewable Energy?
• Why Is It Necessary to Emphasize Renewable Energy Sources in Order to Achieve a Sustainable Society?
• Is Aluminum an Example of a Renewable Energy Resource?
• What Fraction of Our Energy Currently Comes From Renewable Energy Sources?
• What Are the Disadvantages of Renewable Energy?
• What Would Have to Happen to Completely Abandon Non-renewable Energy Sources?
• Why Are Renewable Energy Better Than Fossil Fuels?
• How Could a Renewable Energy Resource Become Non-renewable?
• How Have Renewable Energy Resources Replaced a Percentage of Fossil Fuels in Different Countries?
• How Can Water Be Used as a Renewable Energy Resource?
• What Is the Most Practical Renewable Energy Source?
• What Steps Are Necessary to Further the Use of Renewable Energy Resources in THE US?
• Why Is Renewable Energy Use Growing?
• What Type of Renewable Energy Should Businesses in Your Region Invest In?
• How Does Renewable Energy Reduce Climate Change?
• Can the Development of Renewable Energy Sources Lead To Increased International Tensions?
• How Do Renewable Energy Resources Affect the Environment?
• Why Have So Many Governments Decided to Subsidize Renewable Energy Initiatives?

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StudyCorgi. (2022, October 26). 116 Renewable Energy Essay Topics. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/renewable-energy-essay-topics/

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StudyCorgi . "116 Renewable Energy Essay Topics." October 26, 2022. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/renewable-energy-essay-topics/.

StudyCorgi . 2022. "116 Renewable Energy Essay Topics." October 26, 2022. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/renewable-energy-essay-topics/.

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Towards Sustainable Energy: A Systematic Review of Renewable Energy Sources, Technologies, and Public Opinions

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Latest Projects Based on Renewable Energy

The following projects are based on renewable energy. This list shows the latest innovative projects which can be built by students to develop hands-on experience in areas related to/ using renewable energy.

1. Automated Solar Grass Cutter

Today the most promising source of energy where everyone focusing is the concept of Solar Power and its Utilization. Generally, we see people who had gardens use lawn mowers manually to cut the unwanted grass. Those lawn movers are powered from normal household’s power through cables or using petrol/diesel. Using cables creates messing problem and if there is any power cut, we can’t use that lawn mower. Similarly, if we use petrol/diesel powered machine, it requires money and they create pollution through the smoke. Through this project, you are going to build a unique Automatic Solar Grass Cutter (Lawn Mower) which is powered by solar energy and it will overcome all the above-mentioned problems.

2. Generating Electricity From Sound Waves

In today's world, we are facing scarcity of Electricity. Generally, in lots of places in INDIA and SOUTH AFRICA, some villages are not getting electricity. In that way, you might be thinking about the hydropower or wind or solar but there is something crazy about generating electricity through industrial machine sounds or sound produced by the crowd in stadium or vehicle traffic noise. Sounds cool right! SLNOTE

3. Turning Gravity into Light

In today's modern world we have ample amount of facility which can satisfy above our basic need, unfortunately this condition is not satisfied everywhere in countries like Kenya, India where millions of people don't have electricity to lighten their house even renewable energy(wind, solar, water) are hardly available at some places and they are using harmful fuels like kerosene to power their house spending 20% of their income. What is the solution?

4. Smart Power Shoe

Humans are harvesting energy in wonderfully different ways, which means they think a lot to innovate something which is helpful to society. It's not easy to think about the alternative energy apart from solar, hydro, biogas. Renewable energies are the best alternative energy in today's world. We are generating power through nature by converting heat/pressure/kinetic energy into electrical energy in a more effective way.

5. Ocean Drone

DronDrones are something we call as UAV(unmanned Aerial Vehicles) an aircraft without an human pilot. UAVs are basically an ground controlled system means they are fully Autonomous. Application of Drones are expanding from commercial, scientific, recreational, agricultural, and other applications.IT can be used in Landways, waterways, airways or in space.

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6. Dual Wind Turbine

A new wind turbine generator system (WTGS) is introduced, and its mathematical model, blade pitch control scheme, and nonlinear simulation software for the performance prediction are presented. The notable feature of WTGS is that it consists of two rotor systems positioned horizontally at upwind and downwind locations, and a generator installed vertically inside the tower.

7. Electric Harvesting Tiles

It's all about generating energy from people's footsteps. Every time the people walk we are capturing that kinetic energy and turns into electricity the more people walk moreover we can create. Well, it's not just about the power it's about power data and engagement. You can generate 10 seconds of light from one foot. We don't want any large transformer for generating power. Yes, this creation is helpful for human resources. It requires no natural resources.

8. Battery Bottle

Adventure come with obstacles. Life is full of adventure but now where ever you go you phone is always with you or some other electronic devices which helps you to keep in touch and you find your way but these devices need to be charged. It's also very important to be hydrated in this adventurous life. But what if clean water is not available any solution? In this project you are going to make an innovative model with battery pack having USB connection and which also purifies water.

9. Air Pollution Detector

Air pollution consists of chemicals or particles in the atmosphere that causes serious health and environmental health but what causes air pollution for our planet. Most of the air pollution comes from human activities very least are from natural activities like a volcano eruption. Most of the harmful gases formed are carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, sulfates, nitrates, through Greenhouse gases, smog, toxic pollutants like lead and mercury now the question is do we have a solution? In this project, you are going to make an air pollution detector by using an Arduino and some air quality sensors. You need one Arduino Uno, LCD display, and 5-volt power supply

10. Noise Pollution Detector

Noise is basically an unwanted sound(>90db)One more type of pollution that harms the environment and living entities in a big way is Noise pollution. It's a machine created unpleasant noise which disrupts the human or animal life construction, transportation, railway, aircraft noise. these increase in high-pressure waves can cause you high blood pressure, headaches, hypertension.

11. Water Pollution Detector

Water is the bases of life and only a tiny share of water all the water on earth is fresh and renewable. More than 97% of water is salty to drink.another 2% is locked up in ice form and glacier. Less than 1% ii left for Drinking, Agriculture, Industry, and nature. Water is a global issue but it's also a very local issue.

12. Transparent Solar Building

13. solar backpack.

A backpack — also called bookbag, kitbag, knapsack, rucksack, rucksack, pack, backpack or backpack — is, in its simplest form, a cloth sack carried on one's back and secured with two straps that go over the shoulders, but there can be variations to this basic design. Backpacks are commonly used by hikers and students and are often preferred to handbags for carrying heavy loads or carrying any sort of equipment, because of the limited capacity to carry heavy weights for long periods of time in the hands.

14. Vortex Type Bladeless Windmill

As you are well aware of the fact the natural energy is the need of future considering a small initiative by Government of India to supply electric current to every home in the country and supply it for 24 Hours, alternatives to hydropower, which credits natural energy its own importance in the market.

15. EWICON- Electrostatic Wind Energy Converter

As you are well aware of the fact the natural energy is the need of future considering a small initiative by Government of India to supply Electric Power to every home in the country and supply it for 24 Hours, alternatives to hydropower, which credits natural energy its own importance in the market.

16. How to Design a Water Cleaning Boat?

Due to lack of circulation, water can become stale and undrinkable. In order to ensure safe and clean drinking water on board, your boat freshwater system needs to be sanitized if it hasn’t been used for some time, for example before your first use of the system after your boat has been stored for the winter. In order to clean boat water tanks, you have to remove the old water before starting the disinfection procedure.

17. Battery Free Flashlight

Do you think by using battery constrain you to run the technology anywhere in the world or in a solar system. Our drawback is battery we need some platform or power source for storage of power in the form of chemical energy. What if you are making your project without battery sounds crazy right! You don't need to store energy anywhere or neither you need to convert into another form. What happens when you use the battery you are converting in the chemical energy to store in battery and then again to are converting into electrical energy in that process you are losing some amount of energy in form of power. Usually batteries are made of terrible chemicals among very few are being recycled and finally, in the end, we have to dispose of them in the earth which might be very dangerous for humans in future

18. Salt Light Lamp

The idea behind this project salt lamp is the chemical conversion of energy. It utilizes the scientific process behind the Galvanic cell, but instead of electrolytes, the SALt lamp uses saline solution, making it harmless and non-toxic. SALt lamp project is an LED lamp powered by the galvanic reaction of an anode with saline water. It also has a USB port to charge low-power mobile devices such as cellphones, smartphones, and mp3 players.The anode must be replaced approximately every six months and the saline water daily; sea water is usable.

19. Eco Cooler

As temperature is rise in many parts of the country, we are suffering from heat cramps, exhaustion, dehydration and heat stroke.According to studies in America, hundreds of people around the world die every year from heat-related conditions, which can be completely avoided if preventive measures are taken.where temperature reach up to 45 deg Celsius making corrugated tin huts unbearable to live in.

20. Solar powered Environmental system

To save the city it is very high time to take necessary steps. Creating public awareness is first one of the steps. For creating public awareness we need real time data of the noise we are creating everyday. If every one can see the noise level and air quality in real time it will create a mental pressure for taking steps against the pollution. Researcher will also be benefited from this open source real time data.

21. Matlab Simulation on HydroEnergy system

Hydropower is common for many years in countries that have mountains and water. Small hydroelectric power plants harness the falling water kinetic energy to generate electricity. Turbine transform falling water kinetic energy into mechanical energy and then,

22. Simulation Of Solar Energy System With MATLAB

Solar energy is that energy which we gain from the sun through radiation on daily basis. Solar energy is present on the earth continuously and the energy generated by the sun is abundant for all types of application but harnessing that energy is the major factor.

23. Matlab simulation on Wind Energy system

Wind energy is an efficient and emerging field of power generation since high power can be generated without many losses compared to other types of power generation. Wind energy is extracted from the blowing winds which hit the turbine blades causing them to rotate along their axis.

24. Aluminium Powered Car

About the project.

Alternate power sources are rapidly spreading into research fields. Multiple sources are being experimented to replace the combustion fuels from petroleum products. One such experiement is power by aluminium

25. Perpendicular Wind Turbines

Perpendicular Wind Turbines. Rising sea levels and escalating pollution levels has generated worldwide interest and has given rise to new wind turbines designs.(Check out EWICON, Bladeless windmill)

26. Electricity from Sand Bacteria

Given the finite supply of fossil fuels, this biofuel cell is a promising approach for generating power in a renewable, carbon-neutral way. One approach is use of fuel cell and generating the energy using bacterias from muds

27. All About Buildings With Photovoltaic Glazing System

28. hydropower using treated sewage water.

Urban migration is the major reason for the generation of large amounts of sewage water. To overcome that large number of sewage treatment plants are built.

29. Ocean Electricity

There are different electricity sources and from them some cause high pollution to the environment and while others are free from pollution but the efficiency is very less. If there is no water in the dam then there is no electricity from the hydroelectric station.

30. Underwater Turbines

We are in an era where we can’t live without electricity even for ten minutes. The major proportion of electricity is produced is from non-conventional or non-renewable sources. Thermal power station alone accounts for about 70 - 80% of the electricity generation.  And the remaining is produced by hydro, wind, etc.

31. Hybrid Solar Energy

These days electricity has become a need for the survival of the human being on this earth. The major source of the electricity is conventional energy sources which is produced in thermal power stations by using Coal. And the reserves of the coal are been depleted day by day.

32. Automatic Solar Tracker

You can build this project at home. You can build the project using online tutorials developed by experts. 1-1 support in case of any doubts. 100% output guaranteed. Get certificate on completing.

33. 4 Smart Energy Projects

34. solar & smart energy systems, 35. 5 arduino projects, latest projects based on renewable energy, any questions.

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What the data says about Americans’ views of climate change

A recent report from the United Nations’ Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has underscored the need for international action to avoid increasingly severe climate impacts in the years to come. Steps outlined in the report, and by climate experts, include major reductions in greenhouse gas emissions from sectors such as energy production and transportation.

But how do Americans feel about climate change, and what steps do they think the United States should take to address it? Here are eight charts that illustrate Americans’ views on the issue, based on recent Pew Research Center surveys.

Pew Research Center published this collection of survey findings as part of its ongoing work to understand attitudes about climate change and energy issues. The most recent survey was conducted May 30-June 4, 2023, among 10,329 U.S. adults. Earlier findings have been previously published, and methodological information, including the sample sizes and field dates, can be found by following the links in the text.

Everyone who took part in the June 2023 survey is a member of the Center’s American Trends Panel (ATP), an online survey panel that is recruited through national, random sampling of residential addresses. This way, nearly all U.S. adults have a chance of selection. The survey is weighted to be representative of the U.S. adult population by gender, race, ethnicity, partisan affiliation, education and other categories. Read more about the ATP’s methodology .

Here are the questions used for this analysis , along with responses, and its methodology .

A majority of Americans support prioritizing the development of renewable energy sources. Two-thirds of U.S. adults say the country should prioritize developing renewable energy sources, such as wind and solar, over expanding the production of oil, coal and natural gas, according to a survey conducted in June 2023.

In a previous Center survey conducted in 2022, nearly the same share of Americans (69%) favored the U.S. taking steps to become carbon neutral by 2050 , a goal outlined by President Joe Biden at the outset of his administration. Carbon neutrality means releasing no more carbon dioxide into the atmosphere than is removed.

Nine-in-ten Democrats and Democratic-leaning independents say the U.S. should prioritize developing alternative energy sources to address America’s energy supply. Among Republicans and Republican leaners, 42% support developing alternative energy sources, while 58% say the country should prioritize expanding exploration and production of oil, coal and natural gas.

There are important differences by age within the GOP. Two-thirds of Republicans under age 30 (67%) prioritize the development of alternative energy sources. By contrast, 75% of Republicans ages 65 and older prioritize expanding the production of oil, coal and natural gas.

Americans are reluctant to phase out fossil fuels altogether, but younger adults are more open to it. Overall, about three-in-ten adults (31%) say the U.S. should completely phase out oil, coal and natural gas. More than twice as many (68%) say the country should use a mix of energy sources, including fossil fuels and renewables.

While the public is generally reluctant to phase out fossil fuels altogether, younger adults are more supportive of this idea. Among Americans ages 18 to 29, 48% say the U.S. should exclusively use renewables, compared with 52% who say the U.S. should use a mix of energy sources, including fossil fuels.

There are age differences within both political parties on this question. Among Democrats and Democratic leaners, 58% of those ages 18 to 29 favor phasing out fossil fuels entirely, compared with 42% of Democrats 65 and older. Republicans of all age groups back continuing to use a mix of energy sources, including oil, coal and natural gas. However, about three-in-ten (29%) Republicans ages 18 to 29 say the U.S. should phase out fossil fuels altogether, compared with fewer than one-in-ten Republicans 50 and older.

There are multiple potential routes to carbon neutrality in the U.S. All involve major reductions to carbon emissions in sectors such as energy and transportation by increasing the use of things like wind and solar power and electric vehicles. There are also ways to potentially remove carbon from the atmosphere and store it, such as capturing it directly from the air or using trees and algae to facilitate carbon sequestration.

The public supports the federal government incentivizing wind and solar energy production. In many sectors, including energy and transportation, federal incentives and regulations significantly influence investment and development.

Two-thirds of Americans think the federal government should encourage domestic production of wind and solar power. Just 7% say the government should discourage this, while 26% think it should neither encourage nor discourage it.

Views are more mixed on how the federal government should approach other activities that would reduce carbon emissions. On balance, more Americans think the government should encourage than discourage the use of electric vehicles and nuclear power production, though sizable shares say it should not exert an influence either way.

When it comes to oil and gas drilling, Americans’ views are also closely divided: 34% think the government should encourage drilling, while 30% say it should discourage this and 35% say it should do neither. Coal mining is the one activity included in the survey where public sentiment is negative on balance: More say the federal government should discourage than encourage coal mining (39% vs. 21%), while 39% say it should do neither.

Americans see room for multiple actors – including corporations and the federal government – to do more to address the impacts of climate change. Two-thirds of adults say large businesses and corporations are doing too little to reduce the effects of climate change. Far fewer say they are doing about the right amount (21%) or too much (10%).

Majorities also say their state elected officials (58%) and the energy industry (55%) are doing too little to address climate change, according to a March 2023 survey.

In a separate Center survey conducted in June 2023, a similar share of Americans (56%) said the federal government should do more to reduce the effects of global climate change.

When it comes to their own efforts, about half of Americans (51%) think they are doing about the right amount as an individual to help reduce the effects of climate change, according to the March 2023 survey. However, about four-in-ten (43%) say they are doing too little.

Democrats and Republicans have grown further apart over the last decade in their assessments of the threat posed by climate change. Overall, a majority of U.S. adults (54%) describe climate change as a major threat to the country’s well-being. This share is down slightly from 2020 but remains higher than in the early 2010s.

Nearly eight-in-ten Democrats (78%) describe climate change as a major threat to the country’s well-being, up from about six-in-ten (58%) a decade ago. By contrast, about one-in-four Republicans (23%) consider climate change a major threat, a share that’s almost identical to 10 years ago.

Concern over climate change has also risen internationally, as shown by separate Pew Research Center polling across 19 countries in 2022. People in many advanced economies express higher levels of concern than Americans . For instance, 81% of French adults and 73% of Germans describe climate change as a major threat.

Climate change is a lower priority for Americans than other national issues. While a majority of adults view climate change as a major threat, it is a lower priority than issues such as strengthening the economy and reducing health care costs.

Overall, 37% of Americans say addressing climate change should be a top priority for the president and Congress in 2023, and another 34% say it’s an important but lower priority. This ranks climate change 17th out of 21 national issues included in a Center survey from January.

As with views of the threat that climate change poses, there’s a striking contrast between how Republicans and Democrats prioritize the issue. For Democrats, it falls in the top half of priority issues, and 59% call it a top priority. By comparison, among Republicans, it ranks second to last, and just 13% describe it as a top priority.

Our analyses have found that partisan gaps on climate change are often widest on questions – such as this one – that measure the salience or importance of the issue. The gaps are more modest when it comes to some specific climate policies. For example, majorities of Republicans and Democrats alike say they would favor a proposal to provide a tax credit to businesses for developing technologies for carbon capture and storage.

Perceptions of local climate impacts vary by Americans’ political affiliation and whether they believe that climate change is a serious problem. A majority of Americans (61%) say that global climate change is affecting their local community either a great deal or some. About four-in-ten (39%) see little or no impact in their own community.

The perception that the effects of climate change are happening close to home is one factor that could drive public concern and calls for action on the issue. But perceptions are tied more strongly to people’s beliefs about climate change – and their partisan affiliation – than to local conditions.

For example, Americans living in the Pacific region – California, Washington, Oregon, Hawaii and Alaska – are more likely than those in other areas of the country to say that climate change is having a great deal of impact locally. But only Democrats in the Pacific region are more likely to say they are seeing effects of climate change where they live. Republicans in this region are no more likely than Republicans in other areas to say that climate change is affecting their local community.

Our previous surveys show that nearly all Democrats believe climate change is at least a somewhat serious problem, and a large majority believe that humans play a role in it. Republicans are much less likely to hold these beliefs, but views within the GOP do vary significantly by age and ideology. Younger Republicans and those who describe their views as moderate or liberal are much more likely than older and more conservative Republicans to describe climate change as at least a somewhat serious problem and to say human activity plays a role.

Democrats are also more likely than Republicans to report experiencing extreme weather events in their area over the past year – such as intense storms and floods, long periods of hot weather or droughts – and to see these events as connected with climate change.

About three-quarters of Americans support U.S. participation in international efforts to reduce the effects of climate change. Americans offer broad support for international engagement on climate change: 74% say they support U.S. participation in international efforts to reduce the effects of climate change.

Still, there’s little consensus on how current U.S. efforts stack up against those of other large economies. About one-in-three Americans (36%) think the U.S. is doing more than other large economies to reduce the effects of global climate change, while 30% say the U.S. is doing less than other large economies and 32% think it is doing about as much as others. The U.S. is the second-largest carbon dioxide emitter , contributing about 13.5% of the global total.

When asked what they think the right balance of responsibility is, a majority of Americans (56%) say the U.S. should do about as much as other large economies to reduce the effects of climate change, while 27% think it should do more than others.

A previous Center survey found that while Americans favor international cooperation on climate change in general terms, their support has its limits. In January 2022 , 59% of Americans said that the U.S. does not have a responsibility to provide financial assistance to developing countries to help them build renewable energy sources.

In recent years, the UN conference on climate change has grappled with how wealthier nations should assist developing countries in dealing with climate change. The most recent convening in fall 2022, known as COP27, established a “loss and damage” fund for vulnerable countries impacted by climate change.

Note: This is an update of a post originally published April 22, 2022. Here are the questions used for this analysis , along with responses, and its methodology .

• Climate, Energy & Environment
• Environment & Climate
• Partisanship & Issues
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How Republicans view climate change and energy issues

How americans view future harms from climate change in their community and around the u.s., americans continue to have doubts about climate scientists’ understanding of climate change, growing share of americans favor more nuclear power, why some americans do not see urgency on climate change, most popular.

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Ieee spectrum, follow ieee spectrum, support ieee spectrum, enjoy more free content and benefits by creating an account, saving articles to read later requires an ieee spectrum account, the institute content is only available for members, downloading full pdf issues is exclusive for ieee members, downloading this e-book is exclusive for ieee members, access to spectrum 's digital edition is exclusive for ieee members, following topics is a feature exclusive for ieee members, adding your response to an article requires an ieee spectrum account, create an account to access more content and features on ieee spectrum , including the ability to save articles to read later, download spectrum collections, and participate in conversations with readers and editors. for more exclusive content and features, consider joining ieee ., join the world’s largest professional organization devoted to engineering and applied sciences and get access to all of spectrum’s articles, archives, pdf downloads, and other benefits. learn more →, join the world’s largest professional organization devoted to engineering and applied sciences and get access to this e-book plus all of ieee spectrum’s articles, archives, pdf downloads, and other benefits. learn more →, access thousands of articles — completely free, create an account and get exclusive content and features: save articles, download collections, and talk to tech insiders — all free for full access and benefits, join ieee as a paying member., getting the grid to net zero, grid-forming inverters will take us to 100 percent renewable energy.

The Kapaia solar-plus-storage facility, operated by the Kauai Island Utility Cooperative, includes 52 megawatt-hours of energy storage. The storage is based on Tesla’s Powerpack 2 battery system.

It’s late in the afternoon of 2 April 2023 on the island of Kauai. The sun is sinking over this beautiful and peaceful place, when, suddenly, at 4:25 pm, there’s a glitch: The largest generator on the island, a 26-megawatt oil-fired turbine, goes offline.

This is a more urgent problem than it might sound. The westernmost Hawaiian island of significant size, Kauai is home to around 70,000 residents and 30,000 tourists at any given time. Renewable energy accounts for 70 percent of the energy produced in a typical year—a proportion that’s among the highest in the world and that can be hard to sustain for such a small and isolated grid. During the day, the local system operator, the Kauai Island Utility Cooperative, sometimes reaches levels of 90 percent from solar alone. But on 2 April, the 26-MW generator was running near its peak output, to compensate for the drop in solar output as the sun set. At the moment when it failed, that single generator had been supplying 60 percent of the load for the entire island, with the rest being met by a mix of smaller generators and several utility-scale solar-and-battery systems.

Normally, such a sudden loss would spell disaster for a small, islanded grid. But the Kauai grid has a feature that many larger grids lack: a technology called grid-forming inverters. An inverter converts direct-current electricity to grid-compatible alternating current. The island’s grid-forming inverters are connected to those battery systems, and they are a special type—in fact, they had been installed with just such a contingency in mind. They improve the grid’s resilience and allow it to operate largely on resources like batteries, solar photovoltaics, and wind turbines, all of which connect to the grid through inverters. On that April day in 2023, Kauai had over 150 megawatt-hours ’ worth of energy stored in batteries—and also the grid-forming inverters necessary to let those batteries respond rapidly and provide stable power to the grid. They worked exactly as intended and kept the grid going without any blackouts.

That April event in Kauai offers a preview of the electrical future, especially for places where utilities are now, or soon will be, relying heavily on solar photovoltaic or wind power. Similar inverters have operated for years within smaller off-grid installations. However, using them in a multimegawatt power grid, such as Kauai’s, is a relatively new idea. And it’s catching on fast: At the time of this writing, at least eight major grid-forming projects are either under construction or in operation in Australia, along with others in Asia, Europe, North America, and the Middle East.

Reaching net-zero-carbon emissions by 2050, as many international organizations now insist is necessary to stave off dire climate consequences, will require a rapid and massive shift in electricity-generating infrastructures. The International Energy Agency has calculated that to have any hope of achieving this goal would require the addition, every year , of 630 gigawatts of solar photovoltaics and 390 GW of wind starting no later than 2030—figures that are around four times as great as than any annual tally so far.

The only economical way to integrate such high levels of renewable energy into our grids is with grid-forming inverters, which can be implemented on any technology that uses an inverter, including wind, solar photovoltaics, batteries, fuel cells, microturbines, and even high-voltage direct-current transmission lines. Grid-forming inverters for utility-scale batteries are available today from Tesla , GPTech , SMA , GE Vernova , EPC Power , Dynapower , Hitachi , Enphase , CE+T , and others. Grid-forming converters for HVDC, which convert high-voltage direct current to alternating current and vice versa, are also commercially available, from companies including Hitachi, Siemens, and GE Vernova. For photovoltaics and wind, grid-forming inverters are not yet commercially available at the size and scale needed for large grids, but they are now being developed by GE Vernova, Enphase, and Solectria .

The Grid Depends on Inertia

To understand the promise of grid-forming inverters, you must first grasp how our present electrical grid functions, and why it’s inadequate for a future dominated by renewable resources such as solar and wind power.

Conventional power plants that run on natural gas, coal, nuclear fuel, or hydropower produce electricity with synchronous generators—large rotating machines that produce AC electricity at a specified frequency and voltage. These generators have some physical characteristics that make them ideal for operating power grids. Among other things, they have a natural tendency to synchronize with one another, which helps make it possible to restart a grid that’s completely blacked out. Most important, a generator has a large rotating mass, namely its rotor. When a synchronous generator is spinning, its rotor, which can weigh well over 100 tonnes, cannot stop quickly.

This characteristic gives rise to a property called system inertia . It arises naturally from those large generators running in synchrony with one another. Over many years, engineers used the inertia characteristics of the grid to determine how fast a power grid will change its frequency when a failure occurs, and then developed mitigation procedures based on that information.

If one or more big generators disconnect from the grid, the sudden imbalance of load to generation creates torque that extracts rotational energy from the remaining synchronous machines, slowing them down and thereby reducing the grid frequency—the frequency is electromechanically linked to the rotational speed of the generators feeding the grid. Fortunately, the kinetic energy stored in all that rotating mass slows this frequency drop and typically allows the remaining generators enough time to ramp up their power output to meet the additional load.

Electricity grids are designed so that even if the network loses its largest generator, running at full output, the other generators can pick up the additional load and the frequency nadir never falls below a specific threshold. In the United States, where nominal grid frequency is 60 hertz, the threshold is generally between 59.3 and 59.5 Hz . As long as the frequency remains above this point, local blackouts are unlikely to occur.

Why We Need Grid-Forming Inverters

Wind turbines, photovoltaics, and battery-storage systems differ from conventional generators because they all produce direct current (DC) electricity —they don’t have a heartbeat like alternating current does. With the exception of wind turbines, these are not rotating machines. And most modern wind turbines aren’t synchronously rotating machines from a grid standpoint—the frequency of their AC output depends on the wind speed. So that variable-frequency AC is rectified to DC before being converted to an AC waveform that matches the grid’s.

As mentioned, inverters convert the DC electricity to grid-compatible AC. A conventional, or grid-following , inverter uses power transistors that repeatedly and rapidly switch the polarity applied to a load. By switching at high speed, under software control, the inverter produces a high-frequency AC signal that is filtered by capacitors and other components to produce a smooth AC current output. So in this scheme, the software shapes the output waveform. In contrast, with synchronous generators the output waveform is determined by the physical and electrical characteristics of the generator.

Grid-following inverters operate only if they can “see” an existing voltage and frequency on the grid that they can synchronize to. They rely on controls that sense the frequency of the voltage waveform and lock onto that signal, usually by means of a technology called a phase-locked loop. So if the grid goes down, these inverters will stop injecting power because there is no voltage to follow. A key point here is that grid-following inverters do not deliver any inertia.

Grid-following inverters work fine when inverter-based power sources are relatively scarce. But as the levels of inverter-based resources rise above 60 to 70 percent, things start to get challenging . That’s why system operators around the world are beginning to put the brakes on renewable deployment and curtailing the operation of existing renewable plants. For example, the Electric Reliability Council of Texas (ERCOT) regularly curtails the use of renewables in that state because of stability issues arising from too many grid-following inverters.

It doesn’t have to be this way. When the level of inverter-based power sources on a grid is high, the inverters themselves could support grid-frequency stability. And when the level is very high, they could form the voltage and frequency of the grid. In other words, they could collectively set the pulse, rather than follow it. That’s what grid-forming inverters do.

The Difference Between Grid Forming and Grid Following

Grid-forming (GFM) and grid-following (GFL) inverters share several key characteristics. Both can inject current into the grid during a disturbance. Also, both types of inverters can support the voltage on a grid by controlling their reactive power, which is the product of the voltage and the current that are out of phase with each other. Both kinds of inverters can also help prop up the frequency on the grid, by controlling their active power, which is the product of the voltage and current that are in phase with each other.

What makes grid-forming inverters different from grid-following inverters is mainly software. GFM inverters are controlled by code designed to maintain a stable output voltage waveform, but they also allow the magnitude and phase of that waveform to change over time. What does that mean in practice? The unifying characteristic of all GFM inverters is that they hold a constant voltage magnitude and frequency on short timescales—for example, a few dozen milliseconds—while allowing that waveform’s magnitude and frequency to change over several seconds to synchronize with other nearby sources, such as traditional generators and other GFM inverters.

Some GFM inverters, called virtual synchronous machines , achieve this response by mimicking the physical and electrical characteristics of a synchronous generator, using control equations that describe how it operates. Other GFM inverters are programmed to simply hold a constant target voltage and frequency, allowing that target voltage and frequency to change slowly over time to synchronize with the rest of the power grid following what is called a droop curve . A droop curve is a formula used by grid operators to indicate how a generator should respond to a deviation from nominal voltage or frequency on its grid. There are many variations of these two basic GFM control methods, and other methods have been proposed as well.

At least eight major grid-forming projects are either under construction or in operation in Australia, along with others in Asia, Europe, North America, and the Middle East.

To better understand this concept, imagine that a transmission line shorts to ground or a generator trips due to a lightning strike. (Such problems typically occur multiple times a week, even on the best-run grids.) The key advantage of a GFM inverter in such a situation is that it does not need to quickly sense frequency and voltage decline on the grid to respond. Instead, a GFM inverter just holds its own voltage and frequency relatively constant by injecting whatever current is needed to achieve that, subject to its physical limits. In other words, a GFM inverter is programmed to act like an AC voltage source behind some small impedance (impedance is the opposition to AC current arising from resistance, capacitance, and inductance). In response to an abrupt drop in grid voltage, its digital controller increases current output by allowing more current to pass through its power transistors, without even needing to measure the change it’s responding to. In response to falling grid frequency, the controller increases power.

GFL controls, on the other hand, need to first measure the change in voltage or frequency, and then take an appropriate control action before adjusting their output current to mitigate the change. This GFL strategy works if the response does not need to be superfast (as in microseconds). But as the grid becomes weaker (meaning there are fewer voltage sources nearby), GFL controls tend to become unstable. That’s because by the time they measure the voltage and adjust their output, the voltage has already changed significantly, and fast injection of current at that point can potentially lead to a dangerous positive feedback loop. Adding more GFL inverters also tends to reduce stability because it becomes more difficult for the remaining voltage sources to stabilize them all.

When a GFM inverter responds with a surge in current, it must do so within tightly prescribed limits. It must inject enough current to provide some stability but not enough to damage the power transistors that control the current flow.

Increasing the maximum current flow is possible, but it requires increasing the capacity of the power transistors and other components, which can significantly increase cost. So most inverters (both GFM and GFL) don’t provide current surges larger than about 10 to 30 percent above their rated steady-state current. For comparison, a synchronous generator can inject around 500 to 700 percent more than its rated current for several AC line cycles (around a tenth of a second, say) without sustaining any damage. For a large generator, this can amount to thousands of amperes. Because of this difference between inverters and synchronous generators, the protection technologies used in power grids will need to be adjusted to account for lower levels of fault current.

What the Kauai Episode Reveals

The 2 April event on Kauai offered an unusual opportunity to study the performance of GFM inverters during a disturbance. After the event, one of us (Andy Hoke) along with Jin Tan and Shuan Dong and some coworkers at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory, collaborated with the Kauai Island Utility Cooperative (KIUC) to get a clear understanding of how the remaining system generators and inverter-based resources interacted with each other during the disturbance. What we determined will help power grids of the future operate at levels of inverter-based resources up to 100 percent.

NREL researchers started by creating a model of the Kauai grid. We then used a technique called electromagnetic transient (EMT) simulation, which yields information on the AC waveforms on a sub-millisecond basis. In addition, we conducted hardware tests at NREL’s Flatirons Campus on a scaled-down replica of one of Kauai’s solar-battery plants, to evaluate the grid-forming control algorithms for inverters deployed on the island.The leap from power systems like Kauai’s, with a peak demand of roughly 80 MW, to ones like South Australia’s, at 3,000 MW, is a big one. But it’s nothing compared to what will come next: grids with peak demands of 85,000 MW (in Texas) and 742,000 MW (the rest of the continental United States).

Several challenges need to be solved before we can attempt such leaps. They include creating standard GFM specifications so that inverter vendors can create products. We also need accurate models that can be used to simulate the performance of GFM inverters, so we can understand their impact on the grid.

Some progress in standardization is already happening. In the United States, for example, the North American Electric Reliability Corporation (NERC) recently published a recommendation that all future large-scale battery-storage systems have grid-forming capability.

Standards for GFM performance and validation are also starting to emerge in some countries, including Australia, Finland, and Great Britain. In the United States, the Department of Energy recently backed a consortium to tackle building and integrating inverter-based resources into power grids. Led by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory, the University of Texas at Austin, and the Electric Power Research Institute, the Universal Interoperability for Grid-Forming Inverters (UNIFI) Consortium aims to address the fundamental challenges in integrating very high levels of inverter-based resources with synchronous generators in power grids. The consortium now has over 30 members from industry, academia, and research laboratories.

At 4:25 pm on 2 April, there were two large GFM solar-battery plants, one large GFL solar-battery plant, one large oil-fired turbine, one small diesel plant, two small hydro plants, one small biomass plant, and a handful of other solar generators online. Immediately after the oil-fired turbine failed, the AC frequency dropped quickly from 60 Hz to just above 59 Hz during the first 3 seconds [red trace in the figure above]. As the frequency dropped, the two GFM-equipped plants quickly ramped up power, with one plant quadrupling its output and the other doubling its output in less than 1/20 of a second.

In contrast, the remaining synchronous machines contributed some rapid but unsustained active power via their inertial responses, but took several seconds to produce sustained increases in their output. It is safe to say, and it has been confirmed through EMT simulation, that without the two GFM plants, the entire grid would have experienced a blackout.

Coincidentally, an almost identical generator failure had occurred a couple of years earlier, on 21 November 2021. In this case, only one solar-battery plant had grid-forming inverters. As in the 2023 event, the three large solar-battery plants quickly ramped up power and prevented a blackout. However, the frequency and voltage throughout the grid began to oscillate around 20 times per second [the blue trace in the figure above], indicating a major grid stability problem and causing some customers to be automatically disconnected. NREL’s EMT simulations, hardware tests, and controls analysis all confirmed that the severe oscillation was due to a combination of grid-following inverters tuned for extremely fast response and a lack of sufficient grid strength to support those GFL inverters.

In other words, the 2021 event illustrates how too many conventional GFL inverters can erode stability. Comparing the two events demonstrates the value of GFM inverter controls—not just to provide fast yet stable responses to grid events but also to stabilize nearby GFL inverters and allow the entire grid to maintain operations without a blackout.

Australia Commissions Big GFM Projects

The next step for inverter-dominated power grids is to go big. Some of the most important deployments are in South Australia. As in Kauai, the South Australian grid now has such high levels of solar generation that it regularly experiences days in which the solar generation can exceed the peak demand during the middle of the day [see figure at left].

The most well-known of the GFM resources in Australia is the Hornsdale Power Reserve in South Australia. This 150-MW/194-MWh system, which uses Tesla’s Powerpack 2 lithium-ion batteries, was originally installed in 2017 and was upgraded to grid-forming capability in 2020.

Australia’s largest battery (500 MW/1,000 MWh) with grid-forming inverters is expected to start operating in Liddell, New South Wales, later this year. This battery, from AGL Energy, will be located at the site of a decommissioned coal plant. This and several other larger GFM systems are expected to start working on the South Australia grid over the next year.

The leap from power systems like Kauai’s, with a peak demand of roughly 80 MW, to ones like South Australia’s, at 3,000 MW, is a big one. But it’s nothing compared to what will come next: grids with peak demands of 85,000 MW (in Texas) and 742,000 MW (the rest of the continental United States).

In addition to specifications, we need computer models of GFM inverters to verify their performance in large-scale systems. Without such verification, grid operators won’t trust the performance of new GFM technologies. Using GFM models built by the UNIFI Consortium, system operators and utilities such as the Western Electricity Coordinating Council, American Electric Power, and ERCOT (the Texas’s grid-reliability organization) are conducting studies to understand how GFM technology can help their grids.

Getting to a Greener Grid

As we progress toward a future grid dominated by inverter-based generation, a question naturally arises: Will all inverters need to be grid-forming? No. Several studies and simulations have indicated that we’ll need just enough GFM inverters to strengthen each area of the grid so that nearby GFL inverters remain stable.

How many GFMs is that? The answer depends on the characteristics of the grid and other generators. Some initial studies have shown that a power system can operate with 100 percent inverter-based resources if around 30 percent are grid-forming. More research is needed to understand how that number depends on details such as the grid topology and the control details of both the GFLs and the GFMs.

Ultimately, though, electricity generation that is completely carbon free in its operation is within our grasp. Our challenge now is to make the leap from small to large to very large systems. We know what we have to do, and it will not require technologies that are far more advanced than what we already have. It will take testing, validation in real-world scenarios, and standardization so that synchronous generators and inverters can unify their operations to create a reliable and robust power grid. Manufacturers, utilities, and regulators will have to work together to make this happen rapidly and smoothly. Only then can we begin the next stage of the grid’s evolution, to large-scale systems that are truly carbon neutral.

• 800,000 Microinverters Remotely Retrofitted on Oahu—in One Day ›
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• Grid-Forming Inverters: Shaping the Future of Power Distribution ›
• How one device could help transform our power grid ›

Ben Kroposki is the Director of the Power Systems Engineering Center at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL). The author of more than 150 articles on design, testing, and integration of renewable and distributed power systems, Kroposki is an IEEE Fellow and the recipient of the IEEE Power & Energy Society (PES) Ramakumar Family Renewable Energy Excellence Award, which recognizes outstanding contributions in the field of developing, utilizing and integrating renewable energy resources. Kroposki is also an adjunct professor at the Colorado School of Mines and the University of Colorado. He also serves as the director for the Universal Interoperability for Grid-forming Inverters ( UNIFI ) consortium, which is tackling the challenges of seamless integration of inverter-based resources and synchronous machines into power grids.

Andy Hoke is a senior engineer with the National Renewable Energy Laboratory in Colorado. He specializes in integrating renewable energy into the power grid. He is an unabashed champion of grid-forming inverter technology, which he believes will become a fundamental pillar of the renewable energy transition. “While it’s challenging to explain grid-forming control to non-specialists, it’s super important for everyone from traditional utility engineers to policymakers to understand. We’re in a critical window where we can deploy them now at little marginal cost and save ourselves a lot of headaches down the road.”

European Solar Charter

The European Solar Charter, signed on 15 April 2024, sets out a series of voluntary actions to be undertaken to support the EU photovoltaic sector.

Solar energy, in particular photovoltaics (PV), is currently the fastest growing renewable energy source in the EU. Last year, 56 GW of solar PV were installed in the EU, two thirds of it on rooftops, empowering consumers and protecting them from high electricity prices and reducing land use. The installations in 2022 and 2023 saved the equivalent of 15 billion cubic meters of Russian gas imports in total, mitigating the risk of disruption of gas supplies to the Union. In addition, the sector provides around 650 000 jobs, 90% of these on the deployment side, and is projected to increase until around 1 000 000 by 2030.

Achieving the 2030 EU target of at least 42.5% renewable energy by 2030, with an ambition to reach 45%, will require further acceleration in the deployment of renewable energy, including solar energy.

The bulk of the demand for solar modules in Europe is covered by imports from a single supplier, China, a concentration that creates short-term risks for the resilience of the value chain and long-term risks for price stability for solar panels due to dependencies on suppliers outside of Europe. Access to affordable solar modules from a diversity of sources as well as a resilient, sustainable and competitive European solar value chain are therefore necessary to achieve a deployment rate in line with the above targets while enhancing security of supply and mitigating the risk of supply chain disruptions.

However, the European solar module manufacturers have faced recently a particular challenge due to the combination of import dependency and a sharp drop in the prices of imported panels. In 2023, the solar photovoltaic sector in the EU and globally saw the prices of the panels plummet from circa 0.20 €/W to less than 0.12 €/W. This unsustainable situation is weakening the viability of existing European production and jeopardises planned investments for new manufacturing plants announced over the last 2 years. As a consequence, some European companies have either reduced their operations, announced that they would prioritise production in other international markets, in particular the U.S., or even announced their closure.

Over the last years, the EU has taken initiatives to strengthen its support to the European solar PV manufacturing sector, which includes several globally competitive companies in several steps of the value chain.

The European Solar PV Industry Alliance (ESIA), launched in December 2022 to reinforce the cooperation within industry, set itself the target of 30 GW of production capacity along the value chain, an objective considered achievable by 2030. The ESIA pipeline includes more than 20 projects, including several at multi-GW scale. The Net-Zero Industry Act (NZIA), on which a political agreement was reached in February, aims to ensure that the Union’s overall strategic net-zero technologies manufacturing capacity, including solar PV, approaches or reaches at least 40% of the annual deployment needs by 2030. The act includes concrete measures, such as accelerated permitting or market access facilitation through the use of non-price criteria in public procurement, renewable energy auctions and other support schemes.

However, further urgent action is needed in the short term to address the crisis in the European manufacturing industry.

All relevant stakeholders – the Commission, the Member States and the companies active along the European solar PV value chain - should ensure that the green transition and the European industrial objectives go hand in hand, accelerating the deployment of renewables while at the same time enhancing the EU’s security of supply by supporting the competitiveness of the sector and the jobs it creates in the EU.

To this end, the European Solar Charter sets out immediate actions to be taken by the Commission, EU Member States and the representatives of the solar PV value chain, in particular wholesale, distribution and manufacturing parts, to be implemented ensuring full compliance with EU competition law and state aid rules.

Actions by EU countries and industry

The undersigning Member States and solar industry representatives, respectively COMMIT to implementing as a matter of priority the following actions:

• In the framework of renewable energy auctions or other relevant support schemes, rapid early implementation of the relevant NZIA provisions through the application of, in addition to price criteria, ambitious non-price criteria, including resilience, sustainability, responsible business conduct, ‘ability to deliver”, innovation and cybersecurity criteria.
• In the framework of public procurement of solar energy products: rapid early implementation of the relevant provisions in the NZIA and in the Energy Performance of Buildings Directive through the application of, in addition to price criteria, ambitious resilience, sustainability, social, ‘ability to deliver”, innovation or cybersecurity criteria; ensure the relevant provisions in the Foreign Subsidies Regulation are fully implemented.
• The promotion of innovative forms of solar energy deployment, such as agri-PV, floating solar, infrastructure-integrated PV, vehicle-integrated PV or building-integrated PV with a specific focus on innovative business models such as turnkey projects for PV integration in buildings, including through the removal of possible regulatory and permitting barriers as well as the adaptation of existing public support schemes or the creation of specific public support schemes.
• Create favourable framework conditions for manufacturing facilities of PV products and for additional investments, with a view to supporting the achievement of the manufacturing benchmark in the NZIA, including through rapid early implementation of relevant NZIA provisions on permitting and net-zero acceleration areas, improved availability of manufacturing skills and engagement across the value chain to improve the availability of recycled materials.
• A joint commitment across the EU solar PV value chain to continuous innovation, technological excellence, responsible business conduct, cybersecurity, sustainability, diversification of supply chains, social integration.
• Consider using all available EU funding opportunities as well as flexibilities under the State aid Temporary Crisis and Transition Framework (TCTF) to provide support for new investments in the solar energy supply chain.
• Engage in the Member States Task Force under the European Solar Industry Alliance to exchange best practices on the application of non-price criteria, provide support to the industry and to strategic projects, and on the promotion of innovative forms of solar energy deployment
• Include therefore in the portfolios of the relevant market players, such as wholesalers, distributors and installers and in view of improving the competitiveness of the Union and diversification of supplies, solar PV products commensurate to the EU’s manufacturing capacity meeting high resilience, sustainability and responsible business conduct criteria. This includes custom-made and innovative solar PV products as well as products for innovative forms of deployment (such as building-integrated PV, agri- 3 PV, floating solar, infrastructure-integrated PV or vehicle-integrated PV), provide specific visibility to key qualities and origin of these products and gradually increase their volume.
• Maintain and, where possible, expand the current production capacity, in line with expected growing demand for their products, based on the public and private commitments adopted in this Charter.
• In the case of solar PV products offtakers, incorporate resilience, sustainability, responsible business conduct, ‘ability to deliver”, innovation and cybersecurity considerations in their strategies, including through cooperation with manufacturers.

Actions by the Commission

The European Commission INTENDS to:

• Further facilitate access to EU funding for solar PV manufacturing projects under the Recovery and Resilience Facility, structural funds, the Innovation Fund, the Modernisation Fund, and Horizon Europe, including through the Strategic Technologies European Platform (STEP). The Innovation Fund has selected solar PV manufacturing projects for a total of €400 million and made €1.4 billion available in its 2023 call for clean tech manufacturing, including solar PV.
• Work with the European Investment Bank to reinforce its support to investments in the solar manufacturing value chain, including through InvestEU.
• Support Member Statesin the inclusion of transparent, non-discriminatory and objective non-price criteria in renewable energy auctions, in public procurement as well as the promotion of innovative forms of solar energy deployment, including through recommendations, guidance, and the structured dialogue in the appropriate fora, including the Community of Public Buyers for Sustainable Solar PV for public procurement.
• Explore, in cooperation with Member States through the Joint European Forum the possibility of an Important Project of Common European Interest (IPCEI) to support innovations and their first industrial deployment in the solar PV manufacturing value chain.
• Continue providing support to the European Solar PV Industry Alliance in view of the achievement of its objectives, and directly engage with Member State authorities in the dedicated taskforce to share best practices on demand-side measures and support to the sector and to strategic projects.
• Continue to cooperate with third countries to enhance the resilience and diversification of supply chains via existing and future partnerships, dialogues and trade agreements and fora.
• In collaboration with Member States and social partners, facilitate the expansion of skills availability for the EU solar sector, including for manufacturing, through inter alia the Solar Academy and the Renewable Energy Skills Partnership.
• Propose forward-looking Ecodesign and Energy Labelling regulations for solar PV products to establish, on the basis of a robust methodology, appropriate environmental and energy performance standards for the sector.
• Promote the acceleration of deployment by supporting Member States in the swift implementation of the revised Renewable Energy Directive and by implementing the Grids Action Plan.
• Assess all evidence of alleged unfair practices put forward by the industry or from other independent sources.

Monitoring and review

All signatories COMMIT to monitor future developments in the sector and contribute to a fair and competitive international environment in the solar sector.

One year following the signature of the Charter, the Commission will review the implementation of the adopted commitments.

Related links

• European Solar PV Industry Alliance (ESIA)
• Net-Zero Industry Act (NZIA)

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News in pursuit of truth

Luke Miller: The new renewable energy standard would cement Vermont’s reputation as an environmental trailblazer

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This commentary is by Luke Miller, an executive committee member of the Vermont Sierra Club.

This March, the Vermont House of Representatives voted to pass a new renewable energy standard, H.289 , a policy that sets requirements for energy providers throughout the state. At the moment, H.289 is being considered by the Senate. 

H.289 is the product of an agreement between the regulated utilities and environmental and energy advocates. The new renewable energy standard would institute a number of proposed changes, all of which encourage a cleaner, more renewable, next-generation electric grid for Vermont’s future. 

The standard presents Vermont with another unmissable opportunity to lead the country in new, innovative policies that sustain Vermont’s thriving natural communities for generations to come.

Comprehensive reform in the energy sector will bring more reliable energy, cleaner water, fewer harmful chemicals in the air and stable, well-paid jobs for Vermonters. It also will keep more of Vermonters’ energy expenditures in Vermont, further strengthening our local economy.

Despite these benefits, opponents of the new renewable energy standard claim it would cause big rate hikes for Vermont residents. While it won’t be free to upgrade to a state-of-the-art, model electric grid, some estimates of the total cost, notably our own Gov. Phil Scott’s , have been greatly overestimated. 

In reality, modeling from Renewable Energy Vermont estimates an increase of $187 million in spending over the 10 years of implementation, or approximately $77 million more than the Public Service Department’s proposal for this time span. This translates to about $1.40 more on an average ratepayers electric bill. 

Comparatively, the looming climate crisis, unless properly addressed, will have a much greater economic and human cost. That’s why we are working tirelessly alongside our partners to amplify the voices of Vermonters statewide who want clean renewable energy. Together, we fight back against false claims about the cost of this bill to ratepayers. 

The new renewable energy standard would require all Vermont utilities to provide 100% renewable electricity to all customers by 2030 for larger utilities and 2035 for smaller municipal electric co-ops. This would make Vermont the first state to have a 100% renewable electric portfolio. 

Beyond the direct impact of reducing carbon emissions, the changes from the renewable energy standard would have cascading effects in the energy industry in Vermont and throughout the northeast region. By mandating new renewable generation requirements, utilities would be incentivized to create a more robust energy workforce. More renewable energy sources coming online would also help to reduce the cost of renewable energy. Such a change could also spur technological improvements in the renewable energy field, leading to better generation technologies at better prices. 

Requiring utilities to build more new renewables in state — up to 20% of their total delivered electricity, raised from 10% — will spur growth in small and medium sized renewable energy generation facilities throughout Vermont, leading to more jobs for Vermonters and providing further clean electricity to our grid. Smaller-scale in-state renewables reduce Vermont’s reliance on importing hydroelectricity from large hydroelectric generation facilities that damage the environment. 

At the end of the day, Vermont’s grid will need to be upgraded soon. Rather than stay tied to polluting energy sources, it is best that our state get ahead of the game and put Vermont in a strong position to contribute to the climate fight through its energy sector. 

By passing the renewable energy standard, the Legislature has a chance to further cement Vermont’s reputation as a trailblazer on environmental issues. The benefits that the renewable energy standard brings will directly benefit Vermonters while still allowing us to contribute to fighting the global climate crisis. 

The Sierra Club urges the Vermont Senate to pass H.289 and deliver this bill to Scott to enact today.

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Pieces contributed by readers and newsmakers. VTDigger strives to publish a variety of views from a broad range of Vermonters. More by Opinion