essay about plant reproduction

Plant and Animal Reproduction

While all organisms reproduce, not all organisms reproduce the same way. Explore the similar and different ways that plants and animals pass on their genes.

Biology, Genetics

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What Is Reproduction? All organisms reproduce, including plants and animals. The biological process involves an organism producing and/or giving birth to another organism. Just because all organisms reproduce doesn’t mean the methods of reproduction are the same, however. Plants and animals occupy different phylogenetic kingdoms, but they have evolved reproductive systems that overlap and diverge from each other in several ways. Even within the same kingdom, different species may have different methods of reproduction. Types of Reproduction There are two types of reproduction: asexual reproduction and sexual reproduction . The former involves a single parent that produces a genetically identical offspring, whereas the latter involves two parents of the opposite sex, each of whom contributes genetic material to produce a diverse offspring. Different plants and animal can reproduce either asexually or sexually; however, a sexual reproduction is more common among plants than animals. Asexual and sexual reproduction each have benefits and drawbacks. Organisms that reproduce asexually have the advantage of producing several genetically identical offspring quickly and with little energy. On the other hand, the lack of genetic diversity among asexual offspring means they have a lower chance of acclimating to an unstable environment. By contrast, organisms that reproduce sexually have the advantage of producing a genetically diverse offspring, which is able to adapt to its environment. But sexual reproduction comes at a cost, requiring more time and energy to produce an offspring than a sexual reproduction . Fertilization One difference between plant and animal sexual reproduction concerns fertilization . In flowering plants, the fertilization of an egg is achieved by cross- pollination . This process involves an insect like a bee that transfers the pollen grains from the anther , the male part of a flower, to the stigma , the female part of a flower. Once the pollen lands on the stigma , it passes through a long, tube-like structure called a style to reach the ovaries where fertilization takes place. It should be noted that some plants, called hermaphrodites , have male and female parts on the same plant, and are able to self-pollinate. Animals, by contrast, do not depend on third parties like insects in order to mate. As mobile creatures, animals reproduce by physically interacting with each other and often perform various mating rituals in order to woo potential partners. Embryonic Development Despite differences in the fertilization process, the embryonic development of plants and animals is similar. Once a plant egg is fertilized, it starts developing into a multicellular organism in a way similar to an animal embryo. The only major difference between the two is that a plant embryo is contained within a seed, which provides the nutrients it needs to grow, while an animal embryo develops within an egg, outside the organism, or within a uterus, inside the female parent organism. Birth and Germination Plants and animals also differ with respect to how they give birth. Animals exit their mother’s uterus as a newborn or hatch from an egg that has already left the mother’s body. A plant, by contrast, arises by germinating from a seed. The plant releases the seed, which begins to grow once it is in soil and the conditions are right for germination. After the seed has germinated into a plant, it can collect additional nutrients through its roots. Growth Rates The growth rates of plants and animals also vary. Plants have what is called indeterminate growth, meaning there is nearly no limit to how much they can grow. The extent to which a plant can grow is largely determined by its environment. Consequently, plants do not have a size or age that is deemed normal or mature. The growth rate of mammals, such as humans, is also influenced by environmental factors, like nutrition, but animals cease growing once they have reached adulthood. Asexual Reproduction As noted earlier, many plants reproduce asexually. There are a variety of ways plants can reproduce without a partner. For example, some nonflowering plants, such as moss and algae, reproduce by spore formation. These plants form several spores , which break off and grow into separate organisms. Other plants, such as strawberries, are able to reproduce asexually through vegetative propagation , either naturally or artificially. This process involves using a vegetative part of a plant, such as a root or stem, to produce a new plant. Alternative artificial methods, such as grafting , involve combining two plants into one by attaching the top part of a plant, called a scion , to the lower part of a plant, called a rootstock .

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IB DP Biology Topic 9: Plant biology: 9.4 Reproduction in plants: Study Notes

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9.4  Reproduction in Plants

Essential Idea: Reproduction in flowering plants is influenced by the biotic and abiotic environment

Understandings:

• Flowering involves a change in gene expression in the shoot apex
• The switch to flowering is a response to the length of light and dark periods in many plants
• Success in plant reproduction depends on pollination, fertilization and seed dispersal
• Most flowering plants use mutualistic relationships with pollinators in sexual reproduction

Applications:

• Methods used to induce short-day plants to flower out of season
• Drawing internal structure of seeds
• Drawing of half-views of animal-pollinated flowers
• Design of experiments to test hypotheses about factors affecting germination
• Compare the vegetative and reproductive phases of the angiospermatophyta life cycle.
• State that flowers are produced from a shoot apical meristem.
• State two abiotic factors that may trigger flowering.
• Compare the timing of flowering in short-day plants and long-day plants.
• Outline the process by which changes in gene expression trigger flowering.
• State the role of the pigment phytochrome.
• Describe the conversions between the two forms of phytochrome.
• Describe role of phytochrome in controlling flowering in long and short day plants.
• ​Define pollination, fertilization and seed dispersal.
• State the changes to the ovule and ovary that result from fertilization.
• List mechanisms of seed dispersal.
• Define mutualism.​
• Explain an example of mutualism between a flowering plant and its pollinator.
• State how plants can be manipulated to force flowering out of season.
• Embryo root
• Embryo shoot
• State the function of the different parts of the seed. ​
• Nectar-secreting glands
• State the function of the different parts of the animal-pollinated flower. ​
• Define germination.
• Outline why water, oxygen and warmth are required for germination.
• Outline the role of gibberellin during germination.
• Write five example problem questions for experiments that could test factors affecting germination.
• Contrast traditional conservation efforts with newer strategies of conservation.

​Topic 9.4: Reproduction in Plants

​Essential idea:

• Reproduction in flowering plants is influenced by the biotic and abiotic environment.

​ Nature of science:

9.4 U 1 ​Flowering involves a change in gene expression in the shoot apex.

9.4 U 2 ​The switch to flowering is a response to the length of light and dark periods in many plants   ​

Photoperiodism is a biological response to a change in the proportions of light and dark in a 24‐hour daily cycle. Plants use it to measure the seasons and to coordinate seasonal events such as flowering.

The control of flowering is achieved through a process called photoperiodism. The critical factor is not actually day length – it is night length.

• Flowering in long day and short day plants is controlled by the plants biological clock
• The length of the darkness/night is the critical factor

Short days / long nights (fall, winter, spring)

Long days / short nights (summer)

Photochromes

• Combination of a protein and pigment molecule
• Can change its shape (active site) – will change the way chemicals around it react to it. –> can change into 2 different shapes
• Blue-green plant pigments that are produced in the leaf
• Present in low concentration
• Is a combination of protein molecule + pigment molecule
• P(r) absorbs mainly red light
• P(fr) absorbs mainly far red light
• The structure / form influences its reaction with surrounding molecules

Plants use phytochromes to measure the length dark period / critical period

• During the day (presence of light) P(r) converts to P(fr) (faster if exposed to only red light)
• During the night (absence of light), P(fr) converts to P(r) (faster if exposed to only far red light)

The ACTIVE form is P(fr) – stimulates some growth and inhibits other growth.

9. 4 U 3 ​Success in plant reproduction depends on pollination, fertilization and seed dispersal

Plants can reproduce in a number of different ways:

• Vegetative propagation (asexual reproduction from a plant cutting)
• Spore formations (e.g. moulds, ferns)
• Pollen transfer (flowering plants – angiospermophytes)

Sexual reproduction in flowering plants involves the transfer of pollen (male gamete) to an ova (female gamete)

​Pollination

• The process in plants in which pollen grains (male gametes) are transferred to the female gametes (ovules contained within the carpel), thereby enabling fertilization and sexual reproduction.

Fertilization

• The fusion of male and female gametes to produce a diploid zygote. In flowering plants, a double fertilization occurs producing the embryo and the endosperm nucleus.

Seed dispersal

• The movement or transport of seeds away from the parent plant. This decreases competition between parents and offspring and promotes diversity within the species. Seeds can be dispersed through gravity, wind, water and by animals.

9.4 U 4 ​Most flowering plants use mutualistic relationships with pollinators in sexual reproduction.

​Pollination is the act of transferring pollen grains from the male anther of a flower to the female stigma. The goal of every living organism, including plants, is to create offspring for the next generation. One of the ways that plants can produce offspring is by making seeds.

• Mutualism is the relationship between two organisms, where both organisms benefit
• Sexual reproduction depends on the transfer of pollen stamen from one plant to the stigma of another plant
• Pollen can be transferred by wind and possibly water, but more commonly pollen is transferred by animals known as pollinators such as bees, butterflies, birds, and bats
• Pollinators gain food from nectar and the plant gains a method to transfer pollen to another plant to allow for sexual reproduction

9.4 A 1 ​Methods used to induce short-day plants to flower out of season.

• State how plants can be manipulated to force flowering out of season.​

Flowering can be controlled by:

• Greenhouses (temperature and humidity)
• Light conditions

Short day plants are kept in the:

• Dark during daylight
• Given bursts of far red light
• Keeps P(fr) low so flowering isn’t inhibited

Long day plants:

• Artificially lit during night
• Short bursts of light using red light can interrupt darkness and promote flowering
• It’s possible to expose plants to light for short periods to keep costs down but long enough to interrupt the dark period

9.4 S 1 ​Drawing internal structure of seeds.

• Draw and label the structure of seeds, including: Embryo root, Embryo shoot, Cotyledons, Testa, Micropyle, and Hilum
• State the function of the different parts of the seed.

9.4 S 2 ​Drawing of half-views of animal-pollinated flowers.

• Draw and label an animal pollinated flower, including: Nectar-secreting glands, Petals, Sepals, Anthers, Filaments, Carpel, Stigma, Style, Ovary and Ovule
• State the function of the different parts of the animal-pollinated flower

9.4 S 3 ​Design of experiments to test hypotheses about factors affecting germination.

The experiment linked shows an experiment that gives results for all factors however when making your experiment make sure to:

• Pick a type of seed
• Vary one factor for investigation
• Mention how you will keep other factors constant
• How results will be collected and how it will be decided if a plant germinated or not

GERMINATION PROCESS 

Seeds need water for germination. Water rehydrates the seed’s tissues causing the cells to expand and metabolism to become reactivated.  Once metabolism has been reactivated embryonic growth can begin.  The appropriate temperature is needed to allow enzymes to work efficiently during metabolic reactions.  Oxygen is needed for aerobic respiration to take place in the seed.  Some plants have seeds that require specific variables in order for germination to take place such as fire or smoke, disruption of the seed coat, or removal of surface inhibitors by water.

• Water is absorbed by the seed through the micropyle and the seed coat.
• Water causes the release of a hormone called gibberellin or gibberellic acid (GA).
• GA causes the cells to expand and elongate, eventually allowing the root to break through the seed coat (testa).
• GA also stimulates the production of enzymes (specifically amylase) that hydrolyze starch located in the seed’s endosperm into maltose.
• Maltose is further broken down into glucose which can be transported to areas of growth in the cell.
• Glucose is used in aerobic respiration to produce energy for growth of the embryonic root and shoot

Related Links

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• Biology Article
• Sexual Reproduction Plants

Sexual Reproduction In Plants

In sexual reproduction, two parents are involved in producing a new individual. Offspring is produced by the fusion of gametes (sex cells) from each parent. Animals like dog, cats, lions, giraffe, humans, etc. all reproduce sexually.

Process of Sexual Reproduction

This fundamental process of reproduction is DNA replication. In other words, if an organism wants to continue its species, then they need to transfer their traits to the next generation by DNA (genetic information) copying which occurs during the process of reproduction.

We know asexually reproducing organisms copy their DNA and divide themselves into new cells which are their clones. Since the process of replication is not completely reliable, there are chances of variation, but they are quite limited. Organisms need to adapt themselves to the changing environment; the creation of variants needs to be hastened for this reason. This will only happen when there is a union of two different DNAs. This highlights the significance of sexual reproduction in organisms.

If two reproducing cells simply join, the chromosome number in the new organism will be doubled. But this cannot happen because the number of chromosomes in each cell of every organism is fixed – the same holds good for the reproducing cell. Thus, the reproducing cells from both parents reduce their chromosome number into the half before fusion and are called gametes (germ cells). In simple organisms, the size and shape of gametes are almost the same. But in higher organisms, a male gamete is small and mobile while female gamete is large, immobile and they store food for the fetus. The gametes are produced in a specialized system called the reproductive system.

Features of Sexual Reproduction

• Two parents are involved (both male and a female).
• Gamete formation and fertilization take place.
• The whole process is slow and lengthy.
• Variation occurs; offspring are different from parents, genetically and physically.

Sexual Reproduction in Plants

Reproduction in plants takes place sexually and asexually as well. But the majority of the flowering plants reproduce sexually. The flower is the reproductive part of a plant i.e., both male and female gametes are produced by flowers. Sexual reproduction in plants takes place in flowers. The complete flower typically consists of four parts:

• Stamen (male reproductive part)
• Pistil/Carpel (female reproductive part)

Stamen (male reproductive part) consists of anther and filament.

• The anther is a sac-like structure that produces and stores pollen.
• The filament supports the anther.

The pistil (female reproductive part) comprises three parts- stigma, style, and ovary.

• Stigma is the topmost part of a flower.
• The style is the long tube which connects the stigma to the ovary.
• The ovary contains a lot of ovules. It is the part of the plant where the seed formation takes place.

A flower may consist of either stamen or pistil or both. Based on this, a flower can be either unisexual or bisexual. A bisexual flower is composed of all the four parts mentioned above, e.g. Rose, China rose. Whereas, plants like papaya and cucumber produce only unisexual flowers.

Pollination and Fertilization

In order to form a zygote, male gametes in pollen grains have to fuse with the egg in the ovule. This is achieved by a process called pollination. Pollination is the process of transferring pollen grains from the anther – male part of a flower, to the stigma – female part of a flower. Depending on the pollen landing, pollination can be classified into two types-

• Self-Pollination: A pollination where the pollen transfer takes place between the anther and stigma of the same flower.
• Cross-Pollination: A pollination where the pollen transfer takes place between the anther and the stigma of different flowers of the same plant or different plants of the same species.

Also Read: Different Types of Pollination

Generally, pollination takes place with the help of certain agents so-called pollinators. They include insects, water, birds, wind, etc.

Once pollen gets transferred to the stigma the male gametes from pollen grains release and fuse with the egg in the ovule to form a zygote. This process of fusion of gametes is called fertilization. The zygote thus formed, divides and develops into an embryo, and later into a seed. The ovary develops into a fruit.

Also Explore: Fertilization And Implantation

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Plant Reproduction

Plant Reproduction is a journal focusing on the field of reproductive processes in plants.

• Provides new insights on reproductive processes in plants.
• Encourages studies in model organisms where mechanisms of reproduction can be supported by genetic or biochemical evidence.
• Welcomes various article formats including original research, short communication, review, method, perspective, and opinion articles.
• The official journal of the International Association of Sexual Plant Reproduction Research (IASPRR).
• Ravishankar Palanivelu

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Revisit and explore the ethylene-independent mechanism of sex expression in cucumber ( cucumis sativus ).

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Special issue on plant reproduction research in Latin America

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A novel strategy to study apomixis, automixis, and autogamy in plants

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“Resilience in crop reproduction for food security: introducing RECROP COST action”

• Sotirios Fragkostefanakis
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Ectopic expression of a thaumatin-like protein impairs the timely deposition and dissolution of callose during microsporogenesis, leading to microspore death and male sterility in Arabidopsis

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• Essay Database >
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• Essay on Water

Example Of Essay On Flowering Plant Reproduction

Type of paper: Essay

Topic: Water , Food , Skin , Animals , Development , Fruit , Seed , Tissue

Published: 01/13/2020

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Question 1: If flowers give rise to fruits then what are the functions of showy flowers? If flowers are not showy, than how do they accomplish what a showy flower accomplishes? Showy flowers function to attract to attract pollinators. According to Thornhill and Gangestad (89), showy flowers are specialized structures (selected male adaptations) that increase the male mating success by attracting the pollinators. Non-showy flowers rely on different mechanisms for pollination such as wind. Question 2: Why are the cotyledons in the bean seeding somewhat shriveled up and not as fleshy as they were in the seed? In beans, the food storage during development of the seed occurs in the cotyledons resulting to its enlargement. However, as the seed matures, the food stored in the cotyledons is used up resulting to the shrinkage of the cotyledons (Roberts, Reiss and Monger 535). Question 3: Progressing from bean seed to seedling, what did the epicotyls become? What did the hypocotyls become? What did the radical become? The epicotyls in a bean eventually develops into a leaf the hypocotyls develop into stems while the radicles develop into roots.

Question 4: Compare and contrast the bean corn seedlings?

Bean seedlings are Dicots while corn seedlings are Monocots. This implies that beans have two cotyledons while corns have one cotyledon. In beans, food storage occurs in the cotyledon while the seedling develops while in corn food storage occurs in the endosperm. Both the bean and the corn seedlings have an epicotyl, radicle, and a hypocotyl.

Question 5: Discuss how interactions between plants and animals have contributed to the adaptive radiation of angiosperms

Angiosperms being flowering plants produce ovaries that develop into a fruit. The fruit acts as an attractor to many insects and animals that feed on it contributing to its dispersal. Various characteristics of the fruit such as color and fragrance attract different animals (Starr, Evers, and Starr 344). The result of such an interaction is the development of diverse plant species.

Matching _h___ Complete flower a. inferior ovary __d__ perfect flower b. lowermost portion of hypocotyls __a__ petals& sepals attached to stalk above ovary c. seed leaf _e___ testa d. both stamen and pistil present __c__ cotyledon e. seed coat _b___ radical f. nutrient tissue in seed __f__ endosperm g. developed from several flowers __g__ multiple fruit h. all four whorls present

Question 7: Is corn a monocot or a dicot?

A corn is a monocot. Question 8: What are the three major components of the pistil? The three major components of a pistil include the stigma style and the ovary. Question 9: What are the two major components of the stamen? The major components of the stamen are the anthers and the filament. Question 10: What is the difference between a simple and an aggregate fruit? According to Berg and Berg (196), a simple fruit develops from a single ovary whereas an aggregate fruit develops from a single flower with many separate ovaries.

Question 11: List the three plant tissue types, and give the function of each

- Vascular tissues: these include the xylem and the phloem tissues. The xylem tissue is responsible for transporting water and minerals while the phloem transports food. - Dermal tissue: this tissue forms the outer covering of the plants. - Ground tissue: includes the parenchyma cells (responsible for photosynthesis and tissue repair), collenchymas cells, and the sclerenchyma cells both which contribute to structural support (Starr, Evers, and Starr 550).

Question 12: What is the function of each of the following?

- Cuticle: is a waxy layer found on the outer walls of the epidermis to limit water loss from the surface. - Guard cells: these cells control the opening and closing of the plant stomata. - Mesophyll: acts a site where photosynthesis takes place. - Veins: holds the vascular tissues, xylem, and the phloem (Berg and Berg 156).

Works Cited

Berg, Linda R. Introductory botany: plants, people, and the environment. 2nd ed. Belmont, CA: Thomson Brooks/Cole, 2008. Print. Roberts, Michael, Michael J. Reiss, and Grace Monger. Advanced biology. Walton-on-Thames: Nelson, 2000. Print. Starr, Cecie, Christine A. Evers, and Lisa Starr. Biology: concepts and applications without physiology. 7th ed. Belmont, CA: Thomson / Brooks/Cole, 2008. Print. Starr, Cecie, Christine A. Evers, and Lisa Starr. Biology: today and tomorrow: with physiology. 3. ed. Australia: Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning; 2010. Print. Thornhill, Randy, and Steven W. Gangestad. The evolutionary biology of human female sexuality. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008. Print. Top of Form Bottom of Form

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Vegetative Plant Propagation

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11.4: Why It Matters- Plant Reproduction

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Why discuss the methods and structures of plant reproduction?

Over 50 million Americans suffer from seasonal allergies every year. Each spring, summer, and fall, trees, weeds, and grasses release tiny pollen grains into the air. Some of the pollen ends up in your nose and throat. This can trigger a type of allergy called hay fever.

Symptoms can include

• Sneezing, often with a runny or clogged nose
• Coughing and post-nasal drip
• Itching eyes, nose and throat
• Red and watery eyes
• Dark circles under the eyes

The pollen that causes these allergies is an essential part of plant reproduction (at least, sexual reproduction in plants). Let’s learn what role these irksome particles play in the plant life cycle.

Contributors and Attributions

• Why It Matters: Plant Reproduction. Authored by : Shelli Carter and Lumen Learning. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution
• Hay Fever. Provided by : Medline Plus. Located at : https://medlineplus.gov/hayfever.html . License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright

• / Miscellaneous

Plant Reproduction

By: Vika   •  Essay  •  749 Words  •  December 4, 2009  •  1,048 Views

Essay title: Plant Reproduction

Plants have two different ways to reproduce. The first one is vegetative reproduction. With this type all the plants that have the same parent have the same genetic make-up. This also lets plants pass adaptations on that they have abtained over the years. Plants with good genetic make-up usually spread quickly and take over an area. An example of this would be the dandelion. These plants can sprout from any part of the plant. An example of this is the potato, farmers will pick the potatoes and cut them into small pieces and then plant them again so they may grow again. Scientists have also placed a branch from one tree and place it on another one; it is now possible to buy an apple tree with six different branches and six different types of apples. The more common way to reproduce is sexual reproduction. In order for this to happen gametes must be produced and fertilized. Seeds, fruits, and embryos must also be developed. The two main advantages of reproducing this way are new genetic combinations and seeds spread over a large area. The following are the reproductive parts in this process. The first part is the flower, which has four types of modified leaves. The first one is the sepal, which protects the other parts of the plant. The second is the petal, which is located inside the sepal. These are normally bright in color to attract animal pollinators. The third is the stamen, which is the male or pollen producing substance. The stamen contains anthers, which is were pollen develops. The last part is the pistils and they are located in the center of the flower. This is the part that contains the female sex parts like the stigma, which traps the pollen. Many plants have both the male and female reproductive parts on the same plant like corn, others like spinach don't. Plants also have spores because of meiosis; these spores then grow into haploid gameophytes which produce gametes for fertilization. Plants produce to spores, one is the microspore, which is the male part, and the other is the megaspore, which is the female part. A pollen grain is young male gameophyte enclosed in a protective wall. When fertilization takes place the wall is destroyed and the pollen is transferred to the pistil. Cross-pollination is when a pollen grain is blown to another plant or carried by an animal. Pollen maturation starts when the pollen lands on the stigma and a pollen tube grows toward the ovule. For this to work the proteins of the male and female must be compatible. Only on pollen tube can grow into

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Cuttings: How to reproduce the plants we have at home

Anyone can do it, as the steps are fairly simple; indoor plants, like the pothos, the polka dot begonia and the swiss cheese plant are perfect for learning this technique.

Divide and conquer. This phrase, often associated with subjugation, becomes about life when applied to the garden. Why? Because with a little knowledge and some practice, a single plant can produce thousands more. The topic of plant reproduction can be fascinating, as it is so different from that of animals. Since they are little, schoolchildren everywhere make it almost an act of faith to expect the miracle of life to sprout from a little pebble-like seed. When the root — or rather, the radicle — emerges from the lentil or bean seed, two beautiful bright windows, wide and colorful, also appear on the children’s faces: their astonished eyes. With water and patience, they have just set the reproductive wheels of plants in motion.

This is the first thing that we learn about their reproduction, but plants still have many more tricks up their sleeves. One of them is called totipotency, and it is the ability of plant cells to generate other cells that result in a complete new plant. That is what a cutting is: a piece of a plant that is expected to produce a root. Thus, when someone finds a piece of geranium lying on the street, they are before the basic ingredient for a miracle. The procedure is easy: pick it up, take it home, make a cut in the lower part of the stem and put it in a pot with substrate. The complexity of what comes next, however, is magic; a dance of cells to the sounds of chemistry, an ode to creation. Where there used to be a piece, now there is a whole. When its first root appears, the cutting has become a plant.

Anyone can orchestrate this seemingly alchemical transformation. The steps are simple: first, choose a mother plant that provides the material that you want to reproduce. Keep in mind that practically any part of that plant that manages to root will generate a clone of itself. That is, if the mother plant produces white flowers and red fruits, the cutting will follow suit once it has its own roots and manages to flower. Therefore, you should choose a strong, vigorous, healthy plant to take the cutting. An appropriate size is about four inches, but it can be smaller or larger; it is a highly variable factor that depends on the species and other circumstances.

Once the stem has been cut, it must be clear where it is easiest for that cutting to grow its first root. For this, you have to locate the knots. A knot is the point from which other plant organs, such as the leaves, emerge, and they often present a slight thickening. Once this knot is detected, you must use some sharp scissors to cut just below it without damaging it. It is advisable to leave a small margin of one or two millimeters. Next, the leaves that come out of the lower part of that knot are removed. If the knot that is immediately above this one is very close, the leaves should also be removed, gently pulling them down to separate them from the cutting. Once it has been prepared, place the cutting in a glass of water or a small pot with substrate. At least one knot should be buried or submerged; that is where the root will form. Also leave at least a knot or two with leaves above the ground or water, as this is where the cutting will sprout a new stem.

The ideal substrate has a very high aeration capacity and very good drainage, but at the same time it also retains humidity, with thick fibers if it is an organic substrate based on coconut fiber, compost or peat. Aeration is so important that in nurseries they use either 100% river sand, or 50% mixed with perlite (an inorganic substrate that looks like expanded polystyrene). After this point, it is crucial that the substrate never dries out so that the cutting does not become dehydrated. To do this, it must be watered every day, trying not to wet the tissues of the future plant.

The glass of water or the pot with the cutting — you must make sure that no leaves remain submerged or buried, to prevent rotting — have to be placed somewhere where there is very intense light, but no direct sunlight. Always keep in mind that the cutting is the project of a plant, still incomplete, with no roots yet, that exists in a delicate balance that can be destabilized by an aggressive sun. With a temperature of about 68 °F and the aforementioned lighting, the cutting will be able to produce the desired first root. If it is in water, when a good set of roots appears (at least one or two inches long) it can be transplanted into a pot with substrate; if it is in a substrate, you will have to wait until there is good sprouting in the aerial part, with the appearance of a new stem and leaves (although this is not always a sign of success).

To gain confidence with this asexual reproduction, in which the reproductive organs of the plant do not intervene, it is a good idea to start with herbaceous cuttings, which root more easily. They do not have hardened tissues and can even be cut many times by applying pressure with the nails. Herbaceous cuttings have a soft consistency, unlike semi-woody or woody ones, whose tissues usually have lignin, the substance that provides firmness and is responsible for the formation of wood. For this reason, many indoor plants that are more or less herbaceous are perfect to try your hand at this reproductive method, such as the pothos ( Epipremnum aureum ), the impatiens ( Impatiens walleriana ), the iresine ( Iresine diffusa f. herbstii ), the coleus ( Coleus scutellarioides ), the polka dot begonia ( Begonia maculata ), Swiss cheese plant ( Monstera deliciosa ), arrowhead plant ( Syngonium podophyllum ), oyster plant ( Tradescantia spp .), silver tree ( Pilea spp .), many peperomias ( Peperomia spp .), the Swedish ivy ( Plectranthus verticillatus ) and the philodendrons ( Philodendron spp .). You can also try with succulent plants such as the crassulas ( Crassula spp .) or the sedum ( Sedum spp .), which will root quickly and easily.

Of course there is much more to say about these breeding methods; for now, let it be enough to feel like the creators of plant life, to take cuttings, to divide and conquer.

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On the cover : Sex differentiation is fundamental for the reproduction and genetic diversity of most eukaryotes, including land plants. In the liverwort Marchantia polymorpha , sex differentiation is controlled by a single autosomal locus consisting of a female-promoting transcription factor gene, FGMYB , and the SUF antisense long-non-coding RNA (lncRNA). While SUF is known to suppress FGMYB transcription to promote male differentiation, the underlying mechanism has remained unknown. In this issue, Kajiwara et. al. have elucidated the molecular basis of FGMYB suppression by SUF . By using CRISPR/Cas9-mediated large-deletion mutants lacking the entire FGMYB-SUF locus sequence in various transgene complementation tests, the authors found that SUF transcription, rather than its transcripts, is required for FGMYB suppression. This finding provides insight into the mechanisms by which lncRNAs regulate sexual reproduction in land plants. See also Commentary by Hisanaga, in this issue .

cover image shows transgenic female M. polymorpha plants with abnormal gametangiophores exhibiting mosaic (male and female) patterns of sex differentiation. Image credit: Keitaro Okahashi and Takayuki Kohchi (Graduate School of Biostudies, Kyoto University).

Volume 65, Issue 3, March 2024

Making sense of antisense transcriptional control during sexual differentiation of the liverwort, marchantia polymorpha.

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The Function of Florigen in the Vegetative-to-Reproductive Phase Transition in and around the Shoot Apical Meristem

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The Arabidopsis katamari2 Mutant Exhibits a Hypersensitive Seedling Arrest Response at the Phase Transition from Heterotrophic to Autotrophic Growth

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