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• Descriptive Research Design | Definition, Methods & Examples

Descriptive Research Design | Definition, Methods & Examples

Published on 5 May 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on 10 October 2022.

Descriptive research aims to accurately and systematically describe a population, situation or phenomenon. It can answer what , where , when , and how   questions , but not why questions.

A descriptive research design can use a wide variety of research methods  to investigate one or more variables . Unlike in experimental research , the researcher does not control or manipulate any of the variables, but only observes and measures them.

Table of contents

When to use a descriptive research design, descriptive research methods.

Descriptive research is an appropriate choice when the research aim is to identify characteristics, frequencies, trends, and categories.

It is useful when not much is known yet about the topic or problem. Before you can research why something happens, you need to understand how, when, and where it happens.

• How has the London housing market changed over the past 20 years?
• Do customers of company X prefer product Y or product Z?
• What are the main genetic, behavioural, and morphological differences between European wildcats and domestic cats?
• What are the most popular online news sources among under-18s?
• How prevalent is disease A in population B?

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Descriptive research is usually defined as a type of quantitative research , though qualitative research can also be used for descriptive purposes. The research design should be carefully developed to ensure that the results are valid and reliable .

Survey research allows you to gather large volumes of data that can be analysed for frequencies, averages, and patterns. Common uses of surveys include:

• Describing the demographics of a country or region
• Gauging public opinion on political and social topics
• Evaluating satisfaction with a company’s products or an organisation’s services

Observations

Observations allow you to gather data on behaviours and phenomena without having to rely on the honesty and accuracy of respondents. This method is often used by psychological, social, and market researchers to understand how people act in real-life situations.

Observation of physical entities and phenomena is also an important part of research in the natural sciences. Before you can develop testable hypotheses , models, or theories, it’s necessary to observe and systematically describe the subject under investigation.

Case studies

A case study can be used to describe the characteristics of a specific subject (such as a person, group, event, or organisation). Instead of gathering a large volume of data to identify patterns across time or location, case studies gather detailed data to identify the characteristics of a narrowly defined subject.

Rather than aiming to describe generalisable facts, case studies often focus on unusual or interesting cases that challenge assumptions, add complexity, or reveal something new about a research problem .

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McCombes, S. (2022, October 10). Descriptive Research Design | Definition, Methods & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved 2 April 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/research-methods/descriptive-research-design/

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• Knowledge Base

Methodology

• Descriptive Research | Definition, Types, Methods & Examples

Descriptive Research | Definition, Types, Methods & Examples

Published on May 15, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on June 22, 2023.

Descriptive research aims to accurately and systematically describe a population, situation or phenomenon. It can answer what , where , when and how   questions , but not why questions.

A descriptive research design can use a wide variety of research methods  to investigate one or more variables . Unlike in experimental research , the researcher does not control or manipulate any of the variables, but only observes and measures them.

Table of contents

When to use a descriptive research design, descriptive research methods, other interesting articles.

Descriptive research is an appropriate choice when the research aim is to identify characteristics, frequencies, trends, and categories.

It is useful when not much is known yet about the topic or problem. Before you can research why something happens, you need to understand how, when and where it happens.

Descriptive research question examples

• How has the Amsterdam housing market changed over the past 20 years?
• Do customers of company X prefer product X or product Y?
• What are the main genetic, behavioural and morphological differences between European wildcats and domestic cats?
• What are the most popular online news sources among under-18s?
• How prevalent is disease A in population B?

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Professional editors proofread and edit your paper by focusing on:

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Descriptive research is usually defined as a type of quantitative research , though qualitative research can also be used for descriptive purposes. The research design should be carefully developed to ensure that the results are valid and reliable .

Survey research allows you to gather large volumes of data that can be analyzed for frequencies, averages and patterns. Common uses of surveys include:

• Describing the demographics of a country or region
• Gauging public opinion on political and social topics
• Evaluating satisfaction with a company’s products or an organization’s services

Observations

Observations allow you to gather data on behaviours and phenomena without having to rely on the honesty and accuracy of respondents. This method is often used by psychological, social and market researchers to understand how people act in real-life situations.

Observation of physical entities and phenomena is also an important part of research in the natural sciences. Before you can develop testable hypotheses , models or theories, it’s necessary to observe and systematically describe the subject under investigation.

Case studies

A case study can be used to describe the characteristics of a specific subject (such as a person, group, event or organization). Instead of gathering a large volume of data to identify patterns across time or location, case studies gather detailed data to identify the characteristics of a narrowly defined subject.

Rather than aiming to describe generalizable facts, case studies often focus on unusual or interesting cases that challenge assumptions, add complexity, or reveal something new about a research problem .

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Normal distribution
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Quantitative research
• Ecological validity

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

McCombes, S. (2023, June 22). Descriptive Research | Definition, Types, Methods & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved April 6, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/descriptive-research/

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Home » Descriptive Research Design – Types, Methods and Examples

Descriptive Research Design – Types, Methods and Examples

Table of Contents

Descriptive Research Design

Definition:

Descriptive research design is a type of research methodology that aims to describe or document the characteristics, behaviors, attitudes, opinions, or perceptions of a group or population being studied.

Descriptive research design does not attempt to establish cause-and-effect relationships between variables or make predictions about future outcomes. Instead, it focuses on providing a detailed and accurate representation of the data collected, which can be useful for generating hypotheses, exploring trends, and identifying patterns in the data.

Types of Descriptive Research Design

Types of Descriptive Research Design are as follows:

Cross-sectional Study

This involves collecting data at a single point in time from a sample or population to describe their characteristics or behaviors. For example, a researcher may conduct a cross-sectional study to investigate the prevalence of certain health conditions among a population, or to describe the attitudes and beliefs of a particular group.

Longitudinal Study

This involves collecting data over an extended period of time, often through repeated observations or surveys of the same group or population. Longitudinal studies can be used to track changes in attitudes, behaviors, or outcomes over time, or to investigate the effects of interventions or treatments.

This involves an in-depth examination of a single individual, group, or situation to gain a detailed understanding of its characteristics or dynamics. Case studies are often used in psychology, sociology, and business to explore complex phenomena or to generate hypotheses for further research.

Survey Research

This involves collecting data from a sample or population through standardized questionnaires or interviews. Surveys can be used to describe attitudes, opinions, behaviors, or demographic characteristics of a group, and can be conducted in person, by phone, or online.

Observational Research

This involves observing and documenting the behavior or interactions of individuals or groups in a natural or controlled setting. Observational studies can be used to describe social, cultural, or environmental phenomena, or to investigate the effects of interventions or treatments.

Correlational Research

This involves examining the relationships between two or more variables to describe their patterns or associations. Correlational studies can be used to identify potential causal relationships or to explore the strength and direction of relationships between variables.

Data Analysis Methods

Descriptive research design data analysis methods depend on the type of data collected and the research question being addressed. Here are some common methods of data analysis for descriptive research:

Descriptive Statistics

This method involves analyzing data to summarize and describe the key features of a sample or population. Descriptive statistics can include measures of central tendency (e.g., mean, median, mode) and measures of variability (e.g., range, standard deviation).

Cross-tabulation

This method involves analyzing data by creating a table that shows the frequency of two or more variables together. Cross-tabulation can help identify patterns or relationships between variables.

Content Analysis

This method involves analyzing qualitative data (e.g., text, images, audio) to identify themes, patterns, or trends. Content analysis can be used to describe the characteristics of a sample or population, or to identify factors that influence attitudes or behaviors.

Qualitative Coding

This method involves analyzing qualitative data by assigning codes to segments of data based on their meaning or content. Qualitative coding can be used to identify common themes, patterns, or categories within the data.

Visualization

This method involves creating graphs or charts to represent data visually. Visualization can help identify patterns or relationships between variables and make it easier to communicate findings to others.

Comparative Analysis

This method involves comparing data across different groups or time periods to identify similarities and differences. Comparative analysis can help describe changes in attitudes or behaviors over time or differences between subgroups within a population.

Applications of Descriptive Research Design

Descriptive research design has numerous applications in various fields. Some of the common applications of descriptive research design are:

• Market research: Descriptive research design is widely used in market research to understand consumer preferences, behavior, and attitudes. This helps companies to develop new products and services, improve marketing strategies, and increase customer satisfaction.
• Health research: Descriptive research design is used in health research to describe the prevalence and distribution of a disease or health condition in a population. This helps healthcare providers to develop prevention and treatment strategies.
• Educational research: Descriptive research design is used in educational research to describe the performance of students, schools, or educational programs. This helps educators to improve teaching methods and develop effective educational programs.
• Social science research: Descriptive research design is used in social science research to describe social phenomena such as cultural norms, values, and beliefs. This helps researchers to understand social behavior and develop effective policies.
• Public opinion research: Descriptive research design is used in public opinion research to understand the opinions and attitudes of the general public on various issues. This helps policymakers to develop effective policies that are aligned with public opinion.
• Environmental research: Descriptive research design is used in environmental research to describe the environmental conditions of a particular region or ecosystem. This helps policymakers and environmentalists to develop effective conservation and preservation strategies.

Descriptive Research Design Examples

Here are some real-time examples of descriptive research designs:

• A restaurant chain wants to understand the demographics and attitudes of its customers. They conduct a survey asking customers about their age, gender, income, frequency of visits, favorite menu items, and overall satisfaction. The survey data is analyzed using descriptive statistics and cross-tabulation to describe the characteristics of their customer base.
• A medical researcher wants to describe the prevalence and risk factors of a particular disease in a population. They conduct a cross-sectional study in which they collect data from a sample of individuals using a standardized questionnaire. The data is analyzed using descriptive statistics and cross-tabulation to identify patterns in the prevalence and risk factors of the disease.
• An education researcher wants to describe the learning outcomes of students in a particular school district. They collect test scores from a representative sample of students in the district and use descriptive statistics to calculate the mean, median, and standard deviation of the scores. They also create visualizations such as histograms and box plots to show the distribution of scores.
• A marketing team wants to understand the attitudes and behaviors of consumers towards a new product. They conduct a series of focus groups and use qualitative coding to identify common themes and patterns in the data. They also create visualizations such as word clouds to show the most frequently mentioned topics.
• An environmental scientist wants to describe the biodiversity of a particular ecosystem. They conduct an observational study in which they collect data on the species and abundance of plants and animals in the ecosystem. The data is analyzed using descriptive statistics to describe the diversity and richness of the ecosystem.

How to Conduct Descriptive Research Design

To conduct a descriptive research design, you can follow these general steps:

• Define your research question: Clearly define the research question or problem that you want to address. Your research question should be specific and focused to guide your data collection and analysis.
• Choose your research method: Select the most appropriate research method for your research question. As discussed earlier, common research methods for descriptive research include surveys, case studies, observational studies, cross-sectional studies, and longitudinal studies.
• Design your study: Plan the details of your study, including the sampling strategy, data collection methods, and data analysis plan. Determine the sample size and sampling method, decide on the data collection tools (such as questionnaires, interviews, or observations), and outline your data analysis plan.
• Collect data: Collect data from your sample or population using the data collection tools you have chosen. Ensure that you follow ethical guidelines for research and obtain informed consent from participants.
• Analyze data: Use appropriate statistical or qualitative analysis methods to analyze your data. As discussed earlier, common data analysis methods for descriptive research include descriptive statistics, cross-tabulation, content analysis, qualitative coding, visualization, and comparative analysis.
• I nterpret results: Interpret your findings in light of your research question and objectives. Identify patterns, trends, and relationships in the data, and describe the characteristics of your sample or population.
• Draw conclusions and report results: Draw conclusions based on your analysis and interpretation of the data. Report your results in a clear and concise manner, using appropriate tables, graphs, or figures to present your findings. Ensure that your report follows accepted research standards and guidelines.

When to Use Descriptive Research Design

Descriptive research design is used in situations where the researcher wants to describe a population or phenomenon in detail. It is used to gather information about the current status or condition of a group or phenomenon without making any causal inferences. Descriptive research design is useful in the following situations:

• Exploratory research: Descriptive research design is often used in exploratory research to gain an initial understanding of a phenomenon or population.
• Identifying trends: Descriptive research design can be used to identify trends or patterns in a population, such as changes in consumer behavior or attitudes over time.
• Market research: Descriptive research design is commonly used in market research to understand consumer preferences, behavior, and attitudes.
• Health research: Descriptive research design is useful in health research to describe the prevalence and distribution of a disease or health condition in a population.
• Social science research: Descriptive research design is used in social science research to describe social phenomena such as cultural norms, values, and beliefs.
• Educational research: Descriptive research design is used in educational research to describe the performance of students, schools, or educational programs.

Purpose of Descriptive Research Design

The main purpose of descriptive research design is to describe and measure the characteristics of a population or phenomenon in a systematic and objective manner. It involves collecting data that describe the current status or condition of the population or phenomenon of interest, without manipulating or altering any variables.

The purpose of descriptive research design can be summarized as follows:

• To provide an accurate description of a population or phenomenon: Descriptive research design aims to provide a comprehensive and accurate description of a population or phenomenon of interest. This can help researchers to develop a better understanding of the characteristics of the population or phenomenon.
• To identify trends and patterns: Descriptive research design can help researchers to identify trends and patterns in the data, such as changes in behavior or attitudes over time. This can be useful for making predictions and developing strategies.
• To generate hypotheses: Descriptive research design can be used to generate hypotheses or research questions that can be tested in future studies. For example, if a descriptive study finds a correlation between two variables, this could lead to the development of a hypothesis about the causal relationship between the variables.
• To establish a baseline: Descriptive research design can establish a baseline or starting point for future research. This can be useful for comparing data from different time periods or populations.

Characteristics of Descriptive Research Design

Descriptive research design has several key characteristics that distinguish it from other research designs. Some of the main characteristics of descriptive research design are:

• Objective : Descriptive research design is objective in nature, which means that it focuses on collecting factual and accurate data without any personal bias. The researcher aims to report the data objectively without any personal interpretation.
• Non-experimental: Descriptive research design is non-experimental, which means that the researcher does not manipulate any variables. The researcher simply observes and records the behavior or characteristics of the population or phenomenon of interest.
• Quantitative : Descriptive research design is quantitative in nature, which means that it involves collecting numerical data that can be analyzed using statistical techniques. This helps to provide a more precise and accurate description of the population or phenomenon.
• Cross-sectional: Descriptive research design is often cross-sectional, which means that the data is collected at a single point in time. This can be useful for understanding the current state of the population or phenomenon, but it may not provide information about changes over time.
• Large sample size: Descriptive research design typically involves a large sample size, which helps to ensure that the data is representative of the population of interest. A large sample size also helps to increase the reliability and validity of the data.
• Systematic and structured: Descriptive research design involves a systematic and structured approach to data collection, which helps to ensure that the data is accurate and reliable. This involves using standardized procedures for data collection, such as surveys, questionnaires, or observation checklists.

Advantages of Descriptive Research Design

Descriptive research design has several advantages that make it a popular choice for researchers. Some of the main advantages of descriptive research design are:

• Provides an accurate description: Descriptive research design is focused on accurately describing the characteristics of a population or phenomenon. This can help researchers to develop a better understanding of the subject of interest.
• Easy to conduct: Descriptive research design is relatively easy to conduct and requires minimal resources compared to other research designs. It can be conducted quickly and efficiently, and data can be collected through surveys, questionnaires, or observations.
• Useful for generating hypotheses: Descriptive research design can be used to generate hypotheses or research questions that can be tested in future studies. For example, if a descriptive study finds a correlation between two variables, this could lead to the development of a hypothesis about the causal relationship between the variables.
• Large sample size : Descriptive research design typically involves a large sample size, which helps to ensure that the data is representative of the population of interest. A large sample size also helps to increase the reliability and validity of the data.
• Can be used to monitor changes : Descriptive research design can be used to monitor changes over time in a population or phenomenon. This can be useful for identifying trends and patterns, and for making predictions about future behavior or attitudes.
• Can be used in a variety of fields : Descriptive research design can be used in a variety of fields, including social sciences, healthcare, business, and education.

Limitation of Descriptive Research Design

Descriptive research design also has some limitations that researchers should consider before using this design. Some of the main limitations of descriptive research design are:

• Cannot establish cause and effect: Descriptive research design cannot establish cause and effect relationships between variables. It only provides a description of the characteristics of the population or phenomenon of interest.
• Limited generalizability: The results of a descriptive study may not be generalizable to other populations or situations. This is because descriptive research design often involves a specific sample or situation, which may not be representative of the broader population.
• Potential for bias: Descriptive research design can be subject to bias, particularly if the researcher is not objective in their data collection or interpretation. This can lead to inaccurate or incomplete descriptions of the population or phenomenon of interest.
• Limited depth: Descriptive research design may provide a superficial description of the population or phenomenon of interest. It does not delve into the underlying causes or mechanisms behind the observed behavior or characteristics.
• Limited utility for theory development: Descriptive research design may not be useful for developing theories about the relationship between variables. It only provides a description of the variables themselves.
• Relies on self-report data: Descriptive research design often relies on self-report data, such as surveys or questionnaires. This type of data may be subject to biases, such as social desirability bias or recall bias.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Descriptive research: what it is and how to use it.

8 min read Understanding the who, what and where of a situation or target group is an essential part of effective research and making informed business decisions.

For example you might want to understand what percentage of CEOs have a bachelor’s degree or higher. Or you might want to understand what percentage of low income families receive government support – or what kind of support they receive.

Descriptive research is what will be used in these types of studies.

In this guide we’ll look through the main issues relating to descriptive research to give you a better understanding of what it is, and how and why you can use it.

Free eBook: 2024 global market research trends report

What is descriptive research?

Descriptive research is a research method used to try and determine the characteristics of a population or particular phenomenon.

Using descriptive research you can identify patterns in the characteristics of a group to essentially establish everything you need to understand apart from why something has happened.

Market researchers use descriptive research for a range of commercial purposes to guide key decisions.

For example you could use descriptive research to understand fashion trends in a given city when planning your clothing collection for the year. Using descriptive research you can conduct in depth analysis on the demographic makeup of your target area and use the data analysis to establish buying patterns.

Conducting descriptive research wouldn’t, however, tell you why shoppers are buying a particular type of fashion item.

Descriptive research design

Descriptive research design uses a range of both qualitative research and quantitative data (although quantitative research is the primary research method) to gather information to make accurate predictions about a particular problem or hypothesis.

As a survey method, descriptive research designs will help researchers identify characteristics in their target market or particular population.

These characteristics in the population sample can be identified, observed and measured to guide decisions.

Descriptive research characteristics

While there are a number of descriptive research methods you can deploy for data collection, descriptive research does have a number of predictable characteristics.

Here are a few of the things to consider:

Measure data trends with statistical outcomes

Descriptive research is often popular for survey research because it generates answers in a statistical form, which makes it easy for researchers to carry out a simple statistical analysis to interpret what the data is saying.

Descriptive research design is ideal for further research

Because the data collection for descriptive research produces statistical outcomes, it can also be used as secondary data for another research study.

Plus, the data collected from descriptive research can be subjected to other types of data analysis .

Uncontrolled variables

A key component of the descriptive research method is that it uses random variables that are not controlled by the researchers. This is because descriptive research aims to understand the natural behavior of the research subject.

It’s carried out in a natural environment

Descriptive research is often carried out in a natural environment. This is because researchers aim to gather data in a natural setting to avoid swaying respondents.

Data can be gathered using survey questions or online surveys.

For example, if you want to understand the fashion trends we mentioned earlier, you would set up a study in which a researcher observes people in the respondent’s natural environment to understand their habits and preferences.

Descriptive research allows for cross sectional study

Because of the nature of descriptive research design and the randomness of the sample group being observed, descriptive research is ideal for cross sectional studies – essentially the demographics of the group can vary widely and your aim is to gain insights from within the group.

This can be highly beneficial when you’re looking to understand the behaviors or preferences of a wider population.

Descriptive research advantages

There are many advantages to using descriptive research, some of them include:

Cost effectiveness

Because the elements needed for descriptive research design are not specific or highly targeted (and occur within the respondent’s natural environment) this type of study is relatively cheap to carry out.

Multiple types of data can be collected

A big advantage of this research type, is that you can use it to collect both quantitative and qualitative data. This means you can use the stats gathered to easily identify underlying patterns in your respondents’ behavior.

Descriptive research disadvantages

Potential reliability issues.

When conducting descriptive research it’s important that the initial survey questions are properly formulated.

If not, it could make the answers unreliable and risk the credibility of your study.

Potential limitations

As we’ve mentioned, descriptive research design is ideal for understanding the what, who or where of a situation or phenomenon.

However, it can’t help you understand the cause or effect of the behavior. This means you’ll need to conduct further research to get a more complete picture of a situation.

Descriptive research methods

Because descriptive research methods include a range of quantitative and qualitative research, there are several research methods you can use.

Use case studies

Case studies in descriptive research involve conducting in-depth and detailed studies in which researchers get a specific person or case to answer questions.

Case studies shouldn’t be used to generate results, rather it should be used to build or establish hypothesis that you can expand into further market research .

For example you could gather detailed data about a specific business phenomenon, and then use this deeper understanding of that specific case.

Use observational methods

This type of study uses qualitative observations to understand human behavior within a particular group.

By understanding how the different demographics respond within your sample you can identify patterns and trends.

As an observational method, descriptive research will not tell you the cause of any particular behaviors, but that could be established with further research.

Use survey research

Surveys are one of the most cost effective ways to gather descriptive data.

An online survey or questionnaire can be used in descriptive studies to gather quantitative information about a particular problem.

Survey research is ideal if you’re using descriptive research as your primary research.

Descriptive research examples

Descriptive research is used for a number of commercial purposes or when organizations need to understand the behaviors or opinions of a population.

One of the biggest examples of descriptive research that is used in every democratic country, is during elections.

Using descriptive research, researchers will use surveys to understand who voters are more likely to choose out of the parties or candidates available.

Using the data provided, researchers can analyze the data to understand what the election result will be.

In a commercial setting, retailers often use descriptive research to figure out trends in shopping and buying decisions.

By gathering information on the habits of shoppers, retailers can get a better understanding of the purchases being made.

Another example that is widely used around the world, is the national census that takes place to understand the population.

The research will provide a more accurate picture of a population’s demographic makeup and help to understand changes over time in areas like population age, health and education level.

Where Qualtrics helps with descriptive research

Whatever type of research you want to carry out, there’s a survey type that will work.

Qualtrics can help you determine the appropriate method and ensure you design a study that will deliver the insights you need.

Our experts can help you with your market research needs , ensuring you get the most out of Qualtrics market research software to design, launch and analyze your data to guide better, more accurate decisions for your organization.

Related resources

Market intelligence 10 min read, marketing insights 11 min read, ethnographic research 11 min read, qualitative vs quantitative research 13 min read, qualitative research questions 11 min read, qualitative research design 12 min read, primary vs secondary research 14 min read, request demo.

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Descriptive Research 101: Definition, Methods and Examples

Parvathi vijayamohan.

18 October 2023

Table Of Contents

• Descriptive Research 101: The Definitive Guide

What is Descriptive Research?

Key characteristics of descriptive research.

• Descriptive Research Methods: The 3 You Need to Know!

Observation

Case studies, 7 types of descriptive research, descriptive research: examples to build your next study, tips to excel at descriptive research.

Imagine you are a detective called to a crime scene. Your job is to study the scene and report whatever you find: whether that’s the half-smoked cigarette on the table or the large “RACHE” written in blood on the wall. That, in a nutshell, is  descriptive research .

Researchers often need to do descriptive research on a problem before they attempt to solve it. So in this guide, we’ll take you through:

• What is descriptive research + characteristics
• Descriptive research methods
• Types of descriptive research
• Descriptive research examples
• Tips to excel at the descriptive method

Click to jump to the section that interests you.

Definition: As its name says, descriptive research  describes  the characteristics of the problem, phenomenon, situation, or group under study.

So the goal of all descriptive studies is to  explore  the background, details, and existing patterns in the problem to fully understand it. In other words, preliminary research.

However, descriptive research can be both  preliminary and conclusive . You can use the data from a descriptive study to make reports and get insights for further planning.

What descriptive research isn’t: Descriptive research finds the  what/when/where  of a problem, not the  why/how .

Because of this, we can’t use the descriptive method to explore cause-and-effect relationships where one variable (like a person’s job role) affects another variable (like their monthly income).

• Answers the “what,” “when,” and “where”  of a research problem. For this reason, it is popularly used in  market research ,  awareness surveys , and  opinion polls .
• Sets the stage  for a research problem. As an early part of the research process, descriptive studies help you dive deeper into the topic.
• Opens the door  for further research. You can use descriptive data as the basis for more profound research, analysis and studies.
• Qualitative and quantitative . It is possible to get a balanced mix of numerical responses and open-ended answers from the descriptive method.
• No control or interference with the variables . The researcher simply observes and reports on them. However, specific research software has  filters  that allow her to zoom in on one variable.
• Done in natural settings . You can get the best results from descriptive research by talking to people, surveying them, or observing them in a suitable environment. For example, suppose you are a website beta testing an app feature. In that case, descriptive research invites users to try the feature, tracking their behavior and then asking their opinions .
• Can be applied to many research methods and areas. Examples include healthcare, SaaS, psychology, political studies, education, and pop culture.

Descriptive Research Methods: The Top Three You Need to Know!

In short, survey research is a brief interview or conversation with a set of prepared questions about a topic.

So you create a questionnaire, share it, and analyze the data you collect for further action. Learn about the differences between surveys and questionnaires  here .

You can access free survey templates , over 20+ question types , and pass data to 1,500+ applications with survey software, like SurveySparrow . It enables you to create surveys, share them and capture data with very little effort.

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• Surveys can be hyper-local, regional, or global, depending on your objectives.
• Share surveys in-person, offline, via SMS, email, or QR codes – so many options !
• Easy to automate if you want to conduct many surveys over a period.

The observational method is a type of descriptive research in which you, the researcher, observe ongoing behavior.

Now, there are several (non-creepy) ways you can observe someone. In fact, observational research has three main approaches:

• Covert observation: In true spy fashion, the researcher mixes in with the group undetected or observes from a distance.
• Overt observation : The researcher identifies himself as a researcher – “The name’s Bond. J. Bond.” – and explains the purpose of the study.
• Participatory observation : The researcher participates in what he is observing to understand his topic better.
• Observation is one of the most accurate ways to get data on a subject’s behavior in a natural setting.
• You don’t need to rely on people’s willingness to share information.
• Observation is a universal method that can be applied to any area of research.

In the case study method, you do a detailed study of a specific group, person, or event over a period.

This brings us to a frequently asked question: “What’s the difference between case studies and longitudinal studies?”

A case study will go  very in-depth into the subject with one-on-one interviews, observations, and archival research. They are also qualitative, though sometimes they will use numbers and stats.

An example of longitudinal research would be a study of the health of night shift employees vs. general shift employees over a decade. An example of a case study would involve in-depth interviews with Casey, an assistant director of nursing who’s handled the night shift at the hospital for ten years now.

• Due to the focus on a few people, case studies can give you a tremendous amount of information.
• Because of the time and effort involved, a case study engages both researchers and participants.
• Case studies are helpful for ethically investigating unusual, complex, or challenging subjects. An example would be a study of the habits of long-term cocaine users.

1. Case Study: Airbnb’s Growth Strategy

In an excellent case study, Tam Al Saad, Principal Consultant, Strategy + Growth at Webprofits, deep dives into how Airbnb attracted and retained 150 million users .

“What Airbnb offers isn’t a cheap place to sleep when you’re on holiday; it’s the opportunity to experience your destination as a local would. It’s the chance to meet the locals, experience the markets, and find non-touristy places.

Sure, you can visit the Louvre, see Buckingham Palace, and climb the Empire State Building, but you can do it as if it were your hometown while staying in a place that has character and feels like a home.” – Tam al Saad, Principal Consultant, Strategy + Growth at Webprofits

2. Observation – Better Tech Experiences for the Elderly

We often think that our elders are so hopeless with technology. But we’re not getting any younger either, and tech is changing at a hair trigger! This article by Annemieke Hendricks shares a wonderful example where researchers compare the levels of technological familiarity between age groups and how that influences usage.

“It is generally assumed that older adults have difficulty using modern electronic devices, such as mobile telephones or computers. Because this age group is growing in most countries, changing products and processes to adapt to their needs is increasingly more important. “ – Annemieke Hendricks, Marketing Communication Specialist, Noldus

3. Surveys – Decoding Sleep with SurveySparrow

SRI International (formerly Stanford Research Institute) – an independent, non-profit research center – wanted to investigate the impact of stress on an adolescent’s sleep. To get those insights, two actions were essential: tracking sleep patterns through wearable devices and sending surveys at a pre-set time –  the pre-sleep period.

“With SurveySparrow’s recurring surveys feature, SRI was able to share engaging surveys with their participants exactly at the time they wanted and at the frequency they preferred.”

Read more about this project : How SRI International decoded sleep patterns with SurveySparrow

1: Answer the six Ws –

• Who should we consider?
• What information do we need?
• When should we collect the information?
• Where should we collect the information?
• Why are we obtaining the information?
• Way to collect the information

#2: Introduce and explain your methodological approach

#3: Describe your methods of data collection and/or selection.

#4: Describe your methods of analysis.

#5: Explain the reasoning behind your choices.

#6: Collect data.

#7: Analyze the data. Use software to speed up the process and reduce overthinking and human error.

#8: Report your conclusions and how you drew the results.

Wrapping Up

That’s all, folks!

Growth Marketer at SurveySparrow

Fledgling growth marketer. Cloud watcher. Aunty to a naughty beagle.

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Bridging the Gap: Overcome these 7 flaws in descriptive research design

Descriptive research design is a powerful tool used by scientists and researchers to gather information about a particular group or phenomenon. This type of research provides a detailed and accurate picture of the characteristics and behaviors of a particular population or subject. By observing and collecting data on a given topic, descriptive research helps researchers gain a deeper understanding of a specific issue and provides valuable insights that can inform future studies.

In this blog, we will explore the definition, characteristics, and common flaws in descriptive research design, and provide tips on how to avoid these pitfalls to produce high-quality results. Whether you are a seasoned researcher or a student just starting, understanding the fundamentals of descriptive research design is essential to conducting successful scientific studies.

Table of Contents

What Is Descriptive Research Design?

The descriptive research design involves observing and collecting data on a given topic without attempting to infer cause-and-effect relationships. The goal of descriptive research is to provide a comprehensive and accurate picture of the population or phenomenon being studied and to describe the relationships, patterns, and trends that exist within the data.

Descriptive research methods can include surveys, observational studies , and case studies, and the data collected can be qualitative or quantitative . The findings from descriptive research provide valuable insights and inform future research, but do not establish cause-and-effect relationships.

Importance of Descriptive Research in Scientific Studies

1. understanding of a population or phenomenon.

Descriptive research provides a comprehensive picture of the characteristics and behaviors of a particular population or phenomenon, allowing researchers to gain a deeper understanding of the topic.

2. Baseline Information

The information gathered through descriptive research can serve as a baseline for future research and provide a foundation for further studies.

3. Informative Data

Descriptive research can provide valuable information and insights into a particular topic, which can inform future research, policy decisions, and programs.

4. Sampling Validation

Descriptive research can be used to validate sampling methods and to help researchers determine the best approach for their study.

5. Cost Effective

Descriptive research is often less expensive and less time-consuming than other research methods , making it a cost-effective way to gather information about a particular population or phenomenon.

6. Easy to Replicate

Descriptive research is straightforward to replicate, making it a reliable way to gather and compare information from multiple sources.

Key Characteristics of Descriptive Research Design

The primary purpose of descriptive research is to describe the characteristics, behaviors, and attributes of a particular population or phenomenon.

2. Participants and Sampling

Descriptive research studies a particular population or sample that is representative of the larger population being studied. Furthermore, sampling methods can include convenience, stratified, or random sampling.

3. Data Collection Techniques

Descriptive research typically involves the collection of both qualitative and quantitative data through methods such as surveys, observational studies, case studies, or focus groups.

4. Data Analysis

Descriptive research data is analyzed to identify patterns, relationships, and trends within the data. Statistical techniques , such as frequency distributions and descriptive statistics, are commonly used to summarize and describe the data.

5. Focus on Description

Descriptive research is focused on describing and summarizing the characteristics of a particular population or phenomenon. It does not make causal inferences.

6. Non-Experimental

Descriptive research is non-experimental, meaning that the researcher does not manipulate variables or control conditions. The researcher simply observes and collects data on the population or phenomenon being studied.

When Can a Researcher Conduct Descriptive Research?

A researcher can conduct descriptive research in the following situations:

• To better understand a particular population or phenomenon
• To describe the relationships between variables
• To describe patterns and trends
• To validate sampling methods and determine the best approach for a study
• To compare data from multiple sources.

Types of Descriptive Research Design

1. survey research.

Surveys are a type of descriptive research that involves collecting data through self-administered or interviewer-administered questionnaires. Additionally, they can be administered in-person, by mail, or online, and can collect both qualitative and quantitative data.

2. Observational Research

Observational research involves observing and collecting data on a particular population or phenomenon without manipulating variables or controlling conditions. It can be conducted in naturalistic settings or controlled laboratory settings.

3. Case Study Research

Case study research is a type of descriptive research that focuses on a single individual, group, or event. It involves collecting detailed information on the subject through a variety of methods, including interviews, observations, and examination of documents.

4. Focus Group Research

Focus group research involves bringing together a small group of people to discuss a particular topic or product. Furthermore, the group is usually moderated by a researcher and the discussion is recorded for later analysis.

5. Ethnographic Research

Ethnographic research involves conducting detailed observations of a particular culture or community. It is often used to gain a deep understanding of the beliefs, behaviors, and practices of a particular group.

Advantages of Descriptive Research Design

1. provides a comprehensive understanding.

Descriptive research provides a comprehensive picture of the characteristics, behaviors, and attributes of a particular population or phenomenon, which can be useful in informing future research and policy decisions.

2. Non-invasive

Descriptive research is non-invasive and does not manipulate variables or control conditions, making it a suitable method for sensitive or ethical concerns.

3. Flexibility

Descriptive research allows for a wide range of data collection methods , including surveys, observational studies, case studies, and focus groups, making it a flexible and versatile research method.

4. Cost-effective

Descriptive research is often less expensive and less time-consuming than other research methods. Moreover, it gives a cost-effective option to many researchers.

5. Easy to Replicate

Descriptive research is easy to replicate, making it a reliable way to gather and compare information from multiple sources.

6. Informs Future Research

The insights gained from a descriptive research can inform future research and inform policy decisions and programs.

Disadvantages of Descriptive Research Design

1. limited scope.

Descriptive research only provides a snapshot of the current situation and cannot establish cause-and-effect relationships.

2. Dependence on Existing Data

Descriptive research relies on existing data, which may not always be comprehensive or accurate.

3. Lack of Control

Researchers have no control over the variables in descriptive research, which can limit the conclusions that can be drawn.

The researcher’s own biases and preconceptions can influence the interpretation of the data.

5. Lack of Generalizability

Descriptive research findings may not be applicable to other populations or situations.

6. Lack of Depth

Descriptive research provides a surface-level understanding of a phenomenon, rather than a deep understanding.

7. Time-consuming

Descriptive research often requires a large amount of data collection and analysis, which can be time-consuming and resource-intensive.

7 Ways to Avoid Common Flaws While Designing Descriptive Research

1. Clearly define the research question

A clearly defined research question is the foundation of any research study, and it is important to ensure that the question is both specific and relevant to the topic being studied.

2. Choose the appropriate research design

Choosing the appropriate research design for a study is crucial to the success of the study. Moreover, researchers should choose a design that best fits the research question and the type of data needed to answer it.

3. Select a representative sample

Selecting a representative sample is important to ensure that the findings of the study are generalizable to the population being studied. Researchers should use a sampling method that provides a random and representative sample of the population.

4. Use valid and reliable data collection methods

Using valid and reliable data collection methods is important to ensure that the data collected is accurate and can be used to answer the research question. Researchers should choose methods that are appropriate for the study and that can be administered consistently and systematically.

5. Minimize bias

Bias can significantly impact the validity and reliability of research findings.  Furthermore, it is important to minimize bias in all aspects of the study, from the selection of participants to the analysis of data.

6. Ensure adequate sample size

An adequate sample size is important to ensure that the results of the study are statistically significant and can be generalized to the population being studied.

7. Use appropriate data analysis techniques

The appropriate data analysis technique depends on the type of data collected and the research question being asked. Researchers should choose techniques that are appropriate for the data and the question being asked.

Have you worked on descriptive research designs? How was your experience creating a descriptive design? What challenges did you face? Do write to us or leave a comment below and share your insights on descriptive research designs!

extremely very educative

Indeed very educative and useful. Well explained. Thank you

Simple,easy to understand

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What is Descriptive Research? Definition, Methods, Types and Examples

Descriptive research is a methodological approach that seeks to depict the characteristics of a phenomenon or subject under investigation. In scientific inquiry, it serves as a foundational tool for researchers aiming to observe, record, and analyze the intricate details of a particular topic. This method provides a rich and detailed account that aids in understanding, categorizing, and interpreting the subject matter.

Descriptive research design is widely employed across diverse fields, and its primary objective is to systematically observe and document all variables and conditions influencing the phenomenon.

After this descriptive research definition, let’s look at this example. Consider a researcher working on climate change adaptation, who wants to understand water management trends in an arid village in a specific study area. She must conduct a demographic survey of the region, gather population data, and then conduct descriptive research on this demographic segment. The study will then uncover details on “what are the water management practices and trends in village X.” Note, however, that it will not cover any investigative information about “why” the patterns exist.

Table of Contents

What is descriptive research?

If you’ve been wondering “What is descriptive research,” we’ve got you covered in this post! In a nutshell, descriptive research is an exploratory research method that helps a researcher describe a population, circumstance, or phenomenon. It can help answer what , where , when and how questions, but not why questions. In other words, it does not involve changing the study variables and does not seek to establish cause-and-effect relationships.

Importance of descriptive research

Now, let’s delve into the importance of descriptive research. This research method acts as the cornerstone for various academic and applied disciplines. Its primary significance lies in its ability to provide a comprehensive overview of a phenomenon, enabling researchers to gain a nuanced understanding of the variables at play. This method aids in forming hypotheses, generating insights, and laying the groundwork for further in-depth investigations. The following points further illustrate its importance:

Provides insights into a population or phenomenon: Descriptive research furnishes a comprehensive overview of the characteristics and behaviors of a specific population or phenomenon, thereby guiding and shaping the research project.

Offers baseline data: The data acquired through this type of research acts as a reference for subsequent investigations, laying the groundwork for further studies.

Allows validation of sampling methods: Descriptive research validates sampling methods, aiding in the selection of the most effective approach for the study.

Helps reduce time and costs: It is cost-effective and time-efficient, making this an economical means of gathering information about a specific population or phenomenon.

Ensures replicability: Descriptive research is easily replicable, ensuring a reliable way to collect and compare information from various sources.

When to use descriptive research design?

Determining when to use descriptive research depends on the nature of the research question. Before diving into the reasons behind an occurrence, understanding the how, when, and where aspects is essential. Descriptive research design is a suitable option when the research objective is to discern characteristics, frequencies, trends, and categories without manipulating variables. It is therefore often employed in the initial stages of a study before progressing to more complex research designs. To put it in another way, descriptive research precedes the hypotheses of explanatory research. It is particularly valuable when there is limited existing knowledge about the subject.

Some examples are as follows, highlighting that these questions would arise before a clear outline of the research plan is established:

• In the last two decades, what changes have occurred in patterns of urban gardening in Mumbai?
• What are the differences in climate change perceptions of farmers in coastal versus inland villages in the Philippines?

Characteristics of descriptive research

Coming to the characteristics of descriptive research, this approach is characterized by its focus on observing and documenting the features of a subject. Specific characteristics are as below.

• Quantitative nature: Some descriptive research types involve quantitative research methods to gather quantifiable information for statistical analysis of the population sample.
• Qualitative nature: Some descriptive research examples include those using the qualitative research method to describe or explain the research problem.
• Observational nature: This approach is non-invasive and observational because the study variables remain untouched. Researchers merely observe and report, without introducing interventions that could impact the subject(s).
• Cross-sectional nature: In descriptive research, different sections belonging to the same group are studied, providing a “snapshot” of sorts.
• Springboard for further research: The data collected are further studied and analyzed using different research techniques. This approach helps guide the suitable research methods to be employed.

Types of descriptive research

There are various descriptive research types, each suited to different research objectives. Take a look at the different types below.

• Surveys: This involves collecting data through questionnaires or interviews to gather qualitative and quantitative data.
• Observational studies: This involves observing and collecting data on a particular population or phenomenon without influencing the study variables or manipulating the conditions. These may be further divided into cohort studies, case studies, and cross-sectional studies:
• Cohort studies: Also known as longitudinal studies, these studies involve the collection of data over an extended period, allowing researchers to track changes and trends.
• Case studies: These deal with a single individual, group, or event, which might be rare or unusual.
• Cross-sectional studies : A researcher collects data at a single point in time, in order to obtain a snapshot of a specific moment.
• Focus groups: In this approach, a small group of people are brought together to discuss a topic. The researcher moderates and records the group discussion. This can also be considered a “participatory” observational method.
• Descriptive classification: Relevant to the biological sciences, this type of approach may be used to classify living organisms.

Descriptive research methods

Several descriptive research methods can be employed, and these are more or less similar to the types of approaches mentioned above.

• Surveys: This method involves the collection of data through questionnaires or interviews. Surveys may be done online or offline, and the target subjects might be hyper-local, regional, or global.
• Observational studies: These entail the direct observation of subjects in their natural environment. These include case studies, dealing with a single case or individual, as well as cross-sectional and longitudinal studies, for a glimpse into a population or changes in trends over time, respectively. Participatory observational studies such as focus group discussions may also fall under this method.

Researchers must carefully consider descriptive research methods, types, and examples to harness their full potential in contributing to scientific knowledge.

Examples of descriptive research

Now, let’s consider some descriptive research examples.

• In social sciences, an example could be a study analyzing the demographics of a specific community to understand its socio-economic characteristics.
• In business, a market research survey aiming to describe consumer preferences would be a descriptive study.
• In ecology, a researcher might undertake a survey of all the types of monocots naturally occurring in a region and classify them up to species level.

These examples showcase the versatility of descriptive research across diverse fields.

Advantages of descriptive research

There are several advantages to this approach, which every researcher must be aware of. These are as follows:

• Owing to the numerous descriptive research methods and types, primary data can be obtained in diverse ways and be used for developing a research hypothesis .
• It is a versatile research method and allows flexibility.
• Detailed and comprehensive information can be obtained because the data collected can be qualitative or quantitative.
• It is carried out in the natural environment, which greatly minimizes certain types of bias and ethical concerns.
• It is an inexpensive and efficient approach, even with large sample sizes

Disadvantages of descriptive research

On the other hand, this design has some drawbacks as well:

• It is limited in its scope as it does not determine cause-and-effect relationships.
• The approach does not generate new information and simply depends on existing data.
• Study variables are not manipulated or controlled, and this limits the conclusions to be drawn.
• Descriptive research findings may not be generalizable to other populations.
• Finally, it offers a preliminary understanding rather than an in-depth understanding.

To reiterate, the advantages of descriptive research lie in its ability to provide a comprehensive overview, aid hypothesis generation, and serve as a preliminary step in the research process. However, its limitations include a potential lack of depth, inability to establish cause-and-effect relationships, and susceptibility to bias.

Frequently asked questions

When should researchers conduct descriptive research.

Descriptive research is most appropriate when researchers aim to portray and understand the characteristics of a phenomenon without manipulating variables. It is particularly valuable in the early stages of a study.

What is the difference between descriptive and exploratory research?

Descriptive research focuses on providing a detailed depiction of a phenomenon, while exploratory research aims to explore and generate insights into an issue where little is known.

What is the difference between descriptive and experimental research?

Descriptive research observes and documents without manipulating variables, whereas experimental research involves intentional interventions to establish cause-and-effect relationships.

Is descriptive research only for social sciences?

No, various descriptive research types may be applicable to all fields of study, including social science, humanities, physical science, and biological science.

How important is descriptive research?

The importance of descriptive research lies in its ability to provide a glimpse of the current state of a phenomenon, offering valuable insights and establishing a basic understanding. Further, the advantages of descriptive research include its capacity to offer a straightforward depiction of a situation or phenomenon, facilitate the identification of patterns or trends, and serve as a useful starting point for more in-depth investigations. Additionally, descriptive research can contribute to the development of hypotheses and guide the formulation of research questions for subsequent studies.

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Survey descriptive research: Method, design, and examples

• November 2, 2022

What is survey descriptive research?

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Survey descriptive research is a quantitative method that focuses on describing the characteristics of a phenomenon rather than asking why it occurs. Doing this provides a better understanding of the nature of the subject at hand and creates a good foundation for further research.

Descriptive market research is one of the most commonly used ways of examining trends and changes in the market. It is easy, low-cost, and provides valuable in-depth information on a chosen subject.

This article will examine the basic principles of the descriptive survey study and show how to make the best descriptive survey questionnaire and how to conduct effective research.

It is often said to be quantitative research that focuses more on the what, how, when, and where instead of the why. But what does that actually mean?

The answer is simple. By conducting descriptive survey research, the nature of a phenomenon is focused upon without asking about what causes it.

The main goal of survey descriptive research is to shed light on the heart of the research problem and better understand it. The technique provides in-depth knowledge of what the research problem is before investigating why it exists.

Survey descriptive research and data collection methods

Descriptive research methods can differ based on data collection. We distinguish three main data collection methods: case study, observational method, and descriptive survey method.

Of these, the descriptive survey research method is most commonly used in fields such as market research, social research, psychology, politics, etc.

Sometimes also called the observational descriptive method, this is simply monitoring people while they engage with a particular subject. The aim is to examine people’s real-life behavior by maintaining a natural environment that does not change the respondents’ behavior—because they do not know they are being observed.

It is often used in fields such as market research, psychology, or social research. For example, customers can be monitored while dining at a restaurant or browsing through the products in a shop.

When doing case studies, researchers conduct thorough examinations of individuals or groups. The case study method is not used to collect general information on a particular subject. Instead, it provides an in-depth understanding of a particular subject and can give rise to interesting conclusions and new hypotheses.

The term case study can also refer to a sample group, which is a specific group of people that are examined and, afterward, findings are generalized to a larger group of people. However, this kind of generalization is rather risky because it is not always accurate.

Additionally, case studies cannot be used to determine cause and effect because of potential bias on the researcher’s part.

The survey descriptive research method consists of creating questionnaires or polls and distributing them to respondents, who then answer the questions (usually a mix of open-ended and closed-ended).

Surveys are the easiest and most cost-efficient way to gain feedback on a particular topic. They can be conducted online or offline, the size of the sample is highly flexible, and they can be distributed through many different channels.

When doing market research , use such surveys to understand the demographic of a certain market or population, better determine the target audience, keep track of the changes in the market, and learn about customer experience and satisfaction with products and services.

Several types of survey descriptive research are classified based on the approach used:

• Descriptive surveys gather information about a certain subject.
• Descriptive-normative surveys gather information just like a descriptive survey, after which results are compared with a norm.
• Correlative surveys explore the relationship between two variables and conclude if it is positive, neutral, or negative.

A descriptive survey research design is a methodology used in social science and other fields to gather information and describe the characteristics, behaviors, or attitudes of a particular population or group of interest. While there may not be a single definition provided by specific authors, the concept is widely understood and defined similarly across the literature.

Here’s a general definition that captures the essence of a descriptive survey research design definition by authors:

A descriptive survey research design is a systematic and structured approach to collecting data from a sample of individuals or entities within a larger population, with the primary aim of providing a detailed and accurate description of the characteristics, behaviors, opinions, or attitudes that exist within the target group. This method involves the use of surveys, questionnaires, interviews, or observations to collect data, which is then analyzed and summarized to draw conclusions about the population of interest.

It’s important to note that descriptive survey research is often used when researchers want to gain insights into a population or phenomenon, but without manipulating variables or testing hypotheses, as is common in experimental research. Instead, it focuses on providing a comprehensive overview of the subject under investigation. Researchers often use various statistical and analytical techniques to summarize and interpret the collected data in descriptive survey research.

The characteristics and advantages of a descriptive survey questionnaire

There are numerous advantages to using a descriptive survey design. First of all, it is cheap and easy to conduct. A large sample can be surveyed and extensive data gathered quickly and inexpensively.

The data collected provides both quantitative and qualitative information , which provides a holistic understanding of the topic. Moreover, it can be used in further research on this or related topics.

Here are some of the most important advantages of conducting a survey descriptive research:

The descriptive survey research design uses both quantitative and qualitative research methods. It is used primarily to conduct quantitative research and gather data that is statistically easy to analyze. However, it can also provide qualitative data that helps describe and understand the research subject.

Descriptive research explores more than one variable. However, unlike experimental research, descriptive survey research design doesn’t allow control of variables. Instead, observational methods are used during research. Even though these variables can change and have an unexpected impact on an inquiry, they will give access to honest responses.

The descriptive research is conducted in a natural environment. This way, answers gathered from responses are more honest because the nature of the research does not influence them.

The data collected through descriptive research can be used to further explore the same or related subjects. Additionally, it can help develop the next line of research and the best method to use moving forward.

Descriptive survey example: When to use a descriptive research questionnaire?

Descriptive research design can be used for many purposes. It is mainly utilized to test a hypothesis, define the characteristics of a certain phenomenon, and examine the correlations between them.

Market research is one of the main fields in which descriptive methods are used to conduct studies. Here’s what can be done using this method:

Understanding the needs of customers and their desires is the key to a business’s success. By truly understanding these, it will be possible to offer exactly what customers need and prevent them from turning to competitors.

By using a descriptive survey, different customer characteristics—such as traits, opinions, or behavior patterns—can be determined. With this data, different customer types can be defined and profiles developed that focus on their interests and the behavior they exhibit. This information can be used to develop new products and services that will be successful.

Measuring data trends is extremely important. Explore the market and get valuable insights into how consumers’ interests change over time—as well as how the competition is performing in the marketplace.

Over time, the data gathered from a descriptive questionnaire can be subjected to statistical analysis. This will deliver valuable insights.

Another important aspect to consider is brand awareness. People need to know about your brand, and they need to have a positive opinion of it. The best way to discover their perception is to conduct a brand survey , which gives deeper insight into brand awareness, perception, identity, and customer loyalty .

When conducting survey descriptive research, there are a few basic steps that are needed for a survey to be successful:

• Define the research goals.
• Decide on the research method.
• Define the sample population.
• Design the questionnaire.
• Write specific questions.
• Distribute the questionnaire.
• Analyze the data .
• Make a survey report.

First of all, define the research goals. By setting up clear objectives, every other step can be worked through. This will result in the perfect descriptive questionnaire example and collect only valuable data.

Next, decide on the research method to use—in this case, the descriptive survey method. Then, define the sample population for (that is, the target audience). After that, think about the design itself and the questions that will be asked in the survey .

If you’re not sure where to start, we’ve got you covered. As free survey software, SurveyPlanet offers pre-made themes that are clean and eye-catching, as well as pre-made questions that will save you the trouble of making new ones.

Simply scroll through our library and choose a descriptive survey questionnaire sample that best suits your needs, though our user-friendly interface can help you create bespoke questions in a process that is easy and efficient.

With a survey in hand, it will then need to be delivered to the target audience. This is easy with our survey embedding feature, which allows for the linking of surveys on a website, via emails, or by sharing on social media.

When all the responses are gathered, it’s time to analyze them. Use SurveyPlanet to easily filter data and do cross-sectional analysis. Finally, just export the results and make a survey report.

Conducting descriptive survey research is the best way to gain a deeper knowledge of a topic of interest and develop a sound basis for further research. Sign up for a free SurveyPlanet account to start improving your business today!

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Descriptive Research: Definition, Methods & Examples

• August 19, 2021

Voxco’s Descriptive Research guide helps uncover the how, when, what, and where questions in a research problem

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When you are a store manager in a convenience store, and you have to make a report. Any finding such as which product is selling most, what time of the day you have the most crowd, or which product customers are demanding most, all these observations and reporting is descriptive research. 

It is often the first step of any research since the data you gather sets the stage for the research question. It is used to determine the problem you want to explore before fully realizing it. The information helps you identify the problem. 

In this blog, we’ll discuss the characteristics, types, pros & cons, and three ways to conduct this research type to help you in your next market research.

What is descriptive research?

Descriptive research refers to the research method that describes the characteristics of the variables you are studying. This methodology focuses on answering questions to the “WHAT” than the “WHY” of the research question. The primary focus of this research method is to describe the nature of the demographics understudy instead of focusing on the “why”.

It is called an observational research method as none of the variables in the study are influenced during the research process.

For example, let’s assume that a UK-based brand is trying to establish itself in New York and wants to understand the demographics of the buyers who generally purchase from brands similar to it. 

In descriptive research, the information gathered from the survey will only focus on the population’s demographics. It will uncover details on the buying patterns of different age cohorts in New York. It will not study why such patterns exist because the brand is trying to establish itself in New York. 

They want to understand the buying behavior of the population, not why such associations exist. It is a part of quantitative market research or social research study, which involves conducting survey research using quantitative variables on a market research software or social research software .

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See the true power of using an integrated survey platform to conduct online, offline, and phone surveys along with a built-in analytical suite.

What are the characteristics of descriptive research?

Among the many, the following are the main characteristics of this research type:

• Quantitative research
• Nature of variables
• Cross-sectional studies
• Directs future research

Let’s discuss these four characteristics in detail. 

1. Quantitative research:

It is quantitative as it attempts to collect and statistically analyze information. This research type is a powerful research tool that permits a researcher to collect data and describe the demographics of the same with the help of statistical analysis. Thus, it is a quantitative research method .

2. Nature of variables:

The variables included in this research are uncontrolled. They are not manipulated in any way. Descriptive research mostly uses observational methods; thus, the researcher cannot control the nature and behavior of the variables under study.

3. Cross-sectional studies:

In this research type, different sections of the same group are studied. For instance, in order to study the fashion preferences of New York, the researcher can study Gen Z as well as Millennials from the same population in New York.

4. Directs future research:

Since this research identifies the patterns between variables and describes them, researchers can further study the data collected here. It guides researchers to discover further why such patterns have been found and their association. Hence, it gives researchers a direction toward insightful market research.

What are the methods of conducting descriptive research?

Primarily, there are three descriptive research methods: 

• Observation,
• Survey, & 

We have explained how you can conduct this research type in three different ways. Each method helps gather descriptive data and sets the scene for thorough research.

1. Observational method

All research has some component of observation, this observation can be quantitative or qualitative. A quantitative observation includes objectively collecting data that is primarily in numerical form. 

The data collected should be related to or understood in terms of quantity.

Quantitative observations are analyzed with the help of survey analytics software . 

Examples of quantitative observations include observation of any variable related to a numerical value such as age, shape, weight, height, scale, etc.

For example, a researcher can understand a customer’s satisfaction with their recent purchases by asking them to rate their satisfaction on a Likert scale ranging from 1 (extremely unsatisfied) to 7 (extremely satisfied).

Qualitative observations monitor the characteristics of a phenomenon and do not involve numerical measurements.

Using this type of descriptive research, you can observe respondents in a naturalistic environment from a distance. Since the respondents are in a natural environment, the observed characteristics enrich and offer more insights. 

For instance, you can monitor and note down the observations of customers in a supermarket by observing their selection and purchasing patterns. This offers a detailed cognizance of the customer.

In any kind of research, you should ensure high survey response rates for improved quality of insights.  

2. Survey method

The survey method includes recording the answers of respondents through surveys or questionnaires. Surveys can include polls as well. They are the most common tool for collecting market research data. 

Surveys are generally used to collect feedback from the respondents. It should have a survey that taps into both open-ended and closed-ended questions .

The biggest advantage of the survey method is that it can be conducted using online or offline survey tools . One of the reasons why the survey method is the go-to option for descriptive research is that it entails the collection of large amounts of data in a limited span of time.

3. Case study method

The in-depth study of an individual or a group is known as a case study. Case studies usually lead to developing a hypothesis to explore a phenomenon further. Case studies are limited in their scope in that they don’t allow the researcher to make cause-effect conclusions or accurate predictions. 

This is because these associations could reflect the bias on the researchers’ part instead of a naturally occurring phenomenon. Another reason why case studies are limited in scope is that they could just be reflecting an atypical respondent in the survey. 

An atypical respondent refers to someone who is different from the average consumer, and if researchers make judgments about the entire target population based on this consumer, it can affect the external validity of the study.

[ Related read: Descriptive vs experimental research ]

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What are the types of descriptive research?

There are seven types of descriptive research based on when you conduct them and what type of data research you conduct. We have explained these seven types in brief with examples to help you better understand them.

1. Cross-sectional: 

A descriptive method of studying a particular section of the target population at a specific point in time. 

Example : Tracking the use of social media by Gen Z in the Netherlands. 

2. Longitudinal: 

This type of descriptive study is conducted for an extended period on a group of people. 

Example : Monitoring changes in the volume of cyber-bullying among Millenials from 2022 to 2024. 

3. Normative: 

In this descriptive method, we compare the result of a study with an existing norm. 

Example : Comparing legal verdicts in similar types of cases. 

4. Relational/Correlational:

We investigate the type of relationships (correlation) between two variables in this type of descriptive research. 

Example : Investigating the relationship between video games and mental health. 

5. Comparative: 

A descriptive study that compares two or more people, groups, or conditions based on a specific aspect. 

Example : Comparing the salary of two employees in similar job roles from two companies. 

6. Classification: 

This type of research arranges collected data into classes based on specific criteria to analyze them. 

Example : Classification of customers based on their buying behavior. 

7. Archival: 

A descriptive study where you search for past records and extract information.

Example : Tracking company’s sales data over the decade. 

We have been discussing the descriptive method with examples. So now let’s see how you can use this research type in a real-world application.

Guide to Descriptive Research

Learn the key steps of conducting descriptive research to uncover breakthrough insights into your target market.

Examples of Descriptive Research Under Market Research

This research type helps you gather the necessary information you need to understand the problem. It sets the scene to conduct further research. But how can you use this research method in the real world? 

We have explained its real-world application in three scenarios to help you determine where and where you want to use this research type. 

1. Sales Studies

You can use this research type to analyze the potential of the market, what is currently trending in the market, and which products may perform well in terms of sales. You can also study what circumstances influence the market shares and when they are likely to increase or decrease. 

This research type can help you gather the demographic data of the consumers.

2. Consumer Perception and Behavior Studies

You can use this research method to analyze what consumers think about the brand. You can evaluate their perceptions about the products sold by a particular brand and the uses of other competitive products. 

Using descriptive research, you can also analyze what advertising strategies have worked to increase the positive perceptions of the brand. You can assess consumers’ consumption behavior and how it is influenced by product pricing.

3. Market Characteristics Studies

Another way you can use this research method is by analyzing the distribution of the products in the market. You can gather contextual data on questions such as “which countries have more sales”, “which countries have fewer products but the product is sold out quickly” , etc. 

You can also analyze the brand management of competitors ; what strategy is working for them and what is not.

What are the applications of descriptive research?

This research method is used for a variety of reasons. Even after outlining survey goals, and survey designs as well as collecting information through surveys, there is no way of knowing whether or not the research you are conducting will meet the predictions that you have made. 

Here are some popular ways in which organizations use this research type:

1. Defining the characteristics of respondents

Since most descriptive research methods use close-ended questions for the collection of data, it helps in drawing objective conclusions about the respondents.

It helps in deriving patterns, traits, and behaviors of respondents. It also aims to understand respondents’ attitudes and opinions about certain phenomena.

For instance , researchers can understand how many hours young adults spend on the internet, their opinions about social media platforms, and how important they consider these platforms to be. This information will help the company make informed decisions regarding its products and brands. 

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2. Analyzing trends in data

You can use statistical data analysis to understand the trends in data over time. 

For instance, consider an apparel company that drops a new line of clothing; they may research how Gen Z and Millennials react to the new launch. If they discover that the new range of clothes has worked effectively for one group (Gen Z) but not the other, the company may stop producing clothes for the other group.

Leverage a data analysis platform that allows you to conduct advanced statistical analysis and offers a data analytics dashboard to track real-time data.

3. Comparing different groups

Something closely knit to the previous point is also comparing different groups of customers based on their demographics. With descriptive research, you can study how different groups of people respond to specific services offered by a company. 

For instance , what is the influence of income, age, gender, income, etc. influence the spending behaviors of consumers?

This research method helps companies understand what they should do to increase their brand appeal in different groups of the population. 

4. Validating existing patterns of respondents

Since it is non-invasive and makes use of quantitative data (mostly), you can make observations about why the current patterns of purchasing exist in customers. 

You can also use the findings as the basis of a more in-depth study in the future. 

5. Conducting research at different times

Descriptive research can be conducted at different periods of time in order to see whether the patterns are similar or dissimilar at different points in time. You can also replicate the studies to verify the findings of the original study to draw accurate conclusions.

6. Finding correlations among variables

This method is also used to draw correlations between variables and the degree of association between the variables. 

For instance, if the focus is on men’s age and expenditure. 

There is a possibility of finding a negative correlation between the two variables, indicating that as the age of men increases, the less they spend on sports products.

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Descriptive research Examples

A descriptive method of research aims to gather answers for how, what, when, and where. 

Let’s use some examples to understand how a descriptive method of research is used. 

Before investing in housing at any location, you would want to conduct your own research to understand 

• How is the market changing?
• When or at what time of year is it changing?
• Where would you make more profit?

This type of research is an example of a descriptive study. 

A company studies the behavior of its customers to identify its target market before it launches a new product. This is another use case of how brands use descriptive research. 

The company may conduct this research by observing the customer’s reaction and behavior toward a competitor’s product. 

Or, they can also conduct surveys to ask customer opinions on the new product by the company before its launch. 

A restaurant planning to open a branch in a new locality will research to understand the behavior of the people living there. They will survey the people to know their choice of flavor, taste, foods, drinks, and more. 

Now that we’ve seen how you can use this research method for your research purpose, let’s also see the advantages & disadvantages of the research.

What Are the Advantages of Descriptive Research?

It is the preliminary research method. Most researchers use this method to discover the problem they should prioritize. Before diving into the experiments, let’s see some of the reasons why you should be conducting this research. 

1. Primary data collection

In this type of descriptive research, the data is collected through primary data collection methods such as case studies, observational methods, and surveys. This kind of data collection provides us with rich information and can be used for future research as well. It can also be used for developing hypotheses or your research objective.

2. Multiple data collection

Descriptive research can also be conducted by collecting qualitative or quantitative data . Hence, it is more varied, flexible, and diverse and tends to be thorough and elaborate.

[ Related read: Data Collection: All you need to know! ]

3. Observational behavior 

The observational method of this research allows researchers to observe the respondent’s behavior in natural settings. This also ensures that the data collected is high in quality and honest.

4. Cost-effective

It is cost-effective and the data collection of this research can be done quickly. You can conduct descriptive research using an all-in-one solution such as Voxco. Leverage a platform that gives you the capability of the best market research software to conduct customer, product, and brand research.

What Are the Disadvantages of Descriptive Research?

Descriptive research also has some disadvantages. Let’s learn about these cons so you can wisely decide when you should use this research to keep the disadvantages to a minimum. 

1. Misleading information

Respondents can give misleading or incorrect responses if they feel that the questions are assessing intimate matters. Respondents can also be affected by the observer’s presence and may engage in pretending. This is known as the observer effect.

2. Biases in studies

The researchers’ own opinions of biases may affect the results of the study. This is known as the experimenter effect.

3. Representative issue 

There is also the problem of data representativeness. It occurs when a case study or the data of a small sample does not adequately represent the whole population.

4. Limited scope

Descriptive research has limited scope, wherein it only analyzes the “what” of research, it does not evaluate the “why” or “how” questions of research.

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Wrapping up;

So that sums up our descriptive research guide. It is a wide concept that demands a conceptual framework for descriptive design and a thorough understanding of descriptive survey design . 

Naturally, it becomes essential that you adopt online survey tools that facilitates all of the above and provides ample room for insightful research.  

Voxco’s omnichannel survey software allows you to create interactive surveys, deploy them across multiple channels, and conduct data analysis in one platform.

This research method enables you to explain and describe the characteristics of a target population. The descriptive research method helps you uncover deeper insights into various aspects of the target population, such as who, what, when, where, and how. 

There are many data collection methods you can use to collect descriptive research data. For example, you can perform the research via surveys (online, phone, or offline), case studies, observations, and archival research.

Here are some key characteristics of this research methodology: 

This research type helps you describe the characteristics, behavior, opinions, and perspectives of the population or research subject. 

The data gathered from descriptive research is a reliable and comprehensive source of explanation of the research subject. 

In this methodology, the researcher focuses on observing and reporting on the natural relationship between the variables. There is no manipulation of variables or establishing a cause-and-effect relationship.

Descriptive research offers many advantages. 

Descriptive research methods are simple and easy to design and conduct. You don’t need research expertise for this research design in comparison to conducting more complex research. 

This research method is more cost-effective than other research methodologies, particularly experimental research designs. 

The descriptive research method enables you to collect qualitative and quantitative data. The research data helps extract valuable insights and supports further root-cause analysis.

Descriptive research methodology also has some limitations, here are some of those: 

Descriptive research data may generate insights specific to a population under study. This limits your ability to generalize the results to a wider population, which makes the data less representative. 

The data collection approaches and observation biases can lead to bias in the research method, which can negatively impact the accuracy and reliability of the research findings.

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Examining characteristics of descriptive phenomenological nursing studies: A scoping review

Shefaly shorey.

1 Alice Lee Centre for Nursing Studies, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore

Esperanza Debby Ng

Associated data.

Data available in article supplementary material

To evaluate the characteristics and methodology consistency in nursing research with descriptive phenomenological design.

Scoping review methodology.

Data sources

Three electronic databases (CINAHL, Embase, PubMed) were systematically searched for qualitative studies with a descriptive phenomenological design published in nursing journals between January 2021 and December 2021.

Review methods

Quality appraisal of each study was conducted using the Critical Appraisal Skills Programme checklist. Data were extracted and presented narratively based on research objective, design justification and consistency, theoretical framework, sampling method and sample size, data collection method, data analysis approach and presentation of findings.

One hundred and three studies were included in the review. Overall, the characteristics of the studies are mostly consistent with Husserl's phenomenology approach in terms of research objectives, the use of other theoretical frameworks, sampling and data collection methods. However, the findings revealed several inconsistencies between research design and data analysis techniques, the lack of design justification and the lack of mention of bracketing.

Conclusions

Apart from the need for more research and standardized guidelines to clarify the various qualitative research methods, future nurse researchers are urged to provide more methodological details when publishing a descriptive phenomenological study so that readers can examine the effectiveness and quality of the method.

What problem did the study address?

Descriptive phenomenology is increasingly used in nursing research to answer ‘what’ and ‘how’ questions in nursing science, but it is uncertain whether nurse researchers who practice descriptive phenomenology share the same understanding of the research design used.

What were the main findings?

The methodology of nursing studies published in 2021 that self‐report a descriptive phenomenology design is mostly consistent with Husserl's described approach apart from several inconsistencies between research design and data analysis techniques, the lack of design justification and the lack of mention of bracketing.

Where and on whom will the research have an impact?

Nurse researchers are recommended to justify their research design used, provide more methodological details, including bracketing process when publishing a descriptive phenomenology study. Nursing research institutions are urged to update, clarify and standardized research guidelines for different qualitative research methods.

1. INTRODUCTION

Qualitative research methods have been receiving increasing recognition in healthcare and nursing research, as it seeks to understand a natural phenomenon through the emphasis on the meaning, views and experiences of participants (Al‐Busaidi,  2008 ). As nurse researchers strive to develop knowledge that embraces the ideals of holistic nursing, it is essential for nurse researchers to understand human experiences in health and illness and explore the needs of both nurses, patients and other stakeholders (Wojnar & Swanson,  2007 ). Learning from the experiences of others allows nurse researchers to glean insights about a particular phenomenon and maximizes the effectiveness of feedback and workplace learning (Neubauer et al.,  2019 ). In recent decades, ‘phenomenology’ has become a frequently used term in nursing research and phenomenology has become a key guiding philosophy in generating nursing‐related knowledge (Koivisto et al.,  2002 ; Moi & Gjengedal,  2008 ; Woodgate et al.,  2008 ). The phenomenological method, which emphasizes on lived experiences, has been deemed the closest fit conceptually to clinical nursing research as it provides a new way to interpret the nature of individual's consciousness and is commonly used to answer ‘what’ and ‘how’ questions in nursing science (Beck,  1994 ; Lopez & Willis,  2004 ; Neubauer et al.,  2019 ).

1.1. Background

Phenomenology is rooted in the philosophical tradition developed by Edmund Husserl in the early 20th century which was later expanded on by his followers at the universities in Germany and subsequently spread to the rest of the world (Zahavi,  2003 ). Husserl's ideas about how science should be conducted resulted in the development of a descriptive phenomenological inquiry method (Cohen,  1987 ), which is aligned with the naturalism doctrine that denies a strong separation between scientific and philosophical methodologies and rejects logical positivism's focus on objective observations of external reality (Freeman,  2021 ; Neubauer et al.,  2019 ). However, Husserl's concept of phenomenology has been criticized by other existentialists and philosophers, resulting in a variation of phenomenology types, such as the more renowned Heidegger's ( 1988 ) transcendental hermeneutic phenomenology and Maurice Merleau‐Ponty's ( 1965 ) embodied phenomenology.

Husserl argued that the focus of a study should be the phenomenon perceived by the individual's consciousness and that consciousness was central to all human experience. Husserl posits that the events or life situations that humans live through are held within one's consciousness prereflectively and that humans are able to reflect, discover and access this consciousness, thus bringing forward one's lifeworld or lived experience (Willis et al.,  2016 ). The common features of lived experiences of people who underwent the same event or life situation are labelled as universal essences or eidetic structures (Lopez & Willis,  2004 ). Therefore, the goal of descriptive phenomenology is to describe the universal essence of an experience as lived, which represents the true nature of the phenomenon (Lopez & Willis,  2004 ; Willis et al.,  2016 ).

Since the description of an individual's direct lived experience is central to Husserl's phenomenology, Husserl maintained that no assumptions, a priori scientific or philosophical theory, empirical science, deductive logic procedures should inform the phenomenology's inquiry (Lopez & Willis,  2004 ; Moran,  2002 ). Another tenet of Husserl's phenomenology is that humans are ‘free agents’ uninfluenced by the social and cultural environment they lived in, and thus nurse researchers should not pay attention to the socio‐cultural contexts of people being studied (Lopez & Willis,  2004 ; Matua & Van Der Wal,  2015 ; Wojnar & Swanson,  2007 ).

In descriptive phenomenology, the researcher's goal is to achieve transcendental subjectivity, described as a state where ‘the impact of the researcher on the inquiry is constantly assessed and biases and preconceptions neutralized, so that they do not influence the object of study’ (Lopez & Willis,  2004 ). This state can be achieved through phenomenological reduction that is facilitated by epoche (the process of bracketing). Bracketing requires researchers to hold off one's ideas in abeyance or bracket off assumptions, past knowledge and understanding of a phenomenon (Ashworth,  1996 ). Various types of bracketing have been mentioned in Gearing's ( 2004 ) study, such as ideal, descriptive, existential, analytic, reflexive and pragmatic bracketing. In order to bracket off biases and preconceived notions, some researchers even suggested not conducting a literature review before the initiation of the study and not having specific research questions that could potentially be leading (Speziale & Carpenter,  2011 ). The specific process to analyse collected data varies across researchers, with the most commonly used method being Colaizzi's ( 1978 ) and Giorg’s (2003) phenomenological analysis. Colaizzi's seven‐step approach include familiarization, identifying significant statements, formulating meanings, clustering themes, developing an exhaustive description and seeking verification of the fundamental structure (Morrow et al.,  2015 ), whereas Giorgi's five‐step approach include contemplative dwelling on descriptions, identifying meaning units, identifying focal meaning, synthesize situated structural descriptions and synthesize a general structural description (Aldiabat et al.,  2021 ; Giorgi & Giorgi,  2003 ; Russell & Aquino‐Russell,  2011 ).

An issue with many qualitative studies is the lack of relationship between the methodology used and the philosophical underpinnings that are supposed to guide the process (Lopez & Willis,  2004 ; Stubblefield & Murray,  2002 ). Previous research has tried to distinguish the types of qualitative research methods by drawing theoretical and methodological comparisons between qualitative description, interpretive phenomenology, descriptive phenomenology and hermeneutic phenomenology (Lopez & Willis,  2004 ; Matua & Van Der Wal,  2015 ; Neubauer et al.,  2019 ; Reiners,  2012 ; Willis et al.,  2016 ; Wojnar & Swanson,  2007 ). While valuable, it is uncertain whether researchers who practice descriptive phenomenology share the same understanding of the research design used. Therefore, it is imperative to consolidate an updated overview and evaluate the methodological consistency of peer‐reviewed studies that claimed to have used a descriptive phenomenological approach in the nursing context. Such reviews have been done for descriptive qualitative studies (Kim et al.,  2017 ) and phenomenological studies in the nursing context (Beck,  1994 ; Norlyk & Harder,  2010 ) where methodological approaches are compared across nursing studies with the same research design. Given the constant evolution of phenomenological methods and the increasing interest in nursing research, this review aims to consolidate updated evidence and comprehensively map the characteristics and methodology used in nursing research with descriptive phenomenological design to improve standardization and inform future nursing methodological research.

2. THE REVIEW

The aim of this review was to provide an overview and to evaluate the characteristics and methodology consistency in nursing research with descriptive phenomenological design.

2.2. Design

A scoping review was conducted to identify and map all relevant evidence on the use of descriptive phenomenological design in nursing research. A scoping review design was deemed the most appropriate as it aims to ‘map the literature on a particular topic or research area and provide an opportunity to identify key concepts; gaps in the research and types and sources of evidence to inform practice, policymaking and research’ (Daudt et al.,  2013 ). This review was guided by Arksey and O′Malley's ( 2005 ) five‐stage framework: identifying the research question, identifying relevant studies, study selection, charting the data and collating, summarizing and reporting the results. This review is reported in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta‐Analyses (PRISMA) Extension for Scoping Reviews (Tricco et al.,  2018 ). There is no registered protocol.

2.3. Search methods

In January 2022, three electronic databases (CINAHL, Embase and Pubmed) were searched for qualitative studies with a descriptive phenomenological design published between January 2021 and December 2021 in nursing journals. Given a large number of qualitative studies, we have narrowed the search to the most recent year, 2021, to include more updated and relevant research articles. Based on a research analytics tool, the 2021 Journal Citation Reports Science Edition (Clarivate Analytics, 2021 ), 181 journals were identified under the nursing category. In addition to the journal titles, search terms generated were derived from the concept ‘descriptive phenomenological’. The sample search strategy for PubMed is available in Material S1 and the representation of nursing journals indexed in each database is available in Material S2 .

Studies were included if they (i) explicitly mentioned using a descriptive phenomenological study design or analysis in the main text, (ii) published in 2021, (iii) published in the English language and (iv) published in one of the 181 nursing journals. Studies were excluded if they (i) were not of qualitative nature, or (ii) explicitly stated the use of an interpretive or hermeneutical phenomenological approach or other qualitative design. Ambiguous studies that have ‘descriptive qualitative phenomenological’ designs or ‘descriptive qualitative grounded in phenomenological approach’ were included. Online preprints that were available as of 31 December 2021 were included. Quantitative studies, reviews, pilot studies, protocols, editorials and conference abstracts were excluded.

2.4. Study selection

References and citations from the database search were exported into a reference management software, EndNote X9 (Clarivate Analytics), where duplicates were removed. Article titles and abstracts were then screened for relevance by two reviewers independently. The full texts of shortlisted articles were downloaded and assessed for eligibility against the inclusion and exclusion criteria by two reviewers. The interrater agreement was approximately 96% and any inconsistencies were resolved through discussions between both reviewers until a mutual consensus is reached

2.5. Quality appraisal

Quality appraisal of the finalized studies was conducted by two reviewers independently using the Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (CASP) qualitative checklist (CASP, 2019 ). The CASP tool is a generic and most used tool for quality appraisal in social and healthcare‐related qualitative evidence syntheses and is also endorsed by Cochrane and World Health Organization (Long et al.,  2020 ). Therefore, the CASP tool was chosen to appraise the rigour of the qualitative studies included in this study. The CASP tool consists of 10 main questions and several subquestions that examine the clarity and appropriateness of the study aim, research design (sampling, data collection, data analysis), and the presentation of results. As the CASP was used to gauge the overall rigour of included studies, no studies were excluded based on the CASP results.

2.6. Charting the data

A tabular data extraction form was created using Microsoft Excel with reference to a previous study (Kim et al.,  2017 ). The following data were extracted from each study: First author name, country of origin, research objective, design justification and consistency, theoretical framework, sampling method and sample size, data collection method, data analysis approach and presentation of findings. Data extraction was performed by one reviewer and cross‐checked with the second reviewer. Inconsistencies were resolved through discussion until a consensus is reached.

2.7. Collating, summarizing and reporting the results

The characteristics of the included studies are summarized in frequencies and percentages. Methodological consistency within and between studies and unique features observed from the extracted data will be discussed narratively. Extracted data from each study are presented in Table S1. Ethical approval and informed consent were not sought as no participants were recruited for this study. Given a large number of included studies, the references are provided in Material S3 .

3.1. Search outcomes

The initial search yielded 335 articles. After removal of duplicates, titles and abstracts of 154 articles were screened for relevance, and 124 full‐text articles were shortlisted and assessed for eligibility, resulting in 103 finalized articles being included in the study. The PRISMA diagram summarizing the screening process is found in Figure  1 .

PRISMA flow diagram

3.2. Characteristics of included studies

Of the 103 studies, the majority was conducted in Asia ( n  = 51, 50%), and North America ( n  = 27, 25%), followed by Europe ( n  = 15, 15%), Africa ( n  = 6, 6%), Oceania (i.e. Australia) ( n  = 3, 3%) and South America ( n  = 1, 1%). Six of the studies were post‐intervention studies (Ingersgaard et al.,  2021 ; Jensen et al.,  2021 ; Jerntorp et al.,  2021 ; Macapagal et al.,  2021 ; Mathews & Anderson,  2021 ; Schumacher et al.,  2021 ) and one was a part of a larger mix‐methods study (Mohaupt et al.,  2021 ).

3.3. Quality appraisal

All studies had a clear statement of research aims, but only 65 studies (63.1%) justified the use of a descriptive phenomenological research design and 78 (75.7%) studies elaborated on the participant selection process in addition to stating the sampling method and participant eligibility criteria. Although all studies clearly stated how data were collected, 74 (71.8%) did not justify the method chosen, and only 77 (74.8%) studies discussed data saturation. The examination of the relationship between researcher and participants for potential bias and influence was reported in 63 (61.2%) studies. Ethics approval was explicitly stated in 101 (98.1%) studies and 92 (89.3%) provided a detailed description of the data analysis process. All studies reported a clear statement of findings, but only 85 (82.5%) discussed the credibility, rigour or trustworthiness of their findings. The quality appraisal for each study is presented in Material S4 , whereas a summary of the quality appraisal is available in Table  1 .

Overall frequency of CASP scoring ( N  = 103)

3.4. Research objective

Across all 103 studies, the most used verbs in research objectives or aims were “explore” ( n  = 66, 64%), “describe” ( n  = 14, 14%), “understand” ( n  = 12, 12%) and “investigate” ( n  = 10, 10%). Lesser used verbs include “assess”, “determine”, “examine”, “explain”, “highlight” and “illuminate”. Most studies focused on more generic “experiences” ( n  = 44, 43%), or “lived experiences ( n  = 36, 35%), whereas a few others looked at “perceptions”, “coping strategies”, “meaning”, “challenges”, “perspectives”, “motivations”, “needs”, “impact”, “behaviour”, “practices” and “factors” related to a certain phenomenon (e.g. Covid‐19, online learning, caregiving) ( n  = 89, 86%) or nursing interventions and practices ( n  = 6, 6%).

3.5. Research design

Out of 103 studies, 81 (79%) studies explicitly mentioned using a ‘descriptive phenomenological’ research design or approach. Four studies reported a generic phenomenological research design but used a descriptive phenomenological data analysis technique (Ghorbani et al.,  2021 ; HeydariKhayat et al.,  2021 ; Luo et al.,  2021 ; Sun et al.,  2021 ). Ten studies reported being a descriptive, qualitative, or descriptive qualitative study ‘with’ or ‘grounded in’ a phenomenological approach. Although seven studies reported adopting a qualitative or descriptive qualitative approach, they proceeded to describe a descriptive phenomenological data analysis technique by Giorgi, Colaizzi or Sundler (Al Gilani et al.,  2021 ; Macapagal et al.,  2021 ; Nuuyoma & Makhene,  2021 ; Olander et al.,  2021 ; Othman et al.,  2021 ; Ratnawati & Rizaldi,  2021 ; Sundler et al., 2021 ). However, one study (George et al.,  2021 ) used a ‘phenomenological approach with descriptive thematic analysis’ without providing references.

Although 58 nurse researchers provided a reference to justify the use of their stated research design, 64 researchers described the rationale behind their choice of research design. The length of rationale descriptions ranged from one‐liner to a full paragraph, with the gist of it being able to explore the essence of the lived experience of a specific phenomenon, especially when little is known about the phenomenon.

3.6. Theoretical framework

Nine studies had other theoretical underpinnings that are unrelated to the descriptive phenomenological design. Woodley et al. ( 2021 ) used Choi's Theory of Cultural Marginality in the conceptualization of the study's purpose and research question. Jensen et al. ( 2021 ) used the stress‐vulnerability model and transtheoretical model of change as a basis for the development of an intervention. Corcoran et al. ( 2021 ) used Benner's Novice to Expert theory to determine the inclusion criteria of the study. Two studies used Lawrence Green's Behaviour Causes theory (Ratnawati & Rizaldi,  2021 ) and the Disablement Process model to develop interview guides (Seyman & Ozcetin,  2021 ), and six studies related their findings to theoretical frameworks (continuity theory, Carper's ways of knowing theory, symptom management theory, Khantzian's self‐medication hypothesis, Habermas' system and lifeworld, theory of communicative action, behaviour causes theory, disablement process model) in the discussion section (Aldiabat et al.,  2021 ; Carrasco,  2021 ; Ghelani,  2021 ; Ratnawati & Rizaldi,  2021 ; Ravn Jakobsen et al.,  2021 ; Seyman & Ozcetin,  2021 ).

However, Seyman and Ozcetin ( 2021 ) stated that the theoretical framework ‘guided the data analysis procedure’ and ‘helped in the construction of themes and subthemes’, which may be problematic from a descriptive phenomenology standpoint. Only Ghelani ( 2021 ) provided a disclaimer that ‘preconceptions were minimized in the study design through asking open‐ended questions and using dispassionate probes which did not reflect researcher assumptions’.

3.7. Sampling

In 57 out of 103 studies (55%), researchers mentioned using a ‘purposive sampling’ method. Other researchers used snowball sampling ( n  = 5, 5%), convenience sampling ( n  = 5, 5%), criterion sampling ( n  = 3, 3%), maximum variation sampling ( n  = 2, 2%), or a combination of various sampling methods (purposive and snowball, n  = 14, 14%; purposive and criterion, n  = 1, 1%; purposive and convenience, n  = 1, 1%, purposive and systematic random sampling, n  = 1, 1%, purposive and maximum variation, n  = 1, 1%, referral sampling, n  = 1, 1%). Twelve studies did not explicitly state the sampling method used.

Overall, sample size ranged from four to 62, where focus group studies had a larger sample size range of 15–62, and studies with individual data collection methods had a sample size range of four to 43. Participant recruitment till data saturation was discussed in 77 studies.

3.8. Data collection

Data collection was primarily done through individual interviews ( n  = 89, 86%), where most were semi‐structured ( n  = 72, 70%) and some were open‐ended ( n  = 6, 6%), or unstructured ( n  = 6, 6%) interviews. The interview duration ranged from 15 to 153 min across 64 studies that reported them. Individual interviews were mainly conducted face‐to‐face ( n  = 49, 48%), through telephone calls ( n  = 9, 9%), online means ( n  = 4, 4%) or a combination of the above ( n  = 7, 7%). Twenty studies did not specify the mode of interview. Eight studies conducted focus groups which lasted between 60 and 150 min. Two focus groups were conducted face‐to‐face, two were conducted online, and four studies did not specify. Three studies had multiple data collection methods such as a combination of individual and dyadic interviews (Olander et al.,  2021 ), or individual interviews and focus groups (Mathews & Anderson,  2021 ; Othman et al.,  2021 ). Other online data collection methods included open‐ended questionnaires (Vignato et al.,  2021 ), written narrative reflective inquiry (Schuler et al.,  2021 ), written complaints documented in a report (Sundler et al., 2021 ), written descriptions and illustrative examples (Aldiabat et al.,  2021 ) sent through email.

3.9. Data analysis

For data analysis, studies often adopted Colaizzi's ( 1978 ) seven‐step phenomenological approach ( n  = 55, 53%) or Giorgi and Giorgi's ( 2003 ) five‐step phenomenological approach ( n  = 14, 14%). However, one study used a modified Colaizzi's approach (Walker et al.,  2021 ). Another study only followed four out of Giorgi's five‐step approach as its ‘overall aim was not to discover the structure of a phenomenon’ (von Essen,  2021 ). Hycner's and Moustaka's phenomenological methods were used in two studies (Makgahlela et al.,  2021 ; Rygg et al.,  2021 ). Thematic analysis procedures especially by Braun and Clark (2006), Sundler et al. ( 2019 ), Spielberg ( 1975 ) were also commonly used ( n  = 16, 16%). Other data analytical procedures used were content analysis ( n  = 3, 3%), constant comparative method ( n  = 3, 3%), framework analysis/approach ( n  = 2, 2%), discourse analysis ( n  = 1, 1%), Tsech's protocol of data analysis ( n  = 1, 1%) and Maltreud's ( 2012 ) systematic text condensation ( n  = 1, 1%). Only one study did not disclose their analysis strategy, but the data analysis process was detailed (Yildirim,  2021 ). Interpretive phenomenological approaches were described in two studies despite them stating having a descriptive phenomenological research design (Arikan Dönmez et al.,  2021 ; Kurevakwesu,  2021 ).

Bracketing or reflexivity was taken into consideration only in 47 (46%) studies, mainly through reflective journaling or taking field notes. The process of ensuring the trustworthiness and credibility of research findings was described in 82 (80%) studies.

3.10. Presentation of findings

The research findings from all studies were presented in themes and subthemes accompanied with verbatim texts. The findings were described extensively and were consistent with their research objectives.

4. DISCUSSION

This review examined the characteristics and methodology consistency in nursing research with descriptive phenomenological design through the articles published in nursing journals between January 2021 and December 2021. The consolidation of studies revealed that most studies have characteristics that adhered to key features of the Husserlian phenomenology approach. However, inconsistencies between the stated research design and data analysis technique were observed in several studies.

4.1. Consistency of characteristics with descriptive phenomenology

In general, most studies adhered to the goal of descriptive phenomenological research, to ‘explore’ and ‘describe’ the generic ‘lived experiences’ of participants, answering to the ‘what’ and ‘how’ of a phenomenon of interest (Beck,  1994 ; Lopez & Willis,  2004 ). The term ‘lived experience’ remains unique to phenomenological studies and it is recommended for researchers to use this term in their research objective.

The majority of included studies did not report the use of another theoretical framework, adhering to Husserl's stance that no a priori theoretical or phenomenological framework should inform the phenomenological inquiry (Lopez & Willis,  2004 ). A few studies reported using other theories to guide their research methodology (i.e. inclusion criteria, interview guide, data analysis) or simply discuss their findings in relation to the theory. According to Husserl, the use of other theories to translate findings into accessible disciplinary knowledge is possible, however, these theories must be bracketed during the interview process (Willis et al.,  2016 ). The bracketing of preconceptions derived from other theories was only reported by Ghelani ( 2021 ).

Most studies used a purposive sampling technique which was lauded by descriptive phenomenology researchers as it is crucial to select participants who have had rich experiences related to the phenomenon of interest and have the cognitive capacity and ability to self‐reflect and express oneself adequately either written or verbally (Groenewald,  2018 ; Kruger & Stones,  1981 ; Willis et al.,  2016 ).

In this review, the sample size of included studies ranged from four to 62. Interestingly, there are no specific guidelines for sample size in descriptive phenomenological research yet. Creswell and Miller ( 2000 ) recommended between five and 25 participants for a phenomenological study, whereas Giorgi and Giorgi ( 2008 ) recommended at least three participants. Since the aim of a descriptive phenomenological approach is to explore in‐depth individual lived experiences of a phenomenon, the sample size should be determined by the quality and completeness of the information provided instead of the number of participants (Malterud et al.,  2016 ; Todres,  2005 ). Therefore, sampling should continue until data saturation is reached, which was what 70% of the included studies had reported.

Phenomenological interviews either individually or in focus groups are the most common data collection method reported in 95% of included studies. In descriptive phenomenology, although face‐to‐face interview is preferred to elicit ‘rich first‐person accounts of experience’, various data collection tools such as written narrative, online interviews, research diaries, open‐ended interviews or open‐ended questionnaires can also be used (Elliott & Timulak,  2005 ; Marshall & Rossman,  2014 ; Morrow et al.,  2015 ). Therefore, there is no specific guideline for the type of data collection method used.

In terms of data analysis, 73% of the studies adhered to established descriptive phenomenological approaches by Colaizzi ( 1978 ), Giorgi and Giorgi ( 2003 ), Moustakas (Moustakas,  1994 ) or Hycner (Groenewald,  2018 ; Hycner,  1985 ). The thematic analysis procedure for general qualitative studies by Braun and Clarke ( 2006 ), or more recently for descriptive phenomenological studies, by Sundler et al. ( 2019 ), was second most popular. Further research is needed to validate the appropriateness of other analytical methods such as discourse analysis and framework analysis in the context of descriptive phenomenology. The downside of not using a descriptive‐phenomenology‐specific analytical approach is the potential to neglect phenomenological reduction or bracketing, which is a key feature in descriptive phenomenology research. Startlingly, only less than half of the included studies reported bracketing. Although Merleau‐Ponty ( 1965 ) argued that a complete reduction or ‘pure’ bracketing can never be fully completed, it is still a necessary and important step to enhance rigour and to enable researchers to look beyond one's preconceptions and tap directly into the essence of a phenomenon (Matua & Van Der Wal,  2015 ).

4.2. Inconsistency in research design and analysis

Although most of the included studies explicitly stated having a descriptive phenomenological design, some studies provided vague statements with undertones of other qualitative designs, such as ‘descriptive qualitative study grounded in phenomenological approach’. Apart from the lack of clarity in the stated research design, some studies that reported using a descriptive phenomenology design ended up using an interpretive phenomenological analysis, discourse analysis or framework analysis, which are not congruent to a descriptive phenomenological design. Conversely, some studies reported having a descriptive qualitative research design but adopted Giorgi's or Colaizzi's descriptive phenomenological analysis method. These inconsistencies highlighted the confusion and potential knowledge gap of nurse researchers in utilizing a descriptive phenomenological approach, which necessitates more updated research and clear guidelines for descriptive phenomenological and qualitative studies in the nursing context.

Additionally, the justification of why a descriptive phenomenological approach was appropriate was lacking in half of the included studies. It is crucial for researchers to clarify and justify their choice of approach especially when examining participants' experiences, as this can easily be addressed with other qualitative approaches as well. The justification of research design and methodology could also enhance the rigour of the study as it allows others to evaluate for the choice for internal consistency, provides transparency of choices and context to the findings (Carter & Little,  2007 ).

A summary of practical implications to promote a standardized reporting of descriptive phenomenological method in nursing research is presented in Table  2 .

Summary of practical implications on the use of descriptive phenomenology method

4.3. Limitations

Although this review was able to provide an updated overview of descriptive phenomenological methodology in nursing studies, a few limitations exist. First, the narrow inclusion of only studies written in English, the small number of databases searched and the identification of nursing journals through a research analytics tool might have limited potentially relevant nursing studies. Second, a single year limit was used due to overwhelming number of studies and to gather more updated evidence, but this may result in the omission of previous relevant studies and limit the transferability of the findings. Additionally, there was uncertainty in the inclusion of studies that were inferred as descriptive phenomenology based on the research description or data analytical methods, which may have affected the results. Lastly, our findings are highly reliant on what is reported in the published studies, therefore, the methodological data available may be limited by word limits, or specific journal specifications, leaving out certain characteristics that could affect our CASP appraisal.

5. CONCLUSION

This review examined the characteristics and methodological consistencies of descriptive phenomenological nursing studies published in the year 2021. Overall, the characteristics of the studies are mostly consistent with Husserl's phenomenology approach in terms of research objectives, the use of other theoretical frameworks, sampling and data collection methods. However, the findings revealed several inconsistencies between research design and data analysis techniques, the lack of design justification and the lack of mention of bracketing. Apart from the need for more research and standardized guidelines to clarify the various qualitative research methods, future nurse researchers are urged to provide more methodological details when publishing a descriptive phenomenological study, so that readers can examine the appropriateness of the method. We hope this scoping review will pave a path for more conscientious planning, conducting and reporting and in turn better understanding among nurse researchers while adopting a descriptive phenomenology research design.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

Author contributions.

Shefaly Shorey was involved in conceptualization, methodology and writing—reviewing and editing of the manuscript. Esperanza Debby Ng carried out investigation, data curation and writing—original draft of the manuscript.

PEER REVIEW

The peer review history for this article is available at https://publons.com/publon/10.1111/jan.15244 .

Supporting information

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Descriptive Research Design

Descriptive research design is a scientific method which involves observing and describing the behavior of a subject without influencing it in any way.

This article is a part of the guide:

• Research Designs
• Quantitative and Qualitative Research
• Literature Review
• Quantitative Research Design

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• 1 Research Designs
• 2.1 Pilot Study
• 2.2 Quantitative Research Design
• 2.3 Qualitative Research Design
• 2.4 Quantitative and Qualitative Research
• 3.1 Case Study
• 3.2 Naturalistic Observation
• 3.3 Survey Research Design
• 3.4 Observational Study
• 4.1 Case-Control Study
• 4.2 Cohort Study
• 4.3 Longitudinal Study
• 4.4 Cross Sectional Study
• 4.5 Correlational Study
• 5.1 Field Experiments
• 5.2 Quasi-Experimental Design
• 5.3 Identical Twins Study
• 6.1 Experimental Design
• 6.2 True Experimental Design
• 6.3 Double Blind Experiment
• 6.4 Factorial Design
• 7.1 Literature Review
• 7.2 Systematic Reviews
• 7.3 Meta Analysis

Many scientific disciplines, especially social science and psychology, use this method to obtain a general overview of the subject.

Some subjects cannot be observed in any other way; for example, a social case study of an individual subject is a descriptive research design and allows observation without affecting normal behavior.

It is also useful where it is not possible to test and measure the large number of samples needed for more quantitative types of experimentation .

These types of experiments are often used by anthropologists, psychologists and social scientists to observe natural behaviors without affecting them in any way. It is also used by market researchers to judge the habits of customers, or by companies wishing to judge the morale of staff.

The results from a descriptive research can in no way be used as a definitive answer or to disprove a hypothesis but, if the limitations are understood, they can still be a useful tool in many areas of scientific research.

The subject is being observed in a completely natural and unchanged natural environment. A good example of this would be an anthropologist who wanted to study a tribe without affecting their normal behavior in any way. True experiments , whilst giving analyzable data, often adversely influence the normal behavior of the subject.

Descriptive research is often used as a pre-cursor to quantitative research designs, the general overview giving some valuable pointers as to what variables are worth testing quantitatively. Quantitative experiments are often expensive and time-consuming so it is often good sense to get an idea of what hypotheses are worth testing .

Disadvantages

Because there are no variables manipulated , there is no way to statistically analyze the results. Many scientists regard this type of study as very unreliable and ‘unscientific’.

In addition, the results of observational studies are not repeatable , and so there can be no replication of the experiment and reviewing of the results.

Descriptive research design is a valid method for researching specific subjects and as a precursor to more quantitative studies. Whilst there are some valid concerns about the statistical validity , as long as the limitations are understood by the researcher, this type of study is an invaluable scientific tool.

Whilst the results are always open to question and to different interpretations, there is no doubt that they are preferable to performing no research at all.

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Descriptive Correlational Design in Research

Looking for descriptive correlational design definition and meaning? This research paper example explains all the details of this quantitative research method.

Introduction

Why use descriptive correlational design.

Descriptive statistics refers to information that has been analyzed in order to reveal the basic features of data collected or used in a study (Fowler, 2013). They provide researchers with summaries and other critical information regarding study samples and measures. The two main types include measures of central tendency and the measure of spread (Kothari, 2004). A common occurrence when using descriptive data is the emergence of certain patterns that make it easy for researchers to understand and make sense of data. The statistical data can either be used for further research studies or as an independent entity that can be used to make conclusions (Fowler, 2013). Certain research situations involve the use of only descriptive statistics because of the large sample sizes and complexity of data. A study that involves the computation of mean, median, and mode would require descriptive statistics (Yin, 2009).

For instance, they would be sued in a study that aims to find the media score in a class of 100 students with different test results. On the other hand, surveys, case studies, and naturalistic observations can only be successfully conducted using descriptive statistics. An example of research that involved descriptive statistics only is a research study conducted by Andreyeva, Michaud, and Soest (2007) to investigate obesity and health in Europeans aged 50 years and older. The study aimed to study the prevalence of obesity and related health complications among Europeans aged 50 years and above (Andreyeva, Michaud & Soest, 2007). The study involved the collection of data from participants without altering any environmental factors. It was published in the Journal of Public Health in 2007.

Descriptive correlational design is used in research studies that aim to provide static pictures of situations as well as establish the relationship between different variables (McBurney & White, 2009). In correlational research, two variables, such as the height and weight of individuals, are studied to establish their relationship. One of the research topics that can be studied using a descriptive correctional design is the height and weight of college students between the ages of 18 and 25. This study can be tied to their nutrition or frequency of taking meals in a day. The design is appropriate for the aforementioned topic because in conducting the study, the researcher will be required to collect data based on the behavior or attitudes of the participants.

For instance, the number of times the participants eat a certain meal or take a certain beverage. On the other hand, the researcher will be required to establish the relationship between the frequency of taking certain meals or beverages and gains in weight. The researcher could also establish the relationship between the weight and height of the participants. The study design would also enable the researcher to determine changes in the participants’ behaviors or attitudes over time in order to determine how these changes affect the outcomes or possible trends that could emerge in the future (Monsen & Horn, 2007).

Do SAT scores determine the GPA achieved by college students? This research question has both predictor and criterion variables. In this research question, SAT scores represent the predictor variable, and college GPA represents the criterion variable. College GPA is the criterion variable because it is the component being predicted using students’ SAT scores. On the other hand, SAT scores are the predictor variable because they determine the GPA attained in college. The research question seeks to determine whether students’ SAT scores predict the GPA scores they attain in college.

This research paper focused on descriptive correlation design definition and goals. This quantitative research method aims to describe two or more variables and their relationships. Descriptive correlation design can provide a picture of the current state of affairs. For instance, in psychology, it can be a picture of a given group of individuals, their thoughts, behaviors, or feelings.

Andreyeva, T., Michaud, P. C., & Soest, A. (2007). Obesity and Health in Europeans Aged 50 Years and Older. Public Health 121 (1), 497-509.

Fowler, F. J. (2013). Survey Research Methods . New York, NY: SAGE Publications.

Kothari, C. R. (2004). Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques . New York, NY: New Age International.

McBurney, D. & White, T. (2009). Research Methods . New York, NY: Cengage Learning.

Monsen, E. R & Horn, L. V. (2007). Research: Successful Approaches . New York: American Dietetic Association.

Yin, R. K. (2009). Case Study Research: Design and Methods . New York, NY: SAGE Publications.

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IvyPanda. (2023, October 29). Descriptive Correlational Design in Research. https://ivypanda.com/essays/descriptive-statistics-and-correlational-design/

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IvyPanda . 2023. "Descriptive Correlational Design in Research." October 29, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/descriptive-statistics-and-correlational-design/.

1. IvyPanda . "Descriptive Correlational Design in Research." October 29, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/descriptive-statistics-and-correlational-design/.

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IvyPanda . "Descriptive Correlational Design in Research." October 29, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/descriptive-statistics-and-correlational-design/.

• Correlational Research and Data Analysis
• Data Presentation: Descriptive and Correlational Designs
• Correlational Research: Explanatory and Predictive Designs
• Correlational Research
• Research Hypotheses: Descriptive, Correlational, Causal
• Research Variables in Descriptive, Correlational and Causal Studies
• Correlational and Longitudinal Study in Psychology
• IQ and GPA of the Ninth Grade Students Correlation
• Experimental and Correlational Psychological Studies
• Gender and Test Score Correlation
• Statistics: Independent Variables and Noise
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• Statistics: "The Median Isn’t the Message" by Stephen Gould

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Descriptive Research

DESCRIPTIVE  RESEARCH

Overview: Descriptive Research

Descriptive research methods are used when the researcher wants to describe specific behaviour as it occurs in the environment. There are a variety of descriptive research methods available, the nature of the question that needs to be answered drives which method is used. It does not answer questions about how/when/why the characteristics occurred. 

Descriptive research aims to accurately and systematically describe a population, situation or phenomenon. It can answer what, where, when and how questions, but not why questions.

Descriptive research involves gathering data that describe events and then organizes, tabulates, depicts and describes the data collection.(Glass and Hopkins)

What is Descriptive Research Method?

A descriptive study is one in which information is collected without changing the environment ( i.e. nothing is manipulated).

Focuses on ‘what’ rather than ‘Why’

It is used to obtain information concerning the current status of the phenomena to describe “what exists” with respect to variable or education in a situation.

Present trends, beliefs, public mind, their viewpoint and attitudes, their effects or development of new trends are described.

It is done without influencing the subjects.

Nature of Descriptive Research

Descriptive studies are more than just a collection of data; they involve measurement, classification, comparison, and interpretation.

Collect and provide three types of information:

• of what exists with respect to variables of conditions in a situation;
• of what we want by identifying standards of norms with which to compare the present conditions or what experts consider to be desirable;
• of how to achieve goals by exploring possible ways and means on the basis of the experience of others or the opinions of experts.
• Identify and define their problem;
• State their objectives and hypotheses;
• List the assumptions upon which their hypotheses and procedures are based;
• Choose appropriate subjects and source materials;
• Select or construct tools for collecting data;
• Specify categories of data that are relevant for the purpose of the study, and capable of brining out significant similarities, differences, or relationships
• Describe, analyse, and interpret their data in clear and precise terms;
• Draw significant and meaningful conclusions.

• School Surveys : used to gather data concerned with internal or external characteristics of a school system
• Job Analysis : used to gather information to be used in structuring a training program for a particular job.
• Public Opinion Surveys : used to enhance the decision making process by governmental officials.
• Social/Community Surveys : used to gather data concerned with internal or external characteristics of a community.

Interrelationship Studies

Some researcher in the field of education do not merely gather facts to obtain an accurate description of existing phenomena; they attempt to trace relationships between facts that will provide deeper insight into the phenomena. The studies that endeavour to discover relationship between facts of the existing phenomena are called as interrelationship studies.

These include: 

1. Case Studies

2. Ex-post-facto or Casual-comparative Studies

3. Correlation and prediction Studies

4. Cross-cultural and Comparative Studies  

Ex-post Facto or Casual Comparative Studies

In such cases, the aim of the researcher is to compare the likeness and differences among phenomena to discover what factors or circumstances seem to accompany or contribute to the occurrence of certain events, conditions or practices. The researcher attempts to explore not only what a phenomenon is like, but how and why it occurs.

These study are based upon John Stuart Mill’s method of discovering casual relationships. Mill’s method of Agreement states that, “ If two or more instances of the phenomenon under investigation have only one circumstance in the circumstance in which alone all the instances agree, is the cause of the given phenomenon.”

Casual- comparative or ex post facto method of research is useful in the situations when the experimental method is impractical or costly in time, money, and effort. In some situation, ethical consideration may prevent to use experimentation as a method of investigation.(Van Dalen)

Correlation and Prediction Studies

Determine the extent of relationship existing between variables.

To obtain description of existing phenomenon and enable a researcher to ascertain the extent to which variations in one variable are associated with variations in another.

The correlation technique will help him to test his hypothesis about the relationship between these two variables as well as to assess the magnitude of the relationship.

It involves the collection of two or more sets of measurement on a sample of subjects and computation of the coefficient of correlation between these sets of measurements. The direction of the relationships may be positive or negative; the degree of relationship between the variables may vary from perfect, to high, to average, to no relationships; the relationship may be linear or curvilinear

Cross-cultural and Comparative Studies

To make explicit comparisons of a number of societies.

Contribution to our understanding of educational and social phenomena, for they seek to demonstrate whether findings concerning human behaviour are valid for all human beings or are confined to one culture.

A review of research in comparative education reveals that a researcher have compared School- state relationship; educational reforms; problems and causes of wastage and stagnation; the accessibility of higher Education; plans for success of compulsory education; problem of caste, colour, religion and other forms of discrimination in education. A number of reports on the comprehensive comparative studies relating to literacy, Juvenile delinquency and education on various level have been published by UNESCO.

Developmental Studies

Developmental studies are used for investigating the characteristics of children and the ways in which these characteristics change with growth and development. Such studies are concerned not only with the present status and interrelationship of phenomena but also with changes that take place as a function of time. Developmental studies may take three different forms:

1. Growth Studies

2. Follow-up Studies

3. Trend Studies

Growth Studies

Growth studies are used to seek knowledge of the nature and rate of changes that take place in human organism. They are helpful to study when various aspect of growth among children are first observable, accelerate further, remain rather stationary, attained optimal development and decline.

Growth studies is studies can be either longitudinal or Cross-sectional.

Longitudinal studies follow the same subject a group of subject or an institution over a relatively long period of time it is a kind of extended case study as it involves a long lifespan of the same subject group or institution.

Cross sectional study when conducting cross sectional studies rather than following the same group of individual and taking their repeated measurement over a relatively long period of time. The random sample of individual of successive ages are selected and one set of measurement of different individual from which age level are taken as the basis for developing growth norms.

Follow-up Studies

Trend Studies

Trend studies are used to obtain and analyse social, economic, or political data to identify trends and to predict what is likely to take place in future. Some educational or other organization conduct such studies in order to plan effectively and to meet the demands that will be made on them in the future.

Trend studies are undertaken through documentary analysis or surveys at repeated intervals. Such survey help the researcher to study the rate and direction of changes and to use these trends to predict future status. Sometime trend studies may combine historical, documentary, and survey techniques.

For the sake of illustration, a researcher may conduct or examine studies of birth rate trends, the changing age structure of the population, enrolment of children in schools, the amount and direction of population mobility in order to determine when and where to provide new educational facilities in terms of school buildings, teacher training programmes, or recruitment of teachers.

• Research Methodology  -  This page provides a list of articles and quizzes published in the Librarianship Studies & Information Technology blog about research, research methods, and research methodology in Library and Information Science Research.

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