thesis statement on oppression

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Essays on Oppression

What makes a good oppression essay topics.

When it comes to writing an oppression essay, choosing the right topic is crucial. A good essay topic should be thought-provoking, relevant, and provide ample opportunity for critical analysis. Here are some recommendations on how to brainstorm and choose an essay topic, what to consider, and What Makes a Good essay topic.

When brainstorming for essay topics, consider current events, historical events, literature, and social issues. Think about what interests you and what you feel passionate about. Consider topics that are not only relevant but also have enough research material available to support your arguments.

A good essay topic should be specific and focused. It should not be too broad or too narrow, allowing for in-depth analysis and discussion. It should also be thought-provoking and challenging, encouraging the reader to think critically about the subject matter.

Consider the target audience when choosing an essay topic. Think about what would engage and interest them. Additionally, consider the purpose of the essay and what you hope to achieve with it. Are you looking to inform, persuade, or provoke critical thinking? Your essay topic should align with your goals.

A good essay topic should also be relevant and timely. It should address current issues and provoke discussion and debate. It should also be unique and original, offering a fresh perspective on the subject matter.

Best Oppression Essay Topics

When it comes to oppression essay topics, it's important to choose topics that stand out and provoke critical thinking. Here are some creative and thought-provoking essay topics that go beyond the ordinary:

• The psychological effects of systemic oppression on marginalized communities
• The role of language in perpetuating oppression
• The impact of colonialism on indigenous communities
• Oppression and resistance in dystopian literature
• The intersectionality of oppression and identity
• The role of media in perpetuating stereotypes and oppression
• Oppression and the criminal justice system
• The impact of economic oppression on mental health
• Oppression and the LGBTQ+ community
• The effects of oppression on mental health and well-being
• Oppression and the education system
• The role of religion in perpetuating oppression
• Oppression and environmental justice
• The impact of oppression on access to healthcare
• The role of privilege in perpetuating oppression
• Oppression and the refugee crisis
• The impact of oppression on freedom of expression
• Oppression and the arts
• The role of technology in perpetuating oppression
• The impact of oppression on access to basic needs

Oppression essay topics Prompts

If you're looking for some creative prompts to inspire your oppression essay, here are five thought-provoking ideas to get you started:

• Imagine a world without oppression. What would it look like, and how can we work towards achieving it?
• Write about a personal experience with oppression and how it has shaped your perspective on social justice.
• Choose a work of literature or film that addresses oppression and analyze its themes, characters, and message.
• Research a historical event or movement that sought to challenge oppression and discuss its impact on society.
• Consider the role of privilege in perpetuating oppression and how we can work towards creating a more equitable society.

Choosing a good oppression essay topic is essential for creating a thought-provoking and engaging essay. By considering relevance, specificity, and creativity, you can choose a topic that will inspire critical thinking and meaningful discussion. Whether it's addressing current issues, analyzing historical events, or exploring the intersectionality of oppression, there are plenty of unique and creative essay topics to choose from.

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Oppression is malicious or unjust treatment or exercise of power, often under the guise of governmental authority or cultural opprobrium.

Authoritarian oppression, socioeconomic, political, legal, cultural, and institutional oppression. Social oppression includes privilege, racial oppression, class oppression, gender oppression, religious persecution, domination, institutionalized oppression, economic oppression, etc.

Relevant topics

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• How to Write a Thesis Statement | 4 Steps & Examples

How to Write a Thesis Statement | 4 Steps & Examples

Published on January 11, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on August 15, 2023 by Eoghan Ryan.

A thesis statement is a sentence that sums up the central point of your paper or essay . It usually comes near the end of your introduction .

Your thesis will look a bit different depending on the type of essay you’re writing. But the thesis statement should always clearly state the main idea you want to get across. Everything else in your essay should relate back to this idea.

You can write your thesis statement by following four simple steps:

• Start with a question
• Write your initial answer
• Develop your answer
• Refine your thesis statement

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Table of contents

What is a thesis statement, placement of the thesis statement, step 1: start with a question, step 2: write your initial answer, step 3: develop your answer, step 4: refine your thesis statement, types of thesis statements, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about thesis statements.

A thesis statement summarizes the central points of your essay. It is a signpost telling the reader what the essay will argue and why.

The best thesis statements are:

• Concise: A good thesis statement is short and sweet—don’t use more words than necessary. State your point clearly and directly in one or two sentences.
• Contentious: Your thesis shouldn’t be a simple statement of fact that everyone already knows. A good thesis statement is a claim that requires further evidence or analysis to back it up.
• Coherent: Everything mentioned in your thesis statement must be supported and explained in the rest of your paper.

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The thesis statement generally appears at the end of your essay introduction or research paper introduction .

The spread of the internet has had a world-changing effect, not least on the world of education. The use of the internet in academic contexts and among young people more generally is hotly debated. For many who did not grow up with this technology, its effects seem alarming and potentially harmful. This concern, while understandable, is misguided. The negatives of internet use are outweighed by its many benefits for education: the internet facilitates easier access to information, exposure to different perspectives, and a flexible learning environment for both students and teachers.

You should come up with an initial thesis, sometimes called a working thesis , early in the writing process . As soon as you’ve decided on your essay topic , you need to work out what you want to say about it—a clear thesis will give your essay direction and structure.

You might already have a question in your assignment, but if not, try to come up with your own. What would you like to find out or decide about your topic?

For example, you might ask:

After some initial research, you can formulate a tentative answer to this question. At this stage it can be simple, and it should guide the research process and writing process .

Now you need to consider why this is your answer and how you will convince your reader to agree with you. As you read more about your topic and begin writing, your answer should get more detailed.

In your essay about the internet and education, the thesis states your position and sketches out the key arguments you’ll use to support it.

The negatives of internet use are outweighed by its many benefits for education because it facilitates easier access to information.

In your essay about braille, the thesis statement summarizes the key historical development that you’ll explain.

The invention of braille in the 19th century transformed the lives of blind people, allowing them to participate more actively in public life.

A strong thesis statement should tell the reader:

• Why you hold this position
• What they’ll learn from your essay
• The key points of your argument or narrative

The final thesis statement doesn’t just state your position, but summarizes your overall argument or the entire topic you’re going to explain. To strengthen a weak thesis statement, it can help to consider the broader context of your topic.

These examples are more specific and show that you’ll explore your topic in depth.

Your thesis statement should match the goals of your essay, which vary depending on the type of essay you’re writing:

• In an argumentative essay , your thesis statement should take a strong position. Your aim in the essay is to convince your reader of this thesis based on evidence and logical reasoning.
• In an expository essay , you’ll aim to explain the facts of a topic or process. Your thesis statement doesn’t have to include a strong opinion in this case, but it should clearly state the central point you want to make, and mention the key elements you’ll explain.

If you want to know more about AI tools , college essays , or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

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A thesis statement is a sentence that sums up the central point of your paper or essay . Everything else you write should relate to this key idea.

The thesis statement is essential in any academic essay or research paper for two main reasons:

• It gives your writing direction and focus.
• It gives the reader a concise summary of your main point.

Without a clear thesis statement, an essay can end up rambling and unfocused, leaving your reader unsure of exactly what you want to say.

Follow these four steps to come up with a thesis statement :

• Ask a question about your topic .
• Write your initial answer.
• Develop your answer by including reasons.
• Refine your answer, adding more detail and nuance.

The thesis statement should be placed at the end of your essay introduction .

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By Heidi Burgess

March 2005, updated in June 2017, and again in July 2020.  

Oppression is at the root of many of the most serious, enduring conflicts in the world today. Racial and religious conflicts; conflicts between dictatorial governments and their citizens; the battle between the sexes; conflicts between management and labor; between heterosexuals and homosexuals, between liberals and conservatives,  all stem, in whole or in part, to oppression or perceived oppression.

In 2017, conflicts between religion and races seemed to be on the significant increase, both in the U.S. and abroad. Many (on both sides) were talking about a serious conflict between "the West" (mostly Christian) and Islam. The conflict between Jews (mostly in Israel) and Muslims has a long, extremely intractable, history.  The conflict in Syria is one of oppression based on religion (among other things), and the migration that has caused has spawned oppression of minorities in many other countries as well. In the United States, race, immigration, and resentment of elites were big factors in the 2016 Presidential election, as working-class whites, long feeling oppressed by the liberal elite, lashed back by electing a President, who, though extremely rich, they still viewed as "one of their own," or at least one who wouldn't oppress whites, as they believed President Obama and other liberals before him had done.

Now in the summer of 2020, racial conflict has boiled over again with the high-profile police killing of an unarmed Black man in Minnesota.  This event and the worldwide response to it has put the oppression of Blacks (in the U.S.) and other minorities around the world on center stage once again.

To paraphrase Mark Twain, we need to quit complaining about oppression and actually do something about it. And, in order to do that, we need to understand the multi-faceted nature of the problem and the strategies for addressing it that are most likely to be successful. 

This section of the knowledge base explores oppression: what causes it, and what can be done to address it. Most of the essays in this section are drawn from a larger essay originally entitled "Oppression and Conflict[1]" Since that essay was too long to stand alone in Beyond Intractability, here it is divided up into six essays, which together make up the "oppression" section of the website. BI is lucky to be able to include these essays from Mort Deutsch—they provide a comprehensive, succinct, and understandable introduction to this critically important topic.

In addition to this short introduction, the essays in this section currently include:

1. The Nature and Origins of Oppression

2. The Forms of Oppression

3. What Keeps Oppression in Place?

4. Awakening the Sense of Injustice

5. Overcoming Oppression Through Persuasion

6.   Overcoming Oppression with Power

[1] The original paper was delivered as a plenary address at the annual meetings of the International Society of Justice Research in Skovde, Sweden on June 17, 2002.

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Use the following to cite this article: Deutsch, Morton. "Oppression and Conflict: Introduction." Beyond Intractability . Eds. Guy Burgess and Heidi Burgess. Conflict Information Consortium, University of Colorado, Boulder. Posted: March 2005 < http://www.beyondintractability.org/essay/oppression-introduction >.

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Oppression Theses Samples For Students

4 samples of this type

Do you feel the need to examine some previously written Theses on Oppression before you begin writing an own piece? In this free collection of Oppression Thesis examples, you are provided with a fascinating opportunity to discover meaningful topics, content structuring techniques, text flow, formatting styles, and other academically acclaimed writing practices. Using them while composing your own Oppression Thesis will surely allow you to finalize the piece faster.

Presenting high-quality samples isn't the only way our free essays service can aid students in their writing endeavors – our experts can also compose from scratch a fully customized Thesis on Oppression that would make a genuine foundation for your own academic work.

Good Example Of Thesis On Name

‘instructor’s name’, effects of empowerment on police officers in the singapore police force thesis examples, acknowledgments.

I am especially grateful for the support and guidance of my dissertation advisor, Dr. A. P., provided all through the progression and development on this research study.

My thanks also go to the men and women in blue of Singapore Police Force whom had provided their valuable time to participate in the survey and their willingness to share. I also would like to thank DSP (NS) Azrin Abdul Rahim and SSI Selamat Bustaman for their valuable guidance and insights towards this study.

Singapore Police Force Empowerment Thesis Example

Introduction and background.

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• Effective Thesis Statements

What is a Thesis Statement?

• A thesis statement tells a reader how you will interpret the significance of the subject matter under discussion. Such a statement is also called an “argument,” a “main idea,” or a “controlling idea.”
• A good thesis has two parts. It should tell what you plan to argue, and it should “telegraph” how you plan to argue—that is, what particular support for your claim is going where in your essay
• A standard place for your thesis is at the end of the introductory paragraph.
• A thesis is an interpretation of a subject, not the subject itself. The subject, or topic, of an essay might be World War II or Moby Dick; a thesis must then offer a way to understand the war or the novel that others might dispute.
• A strong thesis not only grabs the interest of your reader, who now wants to see you support your unique interpretation, it also provides a focus for your argument, one to which every part of your paper refers in the development of your position.
• A thesis keeps the writer centered on the matter at hand and reduces the risk of intellectual wandering. Likewise, a thesis provides the reader with a “road map,” clearly laying out the intellectual route ahead.
• A thesis statement avoids the first person (“I believe,” “In my opinion”).

A simple equation for what a thesis might look like this:

What you plan to argue + How you plan to argue it = Thesis Specific Topic+ Attitude/Angle/Argument=Thesis

Steps To Write Effective Thesis Statement

• Choose a prompt or, if appropriate, select a topic: television violence and children
• What are the effects of television violence on children?
• Violence on television increases aggressive behavior in children.
• Avoid general phrasing and/or sweeping words such as “all” or “none” or “every”.
• Lead the reader toward the topic sentences (the subtopics needed to prove the thesis).
• While poor parenting and easy access to weapons may act as contributory factors, in fact when children are exposed to television violence they become less sensitive to the pain and suffering of others, are more fearful of the world around them, and are more likely to behave in aggressive or harmful ways toward others.

The Components of an Effective Thesis Statement

• You can’t just pluck a thesis out of thin air. Even if you have a terrific insight concerning a topic, it won’t be worth much unless you can logically and persuasively support it in the body of your essay. A thesis is the evolutionary result of a thinking process, not a miraculous creation. Formulating a thesis is not the first thing you do after reading an essay assignment .
• Substantial – Your thesis should be a claim for which it is easy to answer every reader’s question: “So what?”
• Supportable – A thesis must be a claim that you can prove with the evidence at hand (e.g., evidence from your texts or from your research). Your claim should not be outlandish, nor should it be mere personal opinion or preference (e.g., “Frederick Douglass is my favorite historical figure.”) It tackles a subject that could be adequately covered in the format of the project assigned.
• Precise – It is focused and specific. A strong thesis proves a point without discussing everything. It clearly asserts your own conclusion based on evidence. Note: Be flexible. It is perfectly okay to change your thesis!
• Arguable – It should be contestable, proposing an arguable point with which people could reasonably disagree.
• Relevant – If you are responding to an assignment, the thesis should answer the question your teacher has posed. In order to stay focused, pay attention to the task words in the assignment: summarize, argue, compare/contrast, etc.
• Aware of Counters – It anticipates and refutes the counter-arguments.

The best thesis statement is a balance of specific details and concise language. Your goal is to articulate an argument in detail without burdening the reader with too much information.

Questions To Review Your Thesis

• “Do I answer the question?” This might seem obvious, but it’s worth asking. No matter how intriguing or dazzling, a thesis that doesn’t answer the question is not a good thesis!
• “Have I taken a position that others might challenge or oppose?” If not, then you probably do not have a strong argument. Theses that are too vague often have this problem. If your thesis contains vague words like “good” or “successful,” see if you could be more specific: why is something “good”; what makes something “successful”?
• Would anyone possible care about this thesis? So What? Does your thesis present a position or an interpretation worth pursuing? If a reader’s first response is, “So what?” then you need to clarify, to forge a relationship, or to connect to a larger issue.
• “Does my essay support my thesis specifically and without wandering?” Just as a thesis that doesn’t answer the question ultimately fails, so does a thesis that isn’t properly supported with evidence and reasoning.
• Does my thesis statement adequately address the direction words of the prompt: summarize, argue, compare/contrast, analyze, discuss, etc.?

Myths about Thesis Statements

• Every paper requires one . Assignments that ask you to write personal responses or to explore a subject don’t want you to seem to pre-judge the issues. Essays of literary interpretation often want you to be aware of many effects rather than seeming to box yourself into one view of the text.
• A thesis statement must come at the end of the first paragraph . This is a natural position for a statement of focus, but it’s not the only one. Some theses can be stated in the opening sentences of an essay; others need a paragraph or two of introduction; others can’t be fully formulated until the end.
• A thesis statement must be one sentence in length , no matter how many clauses it contains. Clear writing is more important than rules like these. Use two or three sentences if you need them. A complex argument may require a whole tightly-knit paragraph to make its initial statement of position.
• You can’t start writing an essay until you have a perfect thesis statement . It may be advisable to draft a hypothesis or tentative thesis statement near the start of a big project, but changing and refining a thesis is a main task of thinking your way through your ideas as you write a paper. And some essay projects need to explore the question in depth without being locked in before they can provide even a tentative answer.
• A thesis statement must give three points of support . It should indicate that the essay will explain and give evidence for its assertion, but points don’t need to come in any specific number.

Progressively Complex Thesis Statements

• Effective Thesis Statements. Provided by : Writing Guide Wikispaces. Located at : https://writingguide.wikispaces.com/Effective+Thesis+Statements . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
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1.8: Thesis Statements

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What this handout is about

This handout describes what a thesis statement is, how thesis statements work in your writing, and how you can discover or refine one for your draft.

Introduction

Writing in college often takes the form of persuasion—convincing others that you have an interesting, logical point of view on the subject you are studying. Persuasion is a skill you practice regularly in your daily life. You persuade your roommate to clean up, your parents to let you borrow the car, your friend to vote for your favorite candidate or policy. In college, course assignments often ask you to make a persuasive case in writing. You are asked to convince your reader of your point of view. This form of persuasion, often called academic argument, follows a predictable pattern in writing. After a brief introduction of your topic, you state your point of view on the topic directly and often in one sentence. This sentence is the thesis statement, and it serves as a summary of the argument you’ll make in the rest of your paper .

What is a thesis statement?

A thesis statement:.

• tells the reader how you will interpret the significance of the subject matter under discussion.
• is a road map for the paper; in other words, it tells the reader what to expect from the rest of the paper.
• directly answers the question asked of you. A thesis is an interpretation of a question or subject, not the subject itself. The subject, or topic, of an essay might be World War II or Moby Dick; a thesis must then offer a way to understand the war or the novel.
• makes a claim that others might dispute.
• is usually a single sentence somewhere in your first paragraph that presents your argument to the reader. The rest of the paper, the body of the essay, gathers and organizes evidence that will persuade the reader of the logic of your interpretation.

If your assignment asks you to take a position or develop a claim about a subject, you may need to convey that position or claim in a thesis statement near the beginning of your draft. The assignment may not explicitly state that you need a thesis statement because your instructor may assume you will include one. When in doubt, ask your instructor if the assignment requires a thesis statement. When an assignment asks you to analyze, to interpret, to compare and contrast, to demonstrate cause and effect, or to take a stand on an issue, it is likely that you are being asked to develop a thesis and to support it persuasively. (Check out our handout on understanding assignments for more information.)

How do I get a thesis?

A thesis is the result of a lengthy thinking process. Formulating a thesis is not the first thing you do after reading an essay assignment. Before you develop an argument on any topic, you have to collect and organize evidence, look for possible relationships between known facts (such as surprising contrasts or similarities), and think about the significance of these relationships. Once you do this thinking, you will probably have a “working thesis,” a basic or main idea, an argument that you think you can support with evidence but that may need adjustment along the way.

Writers use all kinds of techniques to stimulate their thinking and to help them clarify relationships or comprehend the broader significance of a topic and arrive at a thesis statement. For more ideas on how to get started, see our handout on brainstorming .

How do I know if my thesis is strong?

If there’s time, run it by your instructor or make an appointment at the Writing Center to get some feedback. Even if you do not have time to get advice elsewhere, you can do some thesis evaluation of your own. When reviewing your first draft and its working thesis, ask yourself the following:

• Do I answer the question? Re-reading the question prompt after constructing a working thesis can help you fix an argument that misses the focus of the question.
• Have I taken a position that others might challenge or oppose? If your thesis simply states facts that no one would, or even could, disagree with, it’s possible that you are simply providing a summary, rather than making an argument.
• Is my thesis statement specific enough?

Thesis statements that are too vague often do not have a strong argument. If your thesis contains words like “good” or “successful,” see if you could be more specific: why is something “good”; what specifically makes something “successful”?

• Does my thesis pass the “So what?” test? If a reader’s first response is, “So what?” then you need to clarify, to forge a relationship, or to connect to a larger issue.
• Does my essay support my thesis specifically and without wandering? If your thesis and the body of your essay do not seem to go together, one of them has to change. It’s o.k. to change your working thesis to reflect things you have figured out in the course of writing your paper. Remember, always reassess and revise your writing as necessary.
• Does my thesis pass the “how and why?” test? If a reader’s first response is “how?” or “why?” your thesis may be too open-ended and lack guidance for the reader. See what you can add to give the reader a better take on your position right from the beginning.

Suppose you are taking a course on 19th-century America, and the instructor hands out the following essay assignment: Compare and contrast the reasons why the North and South fought the Civil War. You turn on the computer and type out the following:

The North and South fought the Civil War for many reasons, some of which were the same and some different.

This weak thesis restates the question without providing any additional information. You will expand on this new information in the body of the essay, but it is important that the reader know where you are heading. A reader of this weak thesis might think, “What reasons? How are they the same? How are they different?” Ask yourself these same questions and begin to compare Northern and Southern attitudes (perhaps you first think, “The South believed slavery was right, and the North thought slavery was wrong”). Now, push your comparison toward an interpretation—why did one side think slavery was right and the other side think it was wrong? You look again at the evidence, and you decide that you are going to argue that the North believed slavery was immoral while the South believed it upheld the Southern way of life. You write:

While both sides fought the Civil War over the issue of slavery, the North fought for moral reasons while the South fought to preserve its own institutions.

Now you have a working thesis! Included in this working thesis is a reason for the war and some idea of how the two sides disagreed over this reason. As you write the essay, you will probably begin to characterize these differences more precisely, and your working thesis may start to seem too vague. Maybe you decide that both sides fought for moral reasons, and that they just focused on different moral issues. You end up revising the working thesis into a final thesis that really captures the argument in your paper:

While both Northerners and Southerners believed they fought against tyranny and oppression, Northerners focused on the oppression of slaves while Southerners defended their own right to self-government.

Compare this to the original weak thesis. This final thesis presents a way of interpreting evidence that illuminates the significance of the question. Keep in mind that this is one of many possible interpretations of the Civil War—it is not the one and only right answer to the question . There isn’t one right answer; there are only strong and weak thesis statements and strong and weak uses of evidence.

Let’s look at another example. Suppose your literature professor hands out the following assignment in a class on the American novel: Write an analysis of some aspect of Mark Twain’s novel Huckleberry Finn. “This will be easy,” you think. “I loved Huckleberry Finn!” You grab a pad of paper and write:

Mark Twain’s Huckleberry Finn is a great American novel.

Why is this thesis weak? Think about what the reader would expect from the essay that follows: you will most likely provide a general, appreciative summary of Twain’s novel. The question did not ask you to summarize; it asked you to analyze. Your professor is probably not interested in your opinion of the novel; instead, she wants you to think about why it’s such a great novel— what do Huck’s adventures tell us about life, about America, about coming of age, about race relations, etc.? First, the question asks you to pick an aspect of the novel that you think is important to its structure or meaning—for example, the role of storytelling, the contrasting scenes between the shore and the river, or the relationships between adults and children. Now you write:

In Huckleberry Finn, Mark Twain develops a contrast between life on the river and life on the shore.

Here’s a working thesis with potential: you have highlighted an important aspect of the novel for investigation; however, it’s still not clear what your analysis will reveal. Your reader is intrigued, but is still thinking, “So what? What’s the point of this contrast? What does it signify?” Perhaps you are not sure yet, either. That’s fine—begin to work on comparing scenes from the book and see what you discover. Free write, make lists, jot down Huck’s actions and reactions. Eventually you will be able to clarify for yourself, and then for the reader, why this contrast matters. After examining the evidence and considering your own insights, you write:

Through its contrasting river and shore scenes, Twain’s Huckleberry Finn suggests that to find the true expression of American democratic ideals, one must leave “civilized” society and go back to nature.

This final thesis statement presents an interpretation of a literary work based on an analysis of its content. Of course, for the essay itself to be successful, you must now present evidence from the novel that will convince the reader of your interpretation.

Works consulted

We consulted these works while writing the original version of this handout. This is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handout’s topic, and we encourage you to do your own research to find the latest publications on this topic. Please do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial .

Anson, Chris M. and Robert A. Schwegler. The Longman Handbook for Writers. 2nd ed. New York: Longman, 2000.

Hairston, Maxine and John J. Ruszkiewicz. The Scott, Foresman Handbook for Writers. 4th ed. New York: HarperCollins, 1996.

Lunsford, Andrea and Robert Connors. The St. Martin’s Handbook. 3rd ed. New York: St. Martin’s, 1995.

Rosen, Leonard J. and Laurence Behrens. The Allyn & Bacon Handbook. 3rd ed. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1997.

Developing a Thesis Statement

Many papers you write require developing a thesis statement. In this section you’ll learn what a thesis statement is and how to write one.

Keep in mind that not all papers require thesis statements . If in doubt, please consult your instructor for assistance.

What is a thesis statement?

A thesis statement . . .

• Makes an argumentative assertion about a topic; it states the conclusions that you have reached about your topic.
• Makes a promise to the reader about the scope, purpose, and direction of your paper.
• Is focused and specific enough to be “proven” within the boundaries of your paper.
• Is generally located near the end of the introduction ; sometimes, in a long paper, the thesis will be expressed in several sentences or in an entire paragraph.
• Identifies the relationships between the pieces of evidence that you are using to support your argument.

Not all papers require thesis statements! Ask your instructor if you’re in doubt whether you need one.

Identify a topic

Your topic is the subject about which you will write. Your assignment may suggest several ways of looking at a topic; or it may name a fairly general concept that you will explore or analyze in your paper.

Consider what your assignment asks you to do

Inform yourself about your topic, focus on one aspect of your topic, ask yourself whether your topic is worthy of your efforts, generate a topic from an assignment.

Below are some possible topics based on sample assignments.

Sample assignment 1

Analyze Spain’s neutrality in World War II.

Identified topic

Franco’s role in the diplomatic relationships between the Allies and the Axis

This topic avoids generalities such as “Spain” and “World War II,” addressing instead on Franco’s role (a specific aspect of “Spain”) and the diplomatic relations between the Allies and Axis (a specific aspect of World War II).

Sample assignment 2

Analyze one of Homer’s epic similes in the Iliad.

The relationship between the portrayal of warfare and the epic simile about Simoisius at 4.547-64.

This topic focuses on a single simile and relates it to a single aspect of the Iliad ( warfare being a major theme in that work).

Developing a Thesis Statement–Additional information

Your assignment may suggest several ways of looking at a topic, or it may name a fairly general concept that you will explore or analyze in your paper. You’ll want to read your assignment carefully, looking for key terms that you can use to focus your topic.

Sample assignment: Analyze Spain’s neutrality in World War II Key terms: analyze, Spain’s neutrality, World War II

After you’ve identified the key words in your topic, the next step is to read about them in several sources, or generate as much information as possible through an analysis of your topic. Obviously, the more material or knowledge you have, the more possibilities will be available for a strong argument. For the sample assignment above, you’ll want to look at books and articles on World War II in general, and Spain’s neutrality in particular.

As you consider your options, you must decide to focus on one aspect of your topic. This means that you cannot include everything you’ve learned about your topic, nor should you go off in several directions. If you end up covering too many different aspects of a topic, your paper will sprawl and be unconvincing in its argument, and it most likely will not fulfull the assignment requirements.

For the sample assignment above, both Spain’s neutrality and World War II are topics far too broad to explore in a paper. You may instead decide to focus on Franco’s role in the diplomatic relationships between the Allies and the Axis , which narrows down what aspects of Spain’s neutrality and World War II you want to discuss, as well as establishes a specific link between those two aspects.

Before you go too far, however, ask yourself whether your topic is worthy of your efforts. Try to avoid topics that already have too much written about them (i.e., “eating disorders and body image among adolescent women”) or that simply are not important (i.e. “why I like ice cream”). These topics may lead to a thesis that is either dry fact or a weird claim that cannot be supported. A good thesis falls somewhere between the two extremes. To arrive at this point, ask yourself what is new, interesting, contestable, or controversial about your topic.

As you work on your thesis, remember to keep the rest of your paper in mind at all times . Sometimes your thesis needs to evolve as you develop new insights, find new evidence, or take a different approach to your topic.

Derive a main point from topic

Once you have a topic, you will have to decide what the main point of your paper will be. This point, the “controlling idea,” becomes the core of your argument (thesis statement) and it is the unifying idea to which you will relate all your sub-theses. You can then turn this “controlling idea” into a purpose statement about what you intend to do in your paper.

Look for patterns in your evidence

Compose a purpose statement.

Consult the examples below for suggestions on how to look for patterns in your evidence and construct a purpose statement.

• Franco first tried to negotiate with the Axis
• Franco turned to the Allies when he couldn’t get some concessions that he wanted from the Axis

Possible conclusion:

Spain’s neutrality in WWII occurred for an entirely personal reason: Franco’s desire to preserve his own (and Spain’s) power.

Purpose statement

This paper will analyze Franco’s diplomacy during World War II to see how it contributed to Spain’s neutrality.

• The simile compares Simoisius to a tree, which is a peaceful, natural image.
• The tree in the simile is chopped down to make wheels for a chariot, which is an object used in warfare.

At first, the simile seems to take the reader away from the world of warfare, but we end up back in that world by the end.

This paper will analyze the way the simile about Simoisius at 4.547-64 moves in and out of the world of warfare.

Derive purpose statement from topic

To find out what your “controlling idea” is, you have to examine and evaluate your evidence . As you consider your evidence, you may notice patterns emerging, data repeated in more than one source, or facts that favor one view more than another. These patterns or data may then lead you to some conclusions about your topic and suggest that you can successfully argue for one idea better than another.

For instance, you might find out that Franco first tried to negotiate with the Axis, but when he couldn’t get some concessions that he wanted from them, he turned to the Allies. As you read more about Franco’s decisions, you may conclude that Spain’s neutrality in WWII occurred for an entirely personal reason: his desire to preserve his own (and Spain’s) power. Based on this conclusion, you can then write a trial thesis statement to help you decide what material belongs in your paper.

Sometimes you won’t be able to find a focus or identify your “spin” or specific argument immediately. Like some writers, you might begin with a purpose statement just to get yourself going. A purpose statement is one or more sentences that announce your topic and indicate the structure of the paper but do not state the conclusions you have drawn . Thus, you might begin with something like this:

• This paper will look at modern language to see if it reflects male dominance or female oppression.
• I plan to analyze anger and derision in offensive language to see if they represent a challenge of society’s authority.

At some point, you can turn a purpose statement into a thesis statement. As you think and write about your topic, you can restrict, clarify, and refine your argument, crafting your thesis statement to reflect your thinking.

As you work on your thesis, remember to keep the rest of your paper in mind at all times. Sometimes your thesis needs to evolve as you develop new insights, find new evidence, or take a different approach to your topic.

Compose a draft thesis statement

If you are writing a paper that will have an argumentative thesis and are having trouble getting started, the techniques in the table below may help you develop a temporary or “working” thesis statement.

Begin with a purpose statement that you will later turn into a thesis statement.

Assignment: Discuss the history of the Reform Party and explain its influence on the 1990 presidential and Congressional election.

Purpose Statement: This paper briefly sketches the history of the grassroots, conservative, Perot-led Reform Party and analyzes how it influenced the economic and social ideologies of the two mainstream parties.

Question-to-Assertion

If your assignment asks a specific question(s), turn the question(s) into an assertion and give reasons why it is true or reasons for your opinion.

Assignment : What do Aylmer and Rappaccini have to be proud of? Why aren’t they satisfied with these things? How does pride, as demonstrated in “The Birthmark” and “Rappaccini’s Daughter,” lead to unexpected problems?

Beginning thesis statement: Alymer and Rappaccinni are proud of their great knowledge; however, they are also very greedy and are driven to use their knowledge to alter some aspect of nature as a test of their ability. Evil results when they try to “play God.”

Write a sentence that summarizes the main idea of the essay you plan to write.

Main idea: The reason some toys succeed in the market is that they appeal to the consumers’ sense of the ridiculous and their basic desire to laugh at themselves.

Make a list of the ideas that you want to include; consider the ideas and try to group them.

• nature = peaceful
• war matériel = violent (competes with 1?)
• need for time and space to mourn the dead
• war is inescapable (competes with 3?)

Use a formula to arrive at a working thesis statement (you will revise this later).

• although most readers of _______ have argued that _______, closer examination shows that _______.
• _______ uses _______ and _____ to prove that ________.
• phenomenon x is a result of the combination of __________, __________, and _________.

What to keep in mind as you draft an initial thesis statement

Beginning statements obtained through the methods illustrated above can serve as a framework for planning or drafting your paper, but remember they’re not yet the specific, argumentative thesis you want for the final version of your paper. In fact, in its first stages, a thesis statement usually is ill-formed or rough and serves only as a planning tool.

As you write, you may discover evidence that does not fit your temporary or “working” thesis. Or you may reach deeper insights about your topic as you do more research, and you will find that your thesis statement has to be more complicated to match the evidence that you want to use.

You must be willing to reject or omit some evidence in order to keep your paper cohesive and your reader focused. Or you may have to revise your thesis to match the evidence and insights that you want to discuss. Read your draft carefully, noting the conclusions you have drawn and the major ideas which support or prove those conclusions. These will be the elements of your final thesis statement.

Sometimes you will not be able to identify these elements in your early drafts, but as you consider how your argument is developing and how your evidence supports your main idea, ask yourself, “ What is the main point that I want to prove/discuss? ” and “ How will I convince the reader that this is true? ” When you can answer these questions, then you can begin to refine the thesis statement.

Refine and polish the thesis statement

To get to your final thesis, you’ll need to refine your draft thesis so that it’s specific and arguable.

• Ask if your draft thesis addresses the assignment
• Question each part of your draft thesis
• Clarify vague phrases and assertions
• Investigate alternatives to your draft thesis

Consult the example below for suggestions on how to refine your draft thesis statement.

Sample Assignment

Choose an activity and define it as a symbol of American culture. Your essay should cause the reader to think critically about the society which produces and enjoys that activity.

• Ask The phenomenon of drive-in facilities is an interesting symbol of american culture, and these facilities demonstrate significant characteristics of our society.This statement does not fulfill the assignment because it does not require the reader to think critically about society.

Drive-ins are an interesting symbol of American culture because they represent Americans’ significant creativity and business ingenuity.

Among the types of drive-in facilities familiar during the twentieth century, drive-in movie theaters best represent American creativity, not merely because they were the forerunner of later drive-ins and drive-throughs, but because of their impact on our culture: they changed our relationship to the automobile, changed the way people experienced movies, and changed movie-going into a family activity.

While drive-in facilities such as those at fast-food establishments, banks, pharmacies, and dry cleaners symbolize America’s economic ingenuity, they also have affected our personal standards.

While drive-in facilities such as those at fast- food restaurants, banks, pharmacies, and dry cleaners symbolize (1) Americans’ business ingenuity, they also have contributed (2) to an increasing homogenization of our culture, (3) a willingness to depersonalize relationships with others, and (4) a tendency to sacrifice quality for convenience.

This statement is now specific and fulfills all parts of the assignment. This version, like any good thesis, is not self-evident; its points, 1-4, will have to be proven with evidence in the body of the paper. The numbers in this statement indicate the order in which the points will be presented. Depending on the length of the paper, there could be one paragraph for each numbered item or there could be blocks of paragraph for even pages for each one.

Complete the final thesis statement

The bottom line.

As you move through the process of crafting a thesis, you’ll need to remember four things:

• Context matters! Think about your course materials and lectures. Try to relate your thesis to the ideas your instructor is discussing.
• As you go through the process described in this section, always keep your assignment in mind . You will be more successful when your thesis (and paper) responds to the assignment than if it argues a semi-related idea.
• Your thesis statement should be precise, focused, and contestable ; it should predict the sub-theses or blocks of information that you will use to prove your argument.
• Make sure that you keep the rest of your paper in mind at all times. Change your thesis as your paper evolves, because you do not want your thesis to promise more than your paper actually delivers.

In the beginning, the thesis statement was a tool to help you sharpen your focus, limit material and establish the paper’s purpose. When your paper is finished, however, the thesis statement becomes a tool for your reader. It tells the reader what you have learned about your topic and what evidence led you to your conclusion. It keeps the reader on track–well able to understand and appreciate your argument.

Writing Process and Structure

This is an accordion element with a series of buttons that open and close related content panels.

Getting Started with Your Paper

Interpreting Writing Assignments from Your Courses

Generating Ideas for

Creating an Argument

Thesis vs. Purpose Statements

Architecture of Arguments

Working with Sources

Quoting and Paraphrasing Sources

Using Literary Quotations

Citing Sources in Your Paper

Drafting Your Paper

Generating Ideas for Your Paper

Introductions

Paragraphing

Developing Strategic Transitions

Conclusions

Revising Your Paper

Peer Reviews

Reverse Outlines

Revising an Argumentative Paper

Revision Strategies for Longer Projects

Finishing Your Paper

Twelve Common Errors: An Editing Checklist

How to Proofread your Paper

Writing Collaboratively

Collaborative and Group Writing

AFS Programs

Mastering the Art of Crafting a Powerful 1984 Thesis Statement

In the world of literary analysis, one novel has remained a towering figure for over 70 years: George Orwell’s “1984”. Its chilling portrayal of a dystopian society controlled by a powerful party leaves readers spellbound and sparks endless discussions and studies. However, crafting a strong thesis statement about this masterpiece is no easy task. But fear not, for in this article, we will show you how to create a rock-solid thesis statement that will captivate your readers and set the tone for your entire essay.

Before we dive into the finer details of creating a magnificent thesis statement, let’s step back for a moment and analyze the key themes and ideas that make “1984” such a thought-provoking piece of literature. At its core, the novel is about the controlling power of language and the manipulation of history by the ruling party. As readers, we are forced to confront our own thoughts and confront the terrifying possibility of losing our freedom and identity.

So, how can we craft a thesis statement that captures the essence of this powerful novel? First, it is important to have a clear understanding of the main character, Winston Smith, and his struggle against the oppressive party. Your thesis statement should be able to effectively convey the theme of rebellion and the consequences of individual thoughts in a society determined to suppress them.

To help you on this journey, let’s explore some examples of strong thesis statements about “1984”. Remember, a strong thesis statement gives direction to your essay and leaves no room for weak or mediocre analysis. Here are two examples to get you started:

• “In George Orwell’s ‘1984’, the character of Winston Smith serves as a symbol of resistance against the party’s oppressive regime, highlighting the power of individual thought in a society ruled by fear and manipulation.”
• “Through the character of O’Brien, Orwell explores the sinister motivations behind the party’s control and the dangers of unchecked power in ‘1984’, ultimately illustrating the futility of rebellion against an all-powerful entity.”

As you can see, these examples not only focus on the central theme and character of the novel but also present a clear argument that can be explored and supported throughout your essay. They provide a solid foundation for a captivating and well-structured analysis, keeping your readers engaged from start to finish.

Need help with your thesis statement or writing in general? Kibin is here to lend a helping hand. Our team of experienced editors provides expert advice and guidance to students just like you. Don’t let weak writing spoil your essay; let Kibin help you take it to the next level. Tags: 1984, analysis, essays, George Orwell, literary analysis, thesis statements.

A Sample Weak Thesis

“In George Orwell’s 1984, the party’s use of propaganda is scary-good.”

This weak thesis statement lacks clarity and specificity. It does not provide a clear focus or direction for the essay, making it difficult for the reader to understand what the author intends to analyze.

Another issue with this weak thesis statement is its lack of depth. The statement simply states that the party’s use of propaganda is scary-good without further expanding on this claim. It does not provide any analysis or identify the specific qualities that make the propaganda in 1984 powerful.

In order to create a stronger and more powerful thesis statement, it is important to analyze the language, character development, and historical context of 1984. A rock-solid thesis statement will be able to withstand thorough analysis and provide a clearer and more insightful focus for the essay.

Understanding the Importance of a Strong Thesis Statement

One example of a strong thesis statement for a 1984 essay might be: “By analyzing the character of O’Brien and the Party’s control of language, this essay will demonstrate how the Party seeks to control and manipulate people’s thoughts.” This thesis statement not only identifies the key elements to be discussed in the essay (O’Brien and language control), but also provides a clear focus on the theme of power and control in the novel.

To craft a stronger thesis statement, you may want to consider approaching it from a different angle or focus on a different aspect of the novel. For instance, you could analyze the role of propaganda in controlling the masses or examine the importance of history and its manipulation by the Party.

In order to create an outstanding thesis statement, it’s important to have a solid understanding of the novel and its themes. Take the time to do some close reading and thoughtfully analyze the characters, language, and literary devices used in 1984. This will help you identify the finer details and subtleties that can make your thesis statement even stronger.

Don’t be afraid to check out some sample essays or seek help from resources like Kibin. They’re a great way to get a better sense of what a powerful thesis statement looks like and how it can be supported throughout your essay.

Analyzing the Elements of a Powerful Thesis Statement

Identifying the theme, character, and irony.

In order to create a powerful thesis statement for your analysis of 1984, it is important to first identify the key elements of the novel. This includes understanding the theme of the novel, the development of the main character, as well as the use of irony throughout the story. By focusing on these elements, you can expand your analysis and create a stronger thesis statement.

Analysis of Propaganda and Control

One of the most important aspects of 1984 is its exploration of propaganda and the party’s control over its citizens. A powerful thesis statement will delve into the finer details of how the party uses propaganda to manipulate its citizens and maintain control. By analyzing examples from the novel, you can create a thesis statement that goes beyond a simple observation and provides a deeper understanding of the themes and messages of the book.

The Role of O’Brien and the Father in 1984

Another way to create a powerful thesis statement is to focus on the role of specific characters in the novel, such as O’Brien and the father. By examining their actions and motivations, you can analyze how they contribute to the overall themes and messages of the book. This gives your thesis statement more depth and makes it more engaging for your reader.

Check out this sample thesis statement for a better idea of what a powerful thesis statement looks like:

“In George Orwell’s 1984, the party’s use of propaganda and control tactics, as exemplified through the character of O’Brien, reveals the damning consequences of a totalitarian regime on individual freedom and the human spirit.”

By analyzing the different elements of 1984 and crafting a rock-solid thesis statement, you will be well on your way to writing an outstanding analysis essay that gives justice to Orwell’s magnificent work.

So don’t forget to analyze the history, themes, and literary qualities of the novel, and above all, make sure your thesis statement is strong and powerful. With the help of this guide, you’ll be able to create a thesis statement that is both scary-good and propels your essay to new heights.

Don’t be overwhelmed by the task of writing a powerful thesis statement. With the right approach and a bit of practice, you can master the art of crafting strong and impactful statements. So go out there and create something outstanding!

For more examples and tips on writing a powerful thesis statement, check out the Kibin blog.

Now that you know what makes a powerful thesis statement, 1, 2, 3, get out there and start crafting your own! Good luck!

Common Mistakes to Avoid in Crafting a 1984 Thesis Statement

1. losing focus on the party’s controlling language.

One common mistake is losing focus on the Party’s controlling language. The way the Party uses language to manipulate and control the thoughts of its citizens is a central theme in 1984. When crafting your thesis statement, be sure to address how the Party’s manipulation of language shapes the world of the novel.

2. Crafting Mediocre Statements without Analysis

Another mistake is crafting mediocre thesis statements without thorough analysis. A powerful thesis statement should go beyond stating the obvious. Instead, it should offer a unique perspective or interpretation of the novel. Be sure to analyze the text and provide evidence to support your claims.

For example, instead of a statement like “1984 is about the dangers of totalitarianism,” try something more specific and engaging like “In 1984, Orwell uses the character of O’Brien to symbolize the Party’s absolute control and the loss of individual freedom.”

3. Ignoring the Father-Son Relationship as a Key Theme

Many writers overlook the importance of the father-son relationship in 1984. The strained relationship between Winston and his own father serves as a symbol for the Party’s ability to destroy familial bonds and control the emotions of its citizens. Don’t miss the opportunity to explore this theme in your thesis statement.

For example, you could craft a thesis statement like “In 1984, the Party’s control over the father-son relationship reveals the devastating effects of totalitarianism on familial connections and personal identity.”

4. Failing to Craft an Outline before Writing

One mistake that can lead to a weak thesis statement is failing to craft an outline before diving into the writing process. Without a clear plan, your ideas may be scattered and your thesis may lack coherence. Take the time to outline your main points and the evidence you will use to support them. This will help you create a stronger and more focused thesis statement.

Remember, the purpose of a thesis statement is to guide the direction of your essay and provide a clear argument. Don’t rush through this step!

Why is a strong thesis statement important in an essay?

A strong thesis statement is important in an essay because it gives the reader a clear understanding of the main point or argument of the essay. It helps to provide direction and focus to the essay, making it easier for the reader to follow and comprehend the content.

What are the key characteristics of a powerful thesis statement?

A powerful thesis statement should be clear, concise, and specific. It should clearly state the main point or argument of the essay and provide a roadmap for the reader to follow. Additionally, a strong thesis statement should be arguable, meaning that it can be supported or refuted with evidence and analysis.

How can I craft a powerful thesis statement for an essay on the novel “1984”?

To craft a powerful thesis statement for an essay on the novel “1984,” you can focus on a specific theme or aspect of the novel and make a strong argument about it. For example, you can argue that the manipulation of language and the control of information are powerful tools of oppression in the novel. Your thesis statement can then outline the evidence and analysis you will use to support your argument.

Can a thesis statement be longer than one sentence?

Yes, a thesis statement can be longer than one sentence. While it is generally recommended to keep the thesis statement concise, sometimes a more complex argument may require multiple sentences to fully articulate the main point or argument. However, it is important to ensure that each sentence contributes to the overall clarity and coherence of the thesis statement.

What should I do if I’m struggling to come up with a powerful thesis statement?

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• Chronic Stress (Thousand Oaks)
• v.7; Jan-Dec 2023

Understanding the Psychological Impact of Oppression Using the Trauma Symptoms of Discrimination Scale

Monnica williams.

1 School of Psychology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada

2 Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada

Chrysalis Hyon

3 Department of East West Psychology, California Institute of Integral Studies, San Francisco, California, USA

Oppression refers to systemic discrimination where the injustice targets or disproportionately impacts specific groups of people. The Trauma Symptoms of Discrimination Scale (TSDS) is a self-report measure designed to assess the traumatizing impact of discrimination broadly by measuring anxiety-related symptoms of trauma due to discriminatory experiences. This may include symptoms arising from racism, homophobia, sexism, poverty, or other forms of marginalization. Almost all studies of the TSDS have examined its use in marginalized ethnoracial groups, primarily African Americans. This paper will extend prior work to help us better understand racial trauma across groups by reporting and comparing TSDS mean scores across ethnoracial identities in a diverse national sample (n  =  923). It also explores trauma with other marginalized identities and demographic dimensions, including gender, sexual minority/LGBQ status, education, and income. The relationship of TSDS scores to clinical psychopathologies are examined, including stress, depression, anxiety, and PTSD. We also examine the unique risks associated with intersectionality, and how having multiple marginalized identities may increase traumatization. Clinical implications and future directions are discussed.

Introduction

Oppression-based stress and trauma.

Oppression describes an asymmetrical power dynamic characterized by domination and subordination of a group by restricting access to social, economic, and political resources. 1 Subordinated groups experience fear, stress, and may develop negative views of themselves. As a chronic stressor, oppression can lead to poor mental health. Studies consistently link poverty and lower socioeconomic status (SES) with increased vulnerability to negative physical and mental health conditions, including schizophrenia, major depression, panic and phobic disorders, as well as antisocial personality disorder. 2 – 4

Oppression based on race, sexual orientation, and other identities predicts poor mental health. A meta-analysis of 66 studies concluded increased exposure to stress from racial discrimination was a stronger predictor of depression and anxiety for African Americans. 5 Similar findings exist for intersectional oppressions based on class, sexual orientation and race. 6 In a study of 376 Black, Latino, and multiracial sexual minority males, English and colleagues 7 found gay rejection sensitivity, racial discrimination, and emotional regulation difficulties were significantly linked, which in turn predicted higher anxiety and depressive symptoms.

As chronic experiences, oppression can even be traumatizing. Although the DSM-5 conceptualizes traumatic experiences as discrete events, 8 Holmes and colleagues 9 argue this approach fails to capture the harm of chronic oppression-based experiences, such as racism, sexism, homophobia, and poverty. In support of this argument, Kira and colleagues 10 found expanding trauma assessment models using Criterion A increased the predictive validity of chronic trauma on vulnerability to PTSD. Based on a cross-cultural combination of clinical and non-clinical samples experiencing political and economic oppression (total N  =  2754), chronic stressors such as collective identity trauma (eg, oppression and discrimination) along with attachment or betrayal trauma “increased the predictive model of PTSD six times over what Criterion A explained alone” (, 10 p. 2672). As such, a more appropriate model of PTSD should include systemic discrimination along with secondary, abandonment, and betrayal traumas for more accurate and predictive assessment as well as effective treatment particularly for minoritized, non-Western communities.

Despite the growing evidence showing oppression-based stress can be traumatic and relates to symptoms of PTSD, research on oppression-based stress and trauma is limited. Specifically, one of the most widely-studied forms of oppression is racism, as racial discrimination is consistently linked with traumatization. 11 Yet, a recent meta-analysis found a lack of validated psychological measures that adequately capture the distress associated with racism and an inability of the current literature to account for other forms of oppression-based trauma.

Trauma Symptoms of Discrimination Scale (TSDS)

The Trauma Symptoms of Discrimination Scale (TSDS) is a 21-item self-report measure that broadly assesses the traumatizing impact of discrimination by focusing on anxiety-related symptoms of trauma. 12 Participants report the frequency of their experience of discriminatory distress regarding trauma (eg, “Due to the past experiences of discrimination, I often worry too much about different things”) on a 4-point scale ranging from 0 (Never) to 3 (Often).

In the original paper introducing this measure, the psychometric properties of the TSDS were examined in 123 African American monoracial and biracial university undergraduates. 12 The TSDS was found to have concurrent and predictive validity and excellent reliability (Cronbach's α  =  .94 for total score). It was positively correlated to measures of discrimination and psychopathology (eg, r  =  .48 for the Everyday Discrimination Scale, and r  =  .52 for the abbreviated Penn State Worry Questionnaire, p < .001 for both). 13 , 14 This preliminary evidence supported the validity of the TSDS for the measurement of anxiety-related trauma symptoms due to racial discrimination but called for more studies to extend the findings to other marginalized groups.

The TSDS has been used in several subsequent studies of racism. For example, Maxie-Moreman and Tynes 15 conducted a study of exposure to online racial discrimination and traumatic events in Black adolescents and young adults, centering the TSDS and its four subscales in its analyses. Reliability analysis indicated high internal consistency in the subscales (α's from .78 to .93), and the experience of online racial discrimination was significantly correlated to each subscale (r's from .35 to .49, p < .001 for all).

The TSDS was used as the primary outcome measure in a series of studies examining psychedelics and racial trauma. 16 – 18 The retrospective study included 313 diverse Black, Indigenous, and other People of Color (BIPOC) in the U.S. and Canada who reported a memorable psychedelic experience that helped them cope with racial trauma. There was a significant decrease in symptoms, using the TSDS, before and after the psychedelic experience. Internal consistency reliability for the TSDS was excellent (α = 0.95), which was found with Asian American/Canadian (n  =  92; α  =  .94) and Indigenous/Native American (n  =  66; α  =  .97) subsamples as well.

In a nationwide survey study on racial trauma, the TSDS served as a benchmark for convergent validity for the Racial Trauma Scale (RTS 1;1). Diverse participants across the U.S. (n  =  923) were included in this racial trauma scale validation study. Of these, a subset completed clinical interviews of racial trauma, and the TSDS was found to reliably identify clinically relevant racial trauma, with a sensitivity of .77 and 1-specificity of .16 when using a cut-off score of 40.

Intersectionality and Oppression

Experiences of discrimination do not occur uniformly across marginalized groups. For example, Chou and colleagues 19 found that African Americans experienced more discrimination than other major racialized groups. Further, multiple oppressed identities are theorized to be linked to more interactive discrimination and, in some cases, subsequent traumatization (eg, 20 ). Root 21 pointed to women of color's “double jeopardy” status, with many subsequent studies demonstrating their exposure to gender and racial discrimination and how it negatively affected their well-being in a variety of ways. 22 – 24 Notably, Moody and Lewis 25 found that a higher frequency of gendered racial microaggressions was significantly correlated with more severe traumatic stress symptoms in a national sample of Black women.

Research on LGBTQ populations and queer persons of color have also reflected parallel findings. In one of the largest national LGBTQ college campus studies to date with a sample size of over 5000 respondents, Rankin et al 26 found that “multiple minoritized identities (eg, racial identity and sexual identity; racial identity and gender identity) lead to encounters of multiple forms of oppression” (p. 11). For example, while sexual orientation identity was indicated as the primary basis of observed harassment for both respondents of color and White respondents (75% and 76%, respectively), respondents of color were ten times more likely to attribute the perceived harassment to racial profiling. Moreover, trans- and gender-nonconforming respondents of color were more likely than cis-gendered respondents of color to experience on-campus hostility, exclusion, or harassment ( 26 pp. 10-11). From their national online survey (n  =  200), Sutter and Perrin 27 found that LGBTQ-based discrimination had a significant impact on the psychological functioning of sexual and gender minority persons of color, particularly suicidal ideation risk. Diaz et al's 28 study of gay and bisexual Latino men demonstrated negative mental health outcomes (eg, depression, sleep issues, suicidal ideation) that were associated with both lifelong and current experiences of social discrimination based on their sexual orientation and racial/ethnic identity as well as financial hardship due to acute unemployment and poverty.

Purpose of This Study

Almost all studies of the TSDS focus on the experience of racism, primarily among African Americans. This paper will extend prior work to understand trauma across ethnoracial groups as well as other marginalized identities and several demographic dimensions, including gender, LGBTQ status, income, and education. We examine the TSDS and its relationships to clinical symptoms of depression, anxiety and stress, as well as PTSD using the data from Williams et al 29 in a cross-sectional survey study. We also examine the unique risks associated with intersectionality, and how having multiple marginalized identities may increase traumatization.

Participants

Recruitment for this study was conducted online through Amazon Mechanical Turk (mTurk) Prime, now Cloud Research. Participants (Turk Workers) register to join the platform in exchange for opportunities to do online tasks for compensation. TurkPrime was designed as a research platform that integrates with MTurk and supports tasks that are common to social and behavioral sciences, such as survey data collection. 30 Tasks that can be implemented with TurkPrime include selecting participants with specific characteristics and excluding participants on the basis of previous participation. For this study, eligibility criteria included: over 18 years of age; identify as African American/Black, Asian American, Latine/Hispanic American, or White/European American; spent most of childhood in the U.S.; and able to read and speak English.

Only eligible Turk Workers were able to view the posted recruitment invitation and, if they accepted the invitation, they were then able to complete the consent form and online battery containing the study surveys. The participant population of mTurk has similar demographics to the general U.S. population in geographical location and gender distribution, 31 and participants were recruited to be a nationally geographically representative sample. The study was approved by the University of Connecticut's IRB. All participants were provided with local mental health resources in the event they felt distress from participating in the study. For the online survey, participants received $9 as compensation. The raw data consisted of a diverse sample of 1001 participants. For the purpose of validation, participants who were missing all the study measures (n  =  49) or their racial identity (n  =  11) were excluded.

In terms of demographics, the mean income level was somewhat lower than the U.S. national average. 32 Demographic details of the sample are shown in Table 1 .

Demographics of sample

Note: The frequency of each demographic characteristic is listed with the percentage in parentheses. In addition to the five ethnoracial groups listed in the table, there were 18 participants who indicated “other” or listed multiple ethnoracial identities, not presented in the table .

Trauma Symptoms of Discrimination Scale . As noted, the TSDS 12 is a 21-item scale that evaluates discriminatory distress for anxiety-related symptoms of trauma. The measure assesses uncontrollable arousal, feelings of alienation, worries about future negative events, and perceiving others as dangerous. Participants were asked to report the frequency of their experience of discriminatory distress regarding trauma on a 4-point scale ranging from 0 (Never) to 3 (Often). At the end of the scale, respondents divide the percentage of their discrimination across various sources (eg, racial/ethnic, gender, sexual orientation, religion, age, etc). This scale has excellent internal consistency and test-retest reliability and revealed good concurrent validity. 12 Reliability was excellent (α  =  0.97). Most (97%) respondents of color indicated that some or most discrimination experienced was “Racial/Ethnic” in nature. Other sources of discrimination experienced by POC participants that contributed to traumatic distress included gender (36%), sexual orientation (81%), religion (68%), disability (86%), social class (38%), and age (56%).

General Ethnic Discrimination Scale . The GEDS 33 was designed to evaluate the frequency and severity of discrimination in education, employment, the legal system, healthcare, or community settings due to one's race/ethnicity. It includes 17 multi-part questions wherein participants are asked to rate the frequency of a specific discrimination experience on a 6-point scale ranging from 1 (Never) to 6 (Almost all the time), and then rate the severity of their stress due to each experience on a 5-point scale ranging from 0 (Not at all stressful) to 4 (Extremely stressful). The sections are scored separately to provide a frequency and a stress score. For the past month and lifetime frequency as well as the stress scores had good reliability (α  =  0.96 for each).

Racial Microaggressions Scale . The RMAS 34 was used to measure the frequency of ongoing racial microaggressions; these are small automatic/unintentional racist acts that are not clearly racially motivated and yet reinforce harmful stereotypes and communicate exclusion to POC. It contains 32 items, rated from 0 (Never) to 3 (Often/Frequently), with higher numbers indicating more frequent experiences of microaggressions. There are 12 categories of microaggressions included in the total scale, which correspond to several of Sue et al's 35 taxonomy and include items about feelings of invisibility due to race, assumptions of criminality by others, being low-achieving or part of an undesirable culture, being a foreigner or not belonging, and environmental omissions, as well as additional categories such as erotization. For example, the item, “People act like they are scared of me because of my race” represents the microaggressive theme of criminality. The RMAS exhibited excellent reliability (α  =  0.95).

Race-Based Traumatic Stress Symptom Scale (Short Form) . The RBTSSS-SF 36 is a 22-item clinical tool for the assessment of distress in responses to experiences of racism. It consists of seven subscales: Depression, Anger, Physical Reactions, Avoidance, Intrusion, Hypervigilance/Arousal, and Low Self-Esteem. The measure begins with an open-ended section in which participants are asked about three memorable experiences with racism. In reference to their most memorable experience, participants answer a series of yes/no questions to assess psychological reactivity. In reference to the same event, participants rate a series of reactions on a 5-point Likert-type scale to assess emotional reactivity, which ranges from 0 (does not describe my reaction) to 4 (this reaction would not go away). We rated severity race-based discrimination by summing all items. The reliability for the RBTSSS-SF was excellent (α  =  0.96).

UConn Racial/Ethnic Stress & Trauma Survey. The UnRESTS 37 is a clinician-administered interview for racial trauma. It includes 6 questions to assess ethnoracial identity development, a semi-structured interview to probe for a variety of racism-related experiences, and a checklist to help determine whether the individual's racial trauma meets DSM-5 criteria. The interview guides the clinician in asking questions about experiences with explicit and obvious racism toward them, racism experienced by loved ones, being vicariously impacted by racist experiences that were learned about, and experiences with subtle forms of racism or microaggressions. The checklist at the end provides a DSM-5 diagnosis for PTSD caused by experiences of racism. Interviews conducted on a subset of the sample, and 80 of these were used for analysis.

PTSD Civilian Checklist-5 . The PCL-5 38 is a measure developed by the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs National Center for PTSD that assesses for the presence and severity of symptoms of PTSD. The PCL-5 assesses re-experiencing of a traumatic event, avoidance, changes in cognitions and mood, arousal and reactivity, and distress and interference. The reliability for this measure was excellent (α  =  0.97).

Posttraumatic Cognitions Inventory . The PTCI 39 is a questionnaire that is designed to assess negative cognitions about self, negative cognitions about the world, and self-blame. Participants are asked to rate the extent to which they agree or disagree with each item on a 7-point scale ranging from 1 (totally disagree) to 7 (totally agree). The PTCI has excellent internal consistency, good test-retest reliability, correlates well with other measures of trauma-related cognitions, and discriminates well between traumatized people with and without PTSD. 39 The reliability was excellent (α  =  0.96).

Beck Anxiety Inventory . The BAI 40 is a 21-item self-report measure used to assess anxiety in adults. The BAI focuses on somatic symptoms of anxiety, such as nervousness, dizziness, and inability to relax. 41 Participants are asked to rate the extent to which they have been bothered by each symptom within the past week on a 4-point Likert-type scale ranging from 0 (not at all) to 3 (severely). The BAI is psychometrically sound with good convergent validity, internal consistency, and test-retest reliability. 41, 42 The reliability was excellent (α  =  0.96).

Beck Depression Inventory II. The BDI-II 43 is a 21-item self-report measure that is designed to assess the severity of depression. Examples of items are, “I am sad all the time” and “I am disappointed in myself.” The BDI-II has been validated through numerous studies across many different populations and ethnic groups. It has been used in a multitude of treatment outcome studies and with individuals with a history of trauma exposure. The reliability for this measure was good (α  =  0.95).

A series of statistical tests were used to examine the relationship between racial trauma, microaggressions, racism, and psychopathology. Correlations were used to map the links between all the study variables. Group comparisons were made using t-tests and ANOVA. A t-test was used to compare TSDS between those with and without racial trauma. Regression analysis was used to examine the predictive relationship between racial trauma and other marginalized identities and various other demographic dimensions.

Marginalized identity values were computed based on demographic characteristics and identities associated with race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, level of education, and income. Participants were coded as 0 if their identity represented a marginalized group and 1 if their identity represented a privileged group. Composite marginalization scores were computed by summing individual values for each demographic characteristic or identity and ranged from 0 to 5. Differences were compared using an ANOVA and Tukey's HSD post-hoc test.

Relationship to Experiences of Racism

The bivariate relations between the trauma symptoms of discrimination (TSDS) and measures of frequency and stress related to ethnic discrimination (GEDS), experiences of microaggressions (RMAS), and race-based traumatic stress symptoms (RBTSSS-SF) were as expected and are found in Table 2 . For general experiences of discrimination, TSDS related more strongly to lifetime (r  =  0.71) experiences than recent experiences (r  =  0.64). TSDS was also related to the amount of stress associated with experiences of discrimination (r  =  0.67). Similarly, TSDS was related to reports of microaggressions (r  =  0.65) and race-based traumatic stress symptoms (r  =  0.69).

Correlation table for the TSDS and racial constructs

Note: **p < 0.001.

Relationship to Psychopathology

The bivariate relations between the trauma symptoms of discrimination (TSDS) and measures of psychopathology, including PTSD symptoms (PCL-5), traumatic cognitions (PCTI), symptoms of anxiety (BAI) and depression (BDI) are shown in Table 3 . The correlations show trauma symptoms of discrimination were associated with higher levels of depression (r  =  0.55) and anxiety (r  =  0.63) symptoms, traumatic cognitions (r  =  0.65), and PTSD symptoms (r  =  0.69).

Correlation table for the TSDS and psychopathology

Note: **p <  0.001 .

An independent samples t-test was used to examine mean differences in TSDS in individuals with racial trauma (n  =  22, M  =  49.06, SD  =  14.09) and those without (n  =  58, M  =  29.10, SD  =  11.04) based on the UnRESTS interviews. The t-test revealed a significant mean difference between those with and without racial trauma, t(78) = -6.672, p < 0.001.

Comparisons of Ethnoracial Groups

Levels of discrimination and trauma differed across ethnoracial groups, as shown in Table 4 . An analysis of variance (ANOVA) test was used to examine differences on the TSDS. There was a statistically significant difference between the ethnoracial groups, F(9154)  =  18.93, p < 0.001, suggesting mean levels of trauma symptoms of discrimination were not equal across the five groups. The Tukey's HSD test for multiple comparisons examined specific differences between pairs of means. The post hoc comparisons found the mean for White non-Hispanic was significantly lower than the means of the other four groups. Specifically the mean for Hispanic non-White (p < 0.001, 95% C.I.  =  8.85, 19.40) and Black non-Hispanic (p < 0.001, 95% C.I.  =  5.80, 12.76) were significantly higher than White non-Hispanic. To a lesser degree, White Hispanic was different from White non-Hispanic (p  =  0.035, 95% C.I.  =  0.25, 11.21). The mean for Hispanic non-White (p < 0.001, 95% C.I.  =  2.49, 13.48) was significantly higher than Asian non-Hispanic and this group (p  =  0.006, 95% C.I.  =  1.72, 15.06) was also higher than Hispanic White.

Comparisons of ethnoracial groups

The remaining comparisons were not significantly different. There was no statistically significant difference between Hispanic non-White and Black non-Hispanic (p  =  0.07). There was no statistically significant difference between Asian non-Hispanic and both Black non-Hispanic (p  =  0.21) and White Hispanic (p  =  1.0). Lastly, Black non-Hispanic and White Hispanic were not different (p  =  0.42).

Participants varied in the proportion and type of discrimination they experienced. An independent sample t-test was used to examine mean differences in the percentage of traumatic racial discrimination BIPOC and White participants reported, with respect to all discrimination experienced. Specifically, BIPOC participants (M  =  55.10, SD  =  28.39) significantly differed from White participants (M  =  20.78, SD  =  26.87) in the percentage of racial discrimination they experienced with an average mean difference of −34.32, t(931) = −17.00, p < 0.001 [95% C.I.  =  -38.28, −30.36].

Gender and Sexual Orientation

T-tests were used to examine mean level differences on the TSDS related to discrimination for gender and sexual minority status. There were no statistical differences between male and female participants. However, the t-test results show a statistically significant difference based on sexual orientation, t(924) = -4.273, p < 0.001. The mean for those with LGBQ identities was significantly higher than those who identified as hetersexual.

T-tests were used to examine mean level differences in the percentage of discrimination experienced due to gender and sexual orientation. For gender, female participants significantly differed from male participants in the percentage of discrimination they experienced with an average mean difference of −19.03, t(931) = −14.32, p < 0.001 [95% C.I.  =  -21.65, −16.43]. For sexual orientation, LGBQ participants significantly differed from hetersexual participants in the percentage of traumatic discrimination they experienced with an average mean difference of −16.35, t (924) = −18.97, p < 0.001 [95% C.I.  =  -18.05, −14.66] ( Table 5 ).

Comparisons of gender and sexual orientation

Intersectionality and the TSDS

A marginalization index was computed by summing individual values for each marginalized demographic characteristic or identity. A point (value of 1) was given for each of the following dimensions: non-White, sexual minority, female, less education (less than or equal to highschool), and low income (less than $19,999 annually). The 3 trans/nonbinary people were omitted due to low numbers. As such, scores ranged from 0, not having any marginalized identity, to 5, identifying with all the marginalized identities. The majority of participants identified with at least one (n  =  353) or two (n  =  338) marginalized identities.

An ANOVA test was used to compare levels of trauma symptoms related to discrimination across multiple marginalized identities. There was a statistically significant difference between the number of marginalized identities, F(9284)  =  10.09, p < 0.001, suggesting mean levels of trauma symptoms are not equal across the groups. The Tukey's HSD test for multiple comparisons examined differences across marginalization scores. The mean level for those with no marginalizing identities were significantly lower than those with one (p < 0.001, 95% C.I.  =  -11.42, −2.10), two (p < 0.001, 95% C.I.  =  -14.48, −5.11), or three (p < 0.001, 95% C.I.  =  -17.01, −5.58) identities. ( Table 6 ).

Comparisons of marginalization scores

A linear regression was used to predict trauma symptoms of discrimination based on marginalization scores. A significant regression showed F(1, 931) = 28.74, p < 0.001 with an R squared of .03. Participants’ level of trauma symptoms due to discrimination increased by 3.06 for each additional identity of their marginalization score.

Trauma Symptoms, Racism, and Psychopathology

This study shows trauma symptoms increased with recent and past experiences of discrimination, racial microaggressions, and multiple forms of psychopathology. Consistent with Williams and colleagues, 12 this finding indicates both implicit and explicit acts of racism contribute to traumatization. This link is attributed to the fact that implicit acts, such as microaggression, occur more frequently. 12,44 Notably lifetime discrimination was more strongly related to trauma symptoms than recent (past year) experiences, underscoring the cumulative nature of trauma. For psychopathology, the TSDS was most strongly related to established measures of PTSD (PCL-5, PTCI) as well as measures of depression and anxiety. Williams, Kanter, and Ching 44 also found a similar relationship between the TSDS and measures of anxiety. Anxiety and depression are separate disorders and often linked to discrimination, yet they both share symptoms with PTSD (eg, 45 , 46 ).

Ethnoracial Groups Differ in the Degree of Symptoms

Ethnoracial groups clearly differ in their experiences of trauma symptoms with non-White Hispanic and Black Americans reporting the highest rates, followed by Asian Americans and White Hispanic Americans. The lowest symptoms were found among non-Hispanic White participants. This finding is consistent with a national study, Chou and colleagues 19 found that African Americans reported a significantly higher degree of racial discrimination than Asian or Hispanic Americans, who did not differ significantly from each other in level of perceived discrimination. However, that study did not separate White and non-White Hispanics in their analysis. Similarly, a study by Lee and colleagues 47 using data from the Pew Research Center, found when comparing Black, Hispanic, and Asian Americans, Black people reported the most racism among the groups analyzed.

In our analysis of gender differences, we found that being female alone does not increase the risk for trauma symptoms from discrimination, which is counterintuitive. One would assume that female gender would increase the risk of discrimination due to greater gender-based traumatization, as the literature tends to find greater trauma exposure and PTSD among women. 48 Our findings could be a reflection of decreasing sexual harassment and abuse of women due to increased social appropriation of sexism, greater empowerment of women, and increased legal protections in the U.S. (cf, 49 ). Notably, even current studies on trauma and gender differences often use datasets that are decades old, and do not show consistent gender differences for people of color. 48 , 50 Newer studies show fewer gender differences in traumatization, such as among low-income African Americans (eg, 51 ).

Our findings are somewhat consistent with McClendon and colleagues, 52 who investigated ethnoracial and gender differences in discriminatory stress and PTSD severity in veterans. The authors found only small gender-related differences in discriminatory distress, despite large gender (and racial) differences in PTSD. Additionally, there were significant positive correlations between discriminatory stress and PTSD symptom severity for all ethnoracial groups but with small effect sizes.

Sexual Orientation

In our analysis of sexual orientation differences, we found being a sexual minority significantly increases the risk for trauma symptoms of discrimination. There is not much research on the connection between minority stress and trauma symptoms in LGBQ populations. Most of the literature focuses on minority stress and its connections to depression, suicidality, and substance use. 53 , 54 Empirical studies about trauma focus on victimization and abuse. Nonetheless, there is emerging scholarship on LGBQ minoritization and trauma due to the cumulative nature of their identity-specific stressors. Cardona and colleagues 55 conceptualize ongoing discriminatory stress as chronic and even traumatic invalidation that interferes with emotion processing when the environment prevents an individual's emotional needs from being met. This chronic invalidation results in greater sensitivity and avoidance. Eventually, the individual begins to feel their sexual minority related emotions are harmful and wrong, leading to internalization and the conclusion that something is wrong with them. It is clear being a sexual minority continues to be difficult in our society as evidenced by the greater levels of traumatization, and both implicit and explicit aspects of discrimination contribute to harms.

Intersectionality and Risk for Trauma Symptoms of Discrimination

We found intersectionality and multiple stigmatized identities increases risk for trauma symptoms, which is somewhat consistent with the literature. Currently, the generalizability of studies involving intersectionality with multiple marginalized identities poses a challenge due to basic data availability. More specifically, a “Catch-22” has yet to be truly surmounted regarding intersectional data collection on the most cross-marginalized populations, who are usually more invisibilized and less accessible to reach for sustained data collection. 56 Others have similarly observed the paucity of available data involving dual minority status (eg, ethnicity-race/sexual orientation) and corresponding interventions. 53

Notwithstanding such limitations, research is mixed on the intersectional impact for sexual and gender minority POC populations. In Cochran et al's 53 analysis of the National Latino and Asian American Survey (NLAAS) (n  =  4498), the LGB or same gender partner-identified subsample (n  =  245) reflected a lower prevalence of depressive, anxiety and substance use disorders as compared to sexual orientation minorities more generally speaking, mirroring prevalence rates reported by Latine and Asian Americans populations when compared to non-Hispanic Whites. At the same time, while male sexual minority participants were more likely to report a recent suicide attempt and less likely to report substance abuse or dependency than their heterosexual male counterparts, queer female participants were more likely than heterosexual females to have had recent drug use histories and depressive disorders. 53

Similarly, Meyer and colleagues 57 found that Black and Latine sexual minorities reported a greater number of serious suicide attempts than White sexual minorities, while at the same time not exhibiting a higher prevalence of disorders. The observed lower prevalence rate was surmised in part to be due to the closer or tighter knit ethnoracial cultures of which Black and Latine LGB are a part. And while LGBTQ-based discrimination and racism were clearly associated with one another and exerted a direct impact on mental health, it was only the former (ie, LGBTQ discrimination) that demonstrated a significant indirect effect on suicidal ideation in another study. 27 The researchers observed that LGBTQ discrimination tended to “overpower” the variable of racism, possibly due to both inter- and intra-cultural homophobia that queer persons of color confront in their ethnoracial and sexual minority communities. To sum up briefly, more work is needed to better understand how multiply marginalized individuals experience various forms of discrimination. As one example inquiry into multiple marginalization, greater attention must be paid to how being both a sexual minority and person of color shape discriminatory experiences differently than being a sexual minority or person of color separately. 20

Clinical Implications

People with more marginalized identities are more likely to have trauma symptoms, with the largest impact seen in non-White Hispanic Americans and sexual minorities. These identities alone were associated with comparable or greater discriminatory trauma than non-specific intersectional identities. Nonetheless, clinicians should be aware that greater intersectionality is more likely to signal cumulative trauma, and it also can be an impediment to treatment, as has been seen with other disorders as well (eg, 58 , 59 ).

A culturally-informed approach to care is critical. Despite the increased availability of literature for cultivating practitioner cultural competency (eg, 60 ), its practical application in the clinical field is still debated. Since the 1990s and earlier, the American Psychological Association (APA) has steadily supported initiatives tied to diversity and cultural awareness. 61 The APA Ethical Code of Conduct includes standards surrounding the need for culturally responsive and respectful interventions that can mitigate risk of harm to diverse clients. 62 , 63 Likewise, the 2014 American Counseling Association's (ACA) Code of Ethics calls for multicultural/diversity competence and social justice advocacy. Moreover, such guidelines recognize clinicians as cultural beings who bring their own beliefs and attitudes that influence clinical and empirical conceptualizations and their work with clients ( 64 , p. 26).

Social justice-oriented critics of clinical psychology, however, sharply rebuke the field for its lack of institutionalized support of an intersectional awareness competency, particularly its failure to integrate core diversity perspectives (eg, critical race, feminist, and social justice theories) and the role of structural inequalities to client pathology. 63 Indeed, despite clear mandates for culturally-informed approaches, clinicians are not trained to assist clients experiencing distress due to marginalized identities. Many if not most clinical training programs do a poor job of preparing students to work with these clients on any dimension of diversity, much less intersectional identities (eg, 65 , 66 ). To solve these problems, we must examine the larger structures that dictate which clinical issues are worthy of attention, and as such, this will require addressing the biases of faculty, supervisors, researchers, and administrators who wield power and privilege within these contexts. 67

Therapists should assess all minoritized clients for PTSD symptoms from discrimination. They may need to ask specifically about these experiences which may not be conceptualized as “traumas” by clients, who may be used to having these experiences dismissed by others as unrelated. 37 Some recommended treatment approaches include empirically-supported PTSD treatments adapted to use with people with marginalized identities (eg, 68 ) or evidence-based protocols specific to issues like racial trauma or minority stress (eg, 69 , 70 ). Coping skills should be tailored to address the client's unique intersectional stressors, however coping should not be a substitute for empowerment, as treatment should also explore reducing discrimination in the person's daily environment. 71

Kira and colleagues 10 also emphasize that proactive strategies can serve to inoculate against the effects of the cumulative buildup of abandonment/betrayal traumas and systemic discrimination. In building a therapeutic alliance with such clients, therapists can first assist with safety plans, working with clients to distinguish safe and unsafe behaviors as well as engage in any needed advocacy at systemic levels to address actual or emerging dangers. 70 – 72 Identity threats can also be buttressed by innovations such as group-based emotional regulation (GBER), which works with stereotyping, self-esteem, and anxieties about identity annihilation. In-group and out-group studies from social psychology have demonstrated the tremendous influence that not only threats to personal identity but also those to social identity have on self-esteem and one's basic sense of self. 72 , 73

Limitations & Future Directions

In terms of demographics, there were not many participants in the lowest education or income brackets which impeded our ability to explore the traumatizing impact of poverty-related oppression. Likewise, there were not enough trans participants to explore this dimension of marginalization. Although the effects of multiple marginalized identities may compound traumatization, our index of marginalization is undoubtedly oversimplified. Confounding or effect modifying relationships may exist between certain demographic dimensions. Larger samples are needed to develop more precise predictors of traumatization. Trauma symptoms resulting from other forms of intersectionality also should be explored, such as sexual minority status and a stigmatized religious tradition. 74 The TSDS and RTS may be equally good as a screener for racial trauma, but cut-off scores for the TSDS need to be established for other kinds of oppression-based trauma.

Conclusions

Our research found oppression in all its forms is traumatizing, although some dimensions of oppression are more traumatizing than others based on differing identities and intersectionalities. Clinicians should consider all of these in clinical practice, individually and in combination. Intersectionality may require unique treatment approaches, which is an area sorely in need of more research.

Author Biographies

Monnica Williams , PhD, ABPP is the Canada Research Chair for Mental Health Disparities at the University of Ottawa. A board-certified licensed psychologist, her work focuses on the mental health of underserved communities and innovative approaches to care. She has published over 150 peer-reviewed journal articles and has been awarded federal, local, and foundation grants.

Muna Osman holds a PhD in Psychology from the University of Ottawa. Her research areas include racism and its effects on marginalized groups in Canada.

Chrysalis Hyon , PhD, currently teaches research methods at the California Institute for Integral Studies and is a professional and academic coach. Through both her courses and academic coaching, she supports doctoral students around issues of methodology particularly for undertaking critical, interdisciplinary, and transdisciplinary qualitative research.

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding: The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This research was undertaken, in part, thanks to funding from the Canada Research Chairs Program, Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR) grant number 950-232127 (PI M. Williams).

ORCID iDs: Monnica Williams https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0095-3277

Muna Osman https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0606-5510

Chrysalis Hyon https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8590-9982

Chapter 5: Thesis Statements, Introductions, and Conclusions

Effective thesis statements, an effective thesis statement:.

• identifies—or PREVIEWS —for what you plan to argue or inform, and it “telegraphs” how you plan to do so; that is, it communicates what particular support for your claim or idea is going where in your essay
• the subject, or topic, of an essay might be World War II or Moby Dick; a thesis must then offer a way to understand the war or the novel
• not only grabs the interest of your reader, who now wants to see you support your unique interpretation, but also provides a focus for your argument or idea, one to which every part of your paper refers in the development of your position
• keeps the writer centered on the matter at hand and reduces the risk of intellectual wandering
• is a complete statement

A simple equation for what a thesis might look like this:

What you plan to discuss/argue + How you plan to discuss/argue it = Thesis + Preview

Steps To Write Effective Thesis Statement

• Choose a prompt or, if appropriate, select a topic: television violence and children
• What are the effects of television violence on children?
• Violence on television increases aggressive behavior in children.
• Avoid general phrasing and/or sweeping words such as “all” or “none” or “every”.
• Lead the reader toward the topic sentences (the subtopics needed to prove the thesis).
• While poor parenting and easy access to weapons may act as contributory factors, in fact when children are exposed to television violence they become less sensitive to the pain and suffering of others, are more fearful of the world around them, and are more likely to behave in aggressive or harmful ways toward others.

The Components of an Effective Thesis Statement

• You can’t just pluck a thesis out of thin air. Even if you have a terrific insight concerning a topic, it won’t be worth much unless you can logically and persuasively support it in the body of your essay. A thesis is the evolutionary result of a thinking process, not a miraculous creation. Formulating a thesis is not the first thing you do after reading an essay assignment .
• Substantial – Your thesis should be a claim  or idea for which it is easy to answer every reader’s question: “So what?”
• Supportable – A thesis must be a claim that you can prove with the evidence at hand (e.g., evidence from your texts or from your research). Your claim should not be outlandish, nor should it be mere personal opinion or preference (e.g., “Frederick Douglass is my favorite historical figure.”) It tackles a subject that could be adequately covered in the format of the project assigned.
• Precise – It is focused and specific. A strong thesis proves a point without discussing everything. It clearly asserts your own conclusion based on evidence. Note: Be flexible. It is perfectly okay to change your thesis!
• Arguable  – It should be contestable for persuasive essays, proposing an arguable point with which people could reasonably disagree.
• Relevant – If you are responding to an assignment, the thesis should answer the question your teacher has posed. In order to stay focused, pay attention to the task words in the assignment: summarize, argue, compare/contrast, etc.
• Aware of Counters or Confusions – It anticipates and refutes the counter-arguments or possible ambiguities..

The best thesis statement is a balance of specific details and concise language. Your goal is to articulate an argument in detail without burdening the reader with too much information.

How do I know if my thesis is strong?

If there’s time, run it by your instructor or make an appointment at the Writing Center to get some feedback. Even if you do not have time to get advice elsewhere, you can do some thesis evaluation of your own. When reviewing your first draft and its working thesis, ask yourself the following:

• Do I answer a question ? This might seem obvious, but it’s worth asking. No matter how intriguing or dazzling, a thesis that doesn’t answer a question is not a good thesis! Re-reading the question prompt after constructing a working thesis can help you fix an argument that misses the focus of the question.
• If your thesis contains vague words like “good” or “successful,” see if you could be more specific: why is something “good”; what makes something “successful”?
• If your thesis simply states facts that no one would, or even could, disagree with, it’s possible that you are simply providing a summary, rather than making an argument.
• Is there a clear preview of main points to develop/argue the thesis ? You want the preview to indicate the organization of the essay (be it informative, argumentative, analytical, or a combination of these tacts) to provide a roadmap for the reader and a plan for you are accountable. This is as important as the thesis statement itself!
• Can my essay support my thesis specifically and without wandering ? If your thesis and the body of your essay do not seem to go together, one of them has to change. It’s o.k. to change your working thesis to reflect things you have figured out in the course of writing your paper. Remember, always reassess and revise your writing as necessary.
• Does my thesis statement adequately address the direction words of the prompt: summarize, argue, compare/contrast, analyze, discuss, etc. ?

Suppose you are taking a course on 19th-century America, and the instructor hands out the following essay assignment: Compare and contrast the reasons why the North and South fought the Civil War. You turn on the computer and type out the following:

The North and South fought the Civil War for many reasons, some of which were the same and some different.

This weak thesis restates the question without providing any additional information. You will expand on this new information in the body of the essay, but it is important that the reader know where you are heading. A reader of this weak thesis might think, “What reasons? How are they the same? How are they different?” Ask yourself these same questions and begin to compare Northern and Southern attitudes (perhaps you first think, “The South believed slavery was right, and the North thought slavery was wrong”). Now, push your comparison toward an interpretation—why did one side think slavery was right and the other side think it was wrong? You look again at the evidence, and you decide that you are going to argue that the North believed slavery was immoral while the South believed it upheld the Southern way of life. You write:

While both sides fought the Civil War over the issue of slavery, the North fought for moral reasons while the South fought to preserve its own institutions.

Now you have a working thesis! Included in this working thesis is a reason for the war and some idea of how the two sides disagreed over this reason. As you write the essay, you will probably begin to characterize these differences more precisely, and your working thesis may start to seem too vague. Maybe you decide that both sides fought for moral reasons, and that they just focused on different moral issues. You end up revising the working thesis into a final thesis that really captures the argument in your paper:

While both Northerners and Southerners believed they fought against tyranny and oppression, Northerners focused on the oppression of slaves while Southerners defended their own right to self-government.

Compare this to the original weak thesis. This final thesis presents a way of interpreting evidence that illuminates the significance of the question. Keep in mind that this is one of many possible interpretations of the Civil War—it is not the one and only right answer to the question . There isn’t one right answer; there are only strong and weak thesis statements and strong and weak uses of evidence.

Let’s look at another example. Suppose your literature professor hands out the following  assignment in a class on the American novel: Write an analysis of some aspect of Mark Twain’s novel Huckleberry Finn. “This will be easy,” you think. “I loved Huckleberry Finn!” You grab a pad of paper and write:

Mark Twain’s Huckleberry Finn is a great American novel.

Why is this thesis weak? Think about what the reader would expect from the essay that follows: you will most likely provide a general, appreciative summary of Twain’s novel. The question did not ask you to summarize; it asked you to analyze. Your professor is probably not interested in your opinion of the novel; instead, she wants you to think about why it’s such a great novel— what do Huck’s adventures tell us about life, about America, about coming of age, about race relations, etc.? First, the question asks you to pick an aspect of the novel that you think is important to its structure or meaning—for example, the role of storytelling, the contrasting scenes between the shore and the river, or the relationships between adults and children. Now you write:

In Huckleberry Finn, Mark Twain develops a contrast between life on the river and life on the shore.

Here’s a working thesis with potential: you have highlighted an important aspect of the novel for investigation; however, it’s still not clear what your analysis will reveal. Your reader is intrigued, but is still thinking, “So what? What’s the point of this contrast? What does it signify?” Perhaps you are not sure yet, either. That’s fine—begin to work on comparing scenes from the book and see what you discover. Free write, make lists, jot down Huck’s actions and reactions. Eventually you will be able to clarify for yourself, and then for the reader, why this contrast matters. After examining the evidence and considering your own insights, you write:

Through its contrasting river and shore scenes, Twain’s Huckleberry Finn suggests that to find the true expression of American democratic ideals, one must leave “civilized” society and go back to nature.

This final thesis statement presents an interpretation of a literary work based on an analysis of its content. Of course, for the essay itself to be successful, you must now present evidence from the novel that will convince the reader of your interpretation.

Myths about Thesis Statements

• Every paper requires one . Assignments that ask you to write personal responses or to explore a subject don’t want you to seem to pre-judge the issues. Essays of literary interpretation often want you to be aware of many effects rather than seeming to box yourself into one view of the text.
• A thesis statement must come at the end of the first paragraph . This is a natural position for a statement of focus, but it’s not the only one. Some theses can be stated in the opening sentences of an essay; others need a paragraph or two of introduction; others can’t be fully formulated until the end.
• A thesis statement must be one sentence in length , no matter how many clauses it contains. Clear writing is more important than rules like these. Use two or three sentences if you need them. A complex argument may require a whole tightly-knit paragraph to make its initial statement of position.
• You can’t start writing an essay until you have a perfect thesis statement . It may be advisable to draft a hypothesis or tentative thesis statement near the start of a big project, but changing and refining a thesis is a main task of thinking your way through your ideas as you write a paper. And some essay projects need to explore the question in depth without being locked in before they can provide even a tentative answer.
• A thesis statement must give three points of support . It should indicate that the essay will explain and give evidence for its assertion, but points don’t need to come in any specific number.

Progressively Complex Thesis Statements

• Effective Thesis Statements. Provided by : Writing Guide Wikispaces. Located at : https://writingguide.wikispaces.com/Effective+Thesis+Statements . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike

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Struggle of Women in Male Dominated Society Essay

Introduction, thesis statement, play plot and main characters, female oppression and justice.

This assignment is being based on a fiction story “A Jury of Her Peers” which is authored by Susan Glaspell and was first published in 1917. The story represents a dialogue of two women who discusses issues that affect women in a world which is dominated by men. The story has attracted the attention of scholars hence it is being used for academic purposes for its themes which are gender-related and the treatment it does to women.

The thesis statement of this assignment is “How females have been oppressed and Justice denied in the societies” the theme further elaborates on the predicaments which women experience in a society that is dominated by men. Glaspell had used her feminine character all through the story to rebel against inequalities that women face and try to prove that women are competent and if they would be pushed too far they would strike back (Glaspell, 2010).

The play starts with a controversy involving Foster Wright in jail after being suspected that she strangled her husband to death. The story is developed by discussions of the author and Martha. Both women had the same interest in promoting women therefore, they mobilized resources and gathered Minnie’s belongings, and take them to her while in jail. Mrs. Peter and Mrs. Hale began to understand the scenario in which foster is in by noting that she was isolated, desolate, and had broken furniture in her house which is an indicator of there being a physical struggle between Minnie and the husband who was killed.

They, therefore, did their independent research without notifying their husband of their findings. The main reason why they did so it’s because they were aware that men were looking down on women as less inferior and would not do a meaningful investigation. Therefore, they wanted to prove that women are as well intelligent as men and would do what men do or even do it much better. Using the findings which they had investigated thoroughly they were able to acquit Minnie from the wrongdoing she had been charged on.

The men in the story have never accepted Minnie Wright’s oppression as being the driving force of her killing the husband and how it led to a desperate act. The author also specified that men in the story also viewed their wives as the weaker sex and their main duties should be to oversee domestic issues which are the areas considered as insignificant in the society as they were believed that they could not do much better in other areas especially in a professional career such as being a jury.

After men were not able to solve the case of Minnie by unveiling circumstances that lead to the death of her husband by not being able to get into Minnie’s shoes so as to solve the crime (Bernardo, 2010). They realized their stereotype in the investigation they were working on would not have revealed the true status of the case.

With such realization, they understood that women are as well of importance like them and not only can they be able to do what man does but as well do much better. This made them never underrate the capabilities of their wives. During the time of their presentation women were not allowed to be jurors a role they played successfully to free their peers.

The feminine communication of Glaspell’s and Martha transcended words. A good example is when they saw the birdcage door broken they concluded that there must be an act of violence which made them make a decision which proves that women would as well perform equally or even much better than men. Such revelation has increasingly promoted women so that they are able to prove their capabilities so that they would no longer refer to them as inferior.

Bernardo, Karen. Susan Glaspell’s “A Jury of Her Peers”. 2010. Web.

Glaspell, Susan. A Jury of Her Peers. 2010. Web.

• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

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Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Struggle of Women in Male Dominated Society." December 9, 2021. https://ivypanda.com/essays/struggle-of-women-in-male-dominated-society/.

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Book Bans Are Targeting the History of Oppression

The possibility of a more just future is at stake when young people are denied access to knowledge of the past.

The instinct to ban books in schools seems to come from a desire to protect children from things that the adults doing the banning find upsetting or offensive. These adults often seem unable to see beyond harsh language or gruesome imagery to the books’ educational and artistic value, or to recognize that language and imagery may be integral to showing the harsh, gruesome truths of the books’ subjects. That appears to be what’s happening with Art Spiegelman’s Maus —a Pulitzer Prize–winning graphic-novel series about the author’s father’s experience of the Holocaust that a Tennessee school board recently pulled from an eighth-grade language-arts curriculum, citing the books’ inappropriate language and nudity.

The Maus case is one of the latest in a series of school book bans targeting books that teach the history of oppression. So far during this school year alone, districts across the U.S. have banned many anti-racist instructional materials as well as best-selling and award-winning books that tackle themes of racism and imperialism. For example, Ijeoma Oluo’s So You Want to Talk About Race was pulled by a Pennsylvania school board, along with other resources intended to teach students about diversity, for being “too divisive,” according to the York Dispatch . (The decision was later reversed.) Nobel Prize–winning author Toni Morrison’s book The Bluest Eye, about the effects of racism on a young Black girl’s self-image, has recently been removed from shelves in school districts in Missouri and Florida (the latter of which also banned her book Beloved ). What these bans are doing is censoring young people’s ability to learn about historical and ongoing injustices.

Read: How banning books marginalizes children

For decades, U.S. classrooms and education policy have incorporated the teaching of Holocaust literature and survivor testimonies, the goal being to “never forget.” Maus is not the only book about the Holocaust to get caught up in recent debates on curriculum materials. In October, a Texas school-district administrator invoked a law that requires teachers to present opposing viewpoints to “widely debated and currently controversial issues,” instructing teachers to present opposing views about the Holocaust in their classrooms. Books such as Lois Lowry’s Number the Stars , a Newbery Medal winner about a young Jewish girl hiding from the Nazis to avoid being taken to a concentration camp, and Anne Frank’s The Diary of a Young Girl have been flagged as inappropriate in the past, for language and sexual content . But perhaps no one foresaw a day when it would be suggested that there could be a valid opposing view of the Holocaust.

In the Tennessee debate over Maus , one school-board member was quoted as saying, “It shows people hanging, it shows them killing kids, why does the educational system promote this kind of stuff? It is not wise or healthy .” This is a familiar argument from those who seek to keep young people from reading about history’s horrors. But children, especially children of color and those who are members of ethnic minorities, were not sheltered or spared from these horrors when they happened. What’s more, the sanitization of history in the name of shielding children assumes, incorrectly, that today’s students are untouched by oppression, imprisonment, death, or racial and ethnic profiling. (For example, Tennessee has been a site of controversy in recent years for incarcerating children as young as 7 and disrupting the lives of undocumented youth .)

The possibility of a more just future is at stake when book bans deny young people access to knowledge of the past. For example, Texas legislators recently argued that coursework and even extracurriculars must remain separate from “political activism” or “public policy advocacy.” They seem to think the purpose of public education is so-called neutrality—rather than cultivating informed participants in democracy.

Maus and many other banned books that grapple with the history of oppression show readers how personal prejudice can become the law. The irony is that in banning books that make them uncomfortable, adults are wielding their own prejudices as a weapon, and students will suffer for it.