parts of a scientific essay

How to Write a Scientific Essay

When writing any essay it’s important to always keep the end goal in mind. You want to produce a document that is detailed, factual, about the subject matter and most importantly to the point.

Writing scientific essays will always be slightly different to when you write an essay for say English Literature . You need to be more analytical and precise when answering your questions. To help achieve this, you need to keep three golden rules in mind.

Analysing the question, so that you know exactly what you have to do

Planning your answer

Writing the essay

Now, let’s look at these steps in more detail to help you fully understand how to apply the three golden rules.

Analysing the question

Start by looking at the instruction. Essays need to be written out in continuous prose. You shouldn’t be using bullet points or writing in note form.
If it helps to make a particular point, however, you can use a diagram providing it is relevant and adequately explained.
Look at the topic you are required to write about. The wording of the essay title tells you what you should confine your answer to – there is no place for interesting facts about other areas.

The next step is to plan your answer. What we are going to try to do is show you how to produce an effective plan in a very short time. You need a framework to show your knowledge otherwise it is too easy to concentrate on only a few aspects.

For example, when writing an essay on biology we can divide the topic up in a number of different ways. So, if you have to answer a question like ‘Outline the main properties of life and system reproduction’

The steps for planning are simple. Firstly, define the main terms within the question that need to be addressed. Then list the properties asked for and lastly, roughly assess how many words of your word count you are going to allocate to each term.

Writing the Essay

The final step (you’re almost there), now you have your plan in place for the essay, it’s time to get it all down in black and white. Follow your plan for answering the question, making sure you stick to the word count, check your spelling and grammar and give credit where credit’s (always reference your sources).

How Tutors Breakdown Essays

An exceptional essay

reflects the detail that could be expected from a comprehensive knowledge and understanding of relevant parts of the specification
is free from fundamental errors
maintains appropriate depth and accuracy throughout
includes two or more paragraphs of material that indicates greater depth or breadth of study

A good essay

An average essay

contains a significant amount of material that reflects the detail that could be expected from a knowledge and understanding of relevant parts of the specification.

In practice this will amount to about half the essay.

is likely to reflect limited knowledge of some areas and to be patchy in quality
demonstrates a good understanding of basic principles with some errors and evidence of misunderstanding

A poor essay

contains much material which is below the level expected of a candidate who has completed the course
Contains fundamental errors reflecting a poor grasp of basic principles and concepts

Privacy Overview

Scientific and Scholarly Writing

Literature Searches
Tracking and Citing References

Parts of a Scientific & Scholarly Paper

Introduction.

Writing Effectively
Where to Publish?
Capstone Resources

Different sections are needed in different types of scientific papers (lab reports, literature reviews, systematic reviews, methods papers, research papers, etc.). Projects that overlap with the social sciences or humanities may have different requirements. Generally, however, you'll need to include:

INTRODUCTION (Background)

METHODS SECTION (Materials and Methods)

What is a title

Titles have two functions: to identify the main topic or the message of the paper and to attract readers.

The title will be read by many people. Only a few will read the entire paper, therefore all words in the title should be chosen with care. Too short a title is not helpful to the potential reader. Too long a title can sometimes be even less meaningful. Remember a title is not an abstract. Neither is a title a sentence.

What makes a good title?

A good title is accurate, complete, and specific. Imagine searching for your paper in PubMed. What words would you use?

Use the fewest possible words that describe the contents of the paper.
Avoid waste words like "Studies on", or "Investigations on".
Use specific terms rather than general.
Use the same key terms in the title as the paper.
Watch your word order and syntax.

The abstract is a miniature version of your paper. It should present the main story and a few essential details of the paper for readers who only look at the abstract and should serve as a clear preview for readers who read your whole paper. They are usually short (250 words or less).

The goal is to communicate:

What was done?
Why was it done?
How was it done?
What was found?

A good abstract is specific and selective. Try summarizing each of the sections of your paper in a sentence two. Do the abstract last, so you know exactly what you want to write.

Use 1 or more well developed paragraphs.
Use introduction/body/conclusion structure.
Present purpose, results, conclusions and recommendations in that order.
Make it understandable to a wide audience.
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Last Updated: Apr 17, 2024 3:27 PM
URL: https://libraryguides.umassmed.edu/scientific-writing

Science Essay

Learn How to Write an A+ Science Essay

11 min read

What Is a Science Essay?

A science essay is an academic paper focusing on a scientific topic from physics, chemistry, biology, or any other scientific field.

Science essays are mostly expository. That is, they require you to explain your chosen topic in detail. However, they can also be descriptive and exploratory.

A descriptive science essay aims to describe a certain scientific phenomenon according to established knowledge.

On the other hand, the exploratory science essay requires you to go beyond the current theories and explore new interpretations.

So before you set out to write your essay, always check out the instructions given by your instructor. Whether a science essay is expository or exploratory must be clear from the start. Or, if you face any difficulty, you can take help from a science essay writer as well.

Moreover, check out this video to understand scientific writing in detail.

Now that you know what it is, let's look at the steps you need to take to write a science essay.

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How To Write a Science Essay?

Writing a science essay is not as complex as it may seem. All you need to do is follow the right steps to create an impressive piece of work that meets the assigned criteria.

Here's what you need to do:

Choose Your Topic

A good topic forms the foundation for an engaging and well-written essay. Therefore, you should ensure that you pick something interesting or relevant to your field of study.

To choose a good topic, you can brainstorm ideas relating to the subject matter. You may also find inspiration from other science essays or articles about the same topic.

Conduct Research

Once you have chosen your topic, start researching it thoroughly to develop a strong argument or discussion in your essay.

Make sure you use reliable sources and cite them properly . You should also make notes while conducting your research so that you can reference them easily when writing the essay. Or, you can get expert assistance from an essay writing service to manage your citations.

Create an Outline

A good essay outline helps to organize the ideas in your paper. It serves as a guide throughout the writing process and ensures you don’t miss out on important points.

An outline makes it easier to write a well-structured paper that flows logically. It should be detailed enough to guide you through the entire writing process.

However, your outline should be flexible, and it's sometimes better to change it along the way to improve your structure.

Start Writing

Once you have a good outline, start writing the essay by following your plan.

The first step in writing any essay is to draft it. This means putting your thoughts down on paper in a rough form without worrying about grammar or spelling mistakes.

So begin your essay by introducing the topic, then carefully explain it using evidence and examples to support your argument.

Don't worry if your first draft isn't perfect - it's just the starting point!

Proofread & Edit

After finishing your first draft, take time to proofread and edit it for grammar and spelling mistakes.

Proofreading is the process of checking for grammatical mistakes. It should be done after you have finished writing your essay.

Editing, on the other hand, involves reviewing the structure and organization of your essay and its content. It should be done before you submit your final work.

Both proofreading and editing are essential for producing a high-quality essay. Make sure to give yourself enough time to do them properly!

After revising the essay, you should format it according to the guidelines given by your instructor. This could involve using a specific font size, page margins, or citation style.

Most science essays are written in Times New Roman font with 12-point size and double spacing. The margins should be 1 inch on all sides, and the text should be justified.

In addition, you must cite your sources properly using a recognized citation style such as APA , Chicago , or Harvard . Make sure to follow the guidelines closely so that your essay looks professional.

Following these steps will help you create an informative and well-structured science essay that meets the given criteria.

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How to Structure a Science Essay?

A basic science essay structure includes an introduction, body, and conclusion.

Let's look at each of these briefly.

Introduction

Your essay introduction should introduce your topic and provide a brief overview of what you will discuss in the essay. It should also state your thesis or main argument.

For instance, a thesis statement for a science essay could be,

"The human body is capable of incredible feats, as evidenced by the many athletes who have competed in the Olympic games."

The body of your essay will contain the bulk of your argument or discussion. It should be divided into paragraphs, each discussing a different point.

For instance, imagine you were writing about sports and the human body.

Your first paragraph can discuss the physical capabilities of the human body.

The second paragraph may be about the physical benefits of competing in sports.

Similarly, in the third paragraph, you can present one or two case studies of specific athletes to support your point.

Once you have explained all your points in the body, it’s time to conclude the essay.

Your essay conclusion should summarize the main points of your essay and leave the reader with a sense of closure.

In the conclusion, you reiterate your thesis and sum up your arguments. You can also suggest implications or potential applications of the ideas discussed in the essay.

By following this structure, you will create a well-organized essay.

Check out a few example essays to see this structure in practice.

Science Essay Examples

A great way to get inspired when writing a science essay is to look at other examples of successful essays written by others.

Here are some examples that will give you an idea of how to write your essay.

Science Essay About Genetics - Science Essay Example

Environmental Science Essay Example | PDF Sample

The Science of Nanotechnology

Science, Non-Science, and Pseudo-Science

The Science Of Science Education

Science in our Daily Lives

Short Science Essay Example

Let’s take a look at a short science essay:

Want to read more essay examples? Here, you can find more science essay examples to learn from.

How to Choose the Right Science Essay Topic

Choosing the right science essay topic is a critical first step in crafting a compelling and engaging essay. Here's a concise guide on how to make this decision wisely:

Consider Your Interests: Start by reflecting on your personal interests within the realm of science. Selecting a topic that genuinely fascinates you will make the research and writing process more enjoyable and motivated.
Relevance to the Course: Ensure that your chosen topic aligns with your course or assignment requirements. Read the assignment guidelines carefully to understand the scope and focus expected by your instructor.
Current Trends and Issues: Stay updated with the latest scientific developments and trends. Opting for a topic that addresses contemporary issues not only makes your essay relevant but also demonstrates your awareness of current events in the field.
Narrow Down the Scope: Science is vast, so narrow your topic to a manageable scope. Instead of a broad subject like "Climate Change," consider a more specific angle like "The Impact of Melting Arctic Ice on Global Sea Levels."
Available Resources: Ensure that there are sufficient credible sources and research materials available for your chosen topic. A lack of resources can hinder your research efforts.
Discuss with Your Instructor: If you're uncertain about your topic choice, don't hesitate to consult your instructor or professor. They can provide valuable guidance and may even suggest specific topics based on your academic goals.

Science Essay Topics

Choosing an appropriate topic for a science essay is one of the first steps in writing a successful paper.

Here are a few science essay topics to get you started:

How space exploration affects our daily lives?
How has technology changed our understanding of medicine?
Are there ethical considerations to consider when conducting scientific research?
How does climate change affect the biodiversity of different parts of the world?
How can artificial intelligence be used in medicine?
What impact have vaccines had on global health?
What is the future of renewable energy?
How do we ensure that genetically modified organisms are safe for humans and the environment?
The influence of social media on human behavior: A social science perspective
What are the potential risks and benefits of stem cell therapy?

Important science topics can cover anything from space exploration to chemistry and biology. So you can choose any topic according to your interests!

Need more topics? We have gathered 100+ science essay topics to help you find a great topic!

Continue reading to find some tips to help you write a successful science essay.

Science Essay Writing Tips

Once you have chosen a topic and looked at examples, it's time to start writing the science essay.

Here are some key tips for a successful essay:

Research thoroughly

Make sure you do extensive research before you begin writing your paper. This will ensure that the facts and figures you include are accurate and supported by reliable sources.

Use clear language

Avoid using jargon or overly technical language when writing your essay. Plain language is easier to understand and more engaging for readers.

Referencing

Always provide references for any information you include in your essay. This will demonstrate that you acknowledge other people's work and show that the evidence you use is credible.

Make sure to follow the basic structure of an essay and organize your thoughts into clear sections. This will improve the flow and make your essay easier to read.

Ask someone to proofread

It’s also a good idea to get someone else to proofread your work as they may spot mistakes that you have missed.

These few tips will help ensure that your science essay is well-written and informative!

You've learned the steps to writing a successful science essay and looked at some examples and topics to get you started.

Make sure you thoroughly research, use clear language, structure your thoughts, and proofread your essay. With these tips, you’re sure to write a great science essay!

Do you still need expert help writing a science essay? Our science essay writing service is here to help. With our team of professional writers, you can rest assured that your essay will be written to the highest standards.

Contact our essay service now to get started!

Also, do not forget to try our essay typer tool for quick and cost-free aid with your essays!

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Betty is a freelance writer and researcher. She has a Masters in literature and enjoys providing writing services to her clients. Betty is an avid reader and loves learning new things. She has provided writing services to clients from all academic levels and related academic fields.

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How to successfully write a scientific essay.

Posted by Cody Rhodes

If you are undertaking a course which relates to science, you are more or less apt to write an essay on science. You need to know how to write a science essay irrespective of whether your professor gives you a topic or you come up with one. Additionally, you need to have an end objective in mind. Writing a science essay necessitates that you produce an article which has all the details and facts about the subject matter and it ought to be to the point. Also, you need to know and understand that science essays are more or less different from other types of essays. They require you to be analytical and precise when answering questions. Hence, this can be quite challenging and tiresome. However, that should not deter you from learning how to write your paper. You can always inquire for pre-written research papers for sale from writing services like EssayZoo.

Also, you can read other people’s articles and find out how they produce and develop unique and high-quality papers. Moreover, this will help you understand how to approach your essays in different ways. Nonetheless, if you want to learn how to write a scientific paper in a successful manner, consider the following tips.

How to successfully write a scientific essay

Select a topic for your article Like any other type of essay, you need to have a topic before you start the actual writing process. Your professor or instructor may give you a science essay topic to write about or ask you to come up with yours. When selecting a topic for your paper, ensure that you choose one you can write about. Do not pick a complex topic which can make the writing process boring and infuriating for you. Instead, choose one that you are familiar with. Select a topic you will not struggle gathering information about. Also, you need to have an interest in it. If you are unable to come up with a good topic, trying reading other people’s articles. This will help you develop a topic with ease.

Draft a plan After selecting a topic, the next step is drafting a plan or an outline. An outline is fundamental in writing a scientific essay as it is the foundation on which your paper is built. Additionally, it acts as a road map for your article. Hence, you need to incorporate all the thoughts and ideas you will include in your essay in the outline. You need to know what you will include in the introduction, the body, and the conclusion. Drafting a plan helps you save a lot of time when writing your paper. Also, it helps you to keep track of the primary objective of your article.

Start writing the article After drafting a plan, you can begin the writing process. Writing your paper will be smooth and easier as you have an outline which helps simplify the writing process. When writing your article, begin with a strong hook for your introduction. Dictate the direction your paper will take. Provide some background information and state the issue you will discuss as well as the solutions you have come up with. Arrange the body of your article according to the essay structure you will use to guide you. Also, ensure that you use transitory sentences to show the relationship between the paragraphs of your article. Conclude your essay by summarizing all the key points. Also, highlight the practical potential of our findings and their impacts.

Proofread and check for errors in the paper Before submitting or forwarding your article, it is fundamental that you proofread and correct all the errors that you come across. Delivering a paper that is full of mistakes can affect your overall performance in a negative manner. Thus, it is essential you revise your paper and check for errors. Correct all of them. Ask a friend to proofread your paper. He or she may spot some of the mistakes you did not come across.

In conclusion, writing a scientific essay differs from writing other types of papers. A scientific essay requires you to produce an article which has all the information and facts about the subject matter and it ought to be to the point. Nonetheless, the scientific essay formats similar to the format of any other essay: introduction, body, and conclusion. You need to use your outline to guide you through the writing process. To learn how to write a scientific essay in a successful manner, consider the tips above.

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Writing the Scientific Paper

When you write about scientific topics to specialists in a particular scientific field, we call that scientific writing. (When you write to non-specialists about scientific topics, we call that science writing.)

The scientific paper has developed over the past three centuries into a tool to communicate the results of scientific inquiry. The main audience for scientific papers is extremely specialized. The purpose of these papers is twofold: to present information so that it is easy to retrieve, and to present enough information that the reader can duplicate the scientific study. A standard format with six main part helps readers to find expected information and analysis:

Title--subject and what aspect of the subject was studied.
Abstract--summary of paper: The main reason for the study, the primary results, the main conclusions
Introduction-- why the study was undertaken
Methods and Materials-- how the study was undertaken
Results-- what was found
Discussion-- why these results could be significant (what the reasons might be for the patterns found or not found)

There are many ways to approach the writing of a scientific paper, and no one way is right. Many people, however, find that drafting chunks in this order works best: Results, Discussion, Introduction, Materials & Methods, Abstract, and, finally, Title.

The title should be very limited and specific. Really, it should be a pithy summary of the article's main focus.

"Renal disease susceptibility and hypertension are under independent genetic control in the fawn hooded rat"
"Territory size in Lincoln's Sparrows ( Melospiza lincolnii )"
"Replacement of deciduous first premolars and dental eruption in archaeocete whales"
"The Radio-Frequency Single-Electron Transistor (RF-SET): A Fast and Ultrasensitive Electrometer"

This is a summary of your article. Generally between 50-100 words, it should state the goals, results, and the main conclusions of your study. You should list the parameters of your study (when and where was it conducted, if applicable; your sample size; the specific species, proteins, genes, etc., studied). Think of the process of writing the abstract as taking one or two sentences from each of your sections (an introductory sentence, a sentence stating the specific question addressed, a sentence listing your main techniques or procedures, two or three sentences describing your results, and one sentence describing your main conclusion).

Example One

Hypertension, diabetes and hyperlipidemia are risk factors for life-threatening complications such as end-stage renal disease, coronary artery disease and stroke. Why some patients develop complications is unclear, but only susceptibility genes may be involved. To test this notion, we studied crosses involving the fawn-hooded rat, an animal model of hypertension that develops chronic renal failure. Here, we report the localization of two genes, Rf-1 and Rf-2 , responsible for about half of the genetic variation in key indices of renal impairment. In addition, we localize a gene, Bpfh-1 , responsible for about 26% of the genetic variation in blood pressure. Rf-1 strongly affects the risk of renal impairment, but has no significant effect on blood pressure. Our results show that susceptibility to a complication of hypertension is under at least partially independent genetic control from susceptibility to hypertension itself.

Brown, Donna M, A.P. Provoost, M.J. Daly, E.S. Lander, & H.J. Jacob. 1996. "Renal disease susceptibility and hypertension are under indpendent genetic control in the faun-hooded rat." Nature Genetics , 12(1):44-51.

Example Two

We studied survival of 220 calves of radiocollared moose ( Alces alces ) from parturition to the end of July in southcentral Alaska from 1994 to 1997. Prior studies established that predation by brown bears ( Ursus arctos ) was the primary cause of mortality of moose calves in the region. Our objectives were to characterize vulnerability of moose calves to predation as influenced by age, date, snow depths, and previous reproductive success of the mother. We also tested the hypothesis that survival of twin moose calves was independent and identical to that of single calves. Survival of moose calves from parturition through July was 0.27 ± 0.03 SE, and their daily rate of mortality declined at a near constant rate with age in that period. Mean annual survival was 0.22 ± 0.03 SE. Previous winter's snow depths or survival of the mother's previous calf was not related to neonatal survival. Selection for early parturition was evidenced in the 4 years of study by a 6.3% increase in the hazard of death with each daily increase in parturition date. Although there was no significant difference in survival of twin and single moose calves, most twins that died disappeared together during the first 15 days after birth and independently thereafter, suggesting that predators usually killed both when encountered up to that age.

Key words: Alaska, Alces alces , calf survival, moose, Nelchina, parturition synchrony, predation

Testa, J.W., E.F. Becker, & G.R. Lee. 2000. "Temporal patterns in the survival of twin and single moose ( alces alces ) calves in southcentral Alaska." Journal of Mammalogy , 81(1):162-168.

Example Three

We monitored breeding phenology and population levels of Rana yavapaiensis by use of repeated egg mass censuses and visual encounter surveys at Agua Caliente Canyon near Tucson, Arizona, from 1994 to 1996. Adult counts fluctuated erratically within each year of the study but annual means remained similar. Juvenile counts peaked during the fall recruitment season and fell to near zero by early spring. Rana yavapaiensis deposited eggs in two distinct annual episodes, one in spring (March-May) and a much smaller one in fall (September-October). Larvae from the spring deposition period completed metamorphosis in earlv summer. Over the two years of study, 96.6% of egg masses successfully produced larvae. Egg masses were deposited during periods of predictable, moderate stream flow, but not during seasonal periods when flash flooding or drought were likely to affect eggs or larvae. Breeding phenology of Rana yavapaiensis is particularly well suited for life in desert streams with natural flow regimes which include frequent flash flooding and drought at predictable times. The exotic predators of R. yavapaiensis are less able to cope with fluctuating conditions. Unaltered stream flow regimes that allow natural fluctuations in stream discharge may provide refugia for this declining ranid frog from exotic predators by excluding those exotic species that are unable to cope with brief flash flooding and habitat drying.

Sartorius, Shawn S., and Philip C. Rosen. 2000. "Breeding phenology of the lowland leopard frog ( Rana yavepaiensis )." Southwestern Naturalist , 45(3): 267-273.

Introduction

The introduction is where you sketch out the background of your study, including why you have investigated the question that you have and how it relates to earlier research that has been done in the field. It may help to think of an introduction as a telescoping focus, where you begin with the broader context and gradually narrow to the specific problem addressed by the report. A typical (and very useful) construction of an introduction proceeds as follows:

"Echimyid rodents of the genus Proechimys (spiny rats) often are the most abundant and widespread lowland forest rodents throughout much of their range in the Neotropics (Eisenberg 1989). Recent studies suggested that these rodents play an important role in forest dynamics through their activities as seed predators and dispersers of seeds (Adler and Kestrell 1998; Asquith et al 1997; Forget 1991; Hoch and Adler 1997)." (Lambert and Adler, p. 70)

"Our laboratory has been involved in the analysis of the HLA class II genes and their association with autoimmune disorders such as insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. As part of this work, the laboratory handles a large number of blood samples. In an effort to minimize the expense and urgency of transportation of frozen or liquid blood samples, we have designed a protocol that will preserve the integrity of lymphocyte DNA and enable the transport and storage of samples at ambient temperatures." (Torrance, MacLeod & Hache, p. 64)

"Despite the ubiquity and abundance of P. semispinosus , only two previous studies have assessed habitat use, with both showing a generalized habitat use. [brief summary of these studies]." (Lambert and Adler, p. 70)

"Although very good results have been obtained using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification of DNA extracted from dried blood spots on filter paper (1,4,5,8,9), this preservation method yields limited amounts of DNA and is susceptible to contamination." (Torrance, MacLeod & Hache, p. 64)

"No attempt has been made to quantitatively describe microhabitat characteristics with which this species may be associated. Thus, specific structural features of secondary forests that may promote abundance of spiny rats remains unknown. Such information is essential to understand the role of spiny rats in Neotropical forests, particularly with regard to forest regeneration via interactions with seeds." (Lambert and Adler, p. 71)

"As an alternative, we have been investigating the use of lyophilization ("freeze-drying") of whole blood as a method to preserve sufficient amounts of genomic DNA to perform PCR and Southern Blot analysis." (Torrance, MacLeod & Hache, p. 64)

"We present an analysis of microhabitat use by P. semispinosus in tropical moist forests in central Panama." (Lambert and Adler, p. 71)

"In this report, we summarize our analysis of genomic DNA extracted from lyophilized whole blood." (Torrance, MacLeod & Hache, p. 64)

Methods and Materials

In this section you describe how you performed your study. You need to provide enough information here for the reader to duplicate your experiment. However, be reasonable about who the reader is. Assume that he or she is someone familiar with the basic practices of your field.

It's helpful to both writer and reader to organize this section chronologically: that is, describe each procedure in the order it was performed. For example, DNA-extraction, purification, amplification, assay, detection. Or, study area, study population, sampling technique, variables studied, analysis method.

Include in this section:

study design: procedures should be listed and described, or the reader should be referred to papers that have already described the used procedure
particular techniques used and why, if relevant
modifications of any techniques; be sure to describe the modification
specialized equipment, including brand-names
temporal, spatial, and historical description of study area and studied population
assumptions underlying the study
statistical methods, including software programs

Example description of activity

Chromosomal DNA was denatured for the first cycle by incubating the slides in 70% deionized formamide; 2x standard saline citrate (SSC) at 70ºC for 2 min, followed by 70% ethanol at -20ºC and then 90% and 100% ethanol at room temperature, followed by air drying. (Rouwendal et al ., p. 79)

Example description of assumptions

We considered seeds left in the petri dish to be unharvested and those scattered singly on the surface of a tile to be scattered and also unharvested. We considered seeds in cheek pouches to be harvested but not cached, those stored in the nestbox to be larderhoarded, and those buried in caching sites within the arena to be scatterhoarded. (Krupa and Geluso, p. 99)

Examples of use of specialized equipment

Oligonucleotide primers were prepared using the Applied Biosystems Model 318A (Foster City, CA) DNA Synthesizer according to the manufacturers' instructions. (Rouwendal et al ., p.78)
We first visually reviewed the complete song sample of an individual using spectrograms produced on a Princeton Applied Research Real Time Spectrum Analyzer (model 4512). (Peters et al ., p. 937)

Example of use of a certain technique

Frogs were monitored using visual encounter transects (Crump and Scott, 1994). (Sartorius and Rosen, p. 269)

Example description of statistical analysis

We used Wilcox rank-sum tests for all comparisons of pre-experimental scores and for all comparisons of hue, saturation, and brightness scores between various groups of birds ... All P -values are two-tailed unless otherwise noted. (Brawner et al ., p. 955)

This section presents the facts--what was found in the course of this investigation. Detailed data--measurements, counts, percentages, patterns--usually appear in tables, figures, and graphs, and the text of the section draws attention to the key data and relationships among data. Three rules of thumb will help you with this section:

present results clearly and logically
avoid excess verbiage
consider providing a one-sentence summary at the beginning of each paragraph if you think it will help your reader understand your data

Remember to use table and figures effectively. But don't expect these to stand alone.

Some examples of well-organized and easy-to-follow results:

Size of the aquatic habitat at Agua Caliente Canyon varied dramatically throughout the year. The site contained three rockbound tinajas (bedrock pools) that did not dry during this study. During periods of high stream discharge seven more seasonal pools and intermittent stretches of riffle became available. Perennial and seasonal pool levels remained stable from late February through early May. Between mid-May and mid-July seasonal pools dried until they disappeared. Perennial pools shrank in surface area from a range of 30-60 m² to 3-5- M². (Sartorius and Rosen, Sept. 2000: 269)

Notice how the second sample points out what is important in the accompanying figure. It makes us aware of relationships that we may not have noticed quickly otherwise and that will be important to the discussion.

A similar test result is obtained with a primer derived from the human ß-satellite... This primer (AGTGCAGAGATATGTCACAATG-CCCC: Oligo 435) labels 6 sites in the PRINS reaction: the chromosomes 1, one pair of acrocentrics and, more weakly, the chromosomes 9 (Fig. 2a). After 10 cycles of PCR-IS, the number of sites labeled has doubled (Fig. 2b); after 20 cycles, the number of sites labeled is the same but the signals are stronger (Fig. 2c) (Rouwendal et al ., July 93:80).

Related Information: Use Tables and Figures Effectively

Do not repeat all of the information in the text that appears in a table, but do summarize it. For example, if you present a table of temperature measurements taken at various times, describe the general pattern of temperature change and refer to the table.

"The temperature of the solution increased rapidly at first, going from 50º to 80º in the first three minutes (Table 1)."

You don't want to list every single measurement in the text ("After one minute, the temperature had risen to 55º. After two minutes, it had risen to 58º," etc.). There is no hard and fast rule about when to report all measurements in the text and when to put the measurements in a table and refer to them, but use your common sense. Remember that readers have all that data in the accompanying tables and figures, so your task in this section is to highlight key data, changes, or relationships.

In this section you discuss your results. What aspect you choose to focus on depends on your results and on the main questions addressed by them. For example, if you were testing a new technique, you will want to discuss how useful this technique is: how well did it work, what are the benefits and drawbacks, etc. If you are presenting data that appear to refute or support earlier research, you will want to analyze both your own data and the earlier data--what conditions are different? how much difference is due to a change in the study design, and how much to a new property in the study subject? You may discuss the implication of your research--particularly if it has a direct bearing on a practical issue, such as conservation or public health.

This section centers on speculation . However, this does not free you to present wild and haphazard guesses. Focus your discussion around a particular question or hypothesis. Use subheadings to organize your thoughts, if necessary.

This section depends on a logical organization so readers can see the connection between your study question and your results. One typical approach is to make a list of all the ideas that you will discuss and to work out the logical relationships between them--what idea is most important? or, what point is most clearly made by your data? what ideas are subordinate to the main idea? what are the connections between ideas?

Achieving the Scientific Voice

Eight tips will help you match your style for most scientific publications.

Develop a precise vocabulary: read the literature to become fluent, or at least familiar with, the sort of language that is standard to describe what you're trying to describe.
Once you've labeled an activity, a condition, or a period of time, use that label consistently throughout the paper. Consistency is more important than creativity.
Define your terms and your assumptions.
Include all the information the reader needs to interpret your data.
Remember, the key to all scientific discourse is that it be reproducible . Have you presented enough information clearly enough that the reader could reproduce your experiment, your research, or your investigation?
When describing an activity, break it down into elements that can be described and labeled, and then present them in the order they occurred.
When you use numbers, use them effectively. Don't present them so that they cause more work for the reader.
Include details before conclusions, but only include those details you have been able to observe by the methods you have described. Do not include your feelings, attitudes, impressions, or opinions.
Research your format and citations: do these match what have been used in current relevant journals?
Run a spellcheck and proofread carefully. Read your paper out loud, and/ or have a friend look over it for misspelled words, missing words, etc.

Applying the Principles, Example 1

The following example needs more precise information. Look at the original and revised paragraphs to see how revising with these guidelines in mind can make the text clearer and more informative:

Before: Each male sang a definite number of songs while singing. They start with a whistle and then go from there. Each new song is always different, but made up an overall repertoire that was completed before starting over again. In 16 cases (84%), no new songs were sung after the first 20, even though we counted about 44 songs for each bird.

After: Each male used a discrete number of song types in his singing. Each song began with an introductory whistle, followed by a distinctive, complex series of fluty warbles (Fig. 1). Successive songs were always different, and five of the 19 males presented their entire song repertoire before repeating any of their song types (i.e., the first IO recorded songs revealed the entire repertoire of 10 song types). Each song type recurred in long sequences of singing, so that we could be confident that we had recorded the entire repertoire of commonly used songs by each male. For 16 of the 19 males, no new song types were encountered after the first 20 songs, even though we analyzed and average of 44 songs/male (range 30-59).

Applying the Principles, Example 2

In this set of examples, even a few changes in wording result in a more precise second version. Look at the original and revised paragraphs to see how revising with these guidelines in mind can make the text clearer and more informative:

Before: The study area was on Mt. Cain and Maquilla Peak in British Columbia, Canada. The study area is about 12,000 ha of coastal montane forest. The area is both managed and unmanaged and ranges from 600-1650m. The most common trees present are mountain hemlock ( Tsuga mertensiana ), western hemlock ( Tsuga heterophylla ), yellow cedar ( Chamaecyparis nootkatensis ), and amabilis fir ( Abies amabilis ).

After: The study took place on Mt. Cain and Maquilla Peak (50'1 3'N, 126'1 8'W), Vancouver Island, British Columbia. The study area encompassed 11,800 ha of coastal montane forest. The landscape consisted of managed and unmanaged stands of coastal montane forest, 600-1650 m in elevation. The dominant tree species included mountain hemlock ( Tsuga mertensiana ), western hemlock ( Tsuga heterophylla ), yellow cedar ( Chamaecyparis nootkatensis ), and amabilis fir ( Abies amabilis ).

Two Tips for Sentence Clarity

Although you will want to consider more detailed stylistic revisions as you become more comfortable with scientific writing, two tips can get you started:

First, the verb should follow the subject as soon as possible.

Really Hard to Read : "The smallest of the URF's (URFA6L), a 207-nucleotide (nt) reading frame overlapping out of phase the NH2- terminal portion of the adenosinetriphosphatase (ATPase) subunit 6 gene has been identified as the animal equivalent of the recently discovered yeast H+-ATPase subunit gene."

Less Hard to Read : "The smallest of the UR-F's is URFA6L, a 207-nucleotide (nt) reading frame overlapping out of phase the NH2-terminal portion of the adenosinetriphosphatase (ATPase) subunit 6 gene; it has been identified as the animal equivalent of the recently discovered yeast H+-ATPase subunit 8 gene."

Second, place familiar information first in a clause, a sentence, or a paragraph, and put the new and unfamiliar information later.

More confusing : The epidermis, the dermis, and the subcutaneous layer are the three layers of the skin. A layer of dead skin cells makes up the epidermis, which forms the body's shield against the world. Blood vessels, carrying nourishment, and nerve endings, which relay information about the outside world, are found in the dermis. Sweat glands and fat cells make up the third layer, the subcutaneous layer.

Less confusing : The skin consists of three layers: the epidermis, the dermis, and the subcutaneous layer. The epidermis is made up of dead skin cells, and forms a protective shield between the body and the world. The dermis contains the blood vessels and nerve endings that nourish the skin and make it receptive to outside stimuli. The subcutaneous layer contains the sweat glands and fat cells which perform other functions of the skin.

Bibliography

Scientific Writing for Graduate Students . F. P. Woodford. Bethesda, MD: Council of Biology Editors, 1968. [A manual on the teaching of writing to graduate students--very clear and direct.]
Scientific Style and Format . Council of Biology Editors. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994.
"The science of scientific writing." George Gopen and Judith Swann. The American Scientist , Vol. 78, Nov.-Dec. 1990. Pp 550-558.
"What's right about scientific writing." Alan Gross and Joseph Harmon. The Scientist , Dec. 6 1999. Pp. 20-21.
"A Quick Fix for Figure Legends and Table Headings." Donald Kroodsma. The Auk , 117 (4): 1081-1083, 2000.

Wortman-Wunder, Emily, & Kate Kiefer. (1998). Writing the Scientific Paper. Writing@CSU . Colorado State University. https://writing.colostate.edu/resources/writing/guides/.

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Scientific Writing: Sections of a Paper

Sections of a Paper
Common Grammar Mistakes Explained
Citing Sources

Introduction

Materials & Methods

Typically scientific journal articles have the following sections:

Materials & Methods

References used:

Kotsis, S.V. and Chung, K.C. (2010) A Guide for Writing in the Scientific Forum. Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery. 126(5):1763-71. PubMed ID: 21042135

Van Way, C.W. (2007) Writing a Scientific Paper. Nutrition in Clinical Practice. 22: 663-40. PubMed ID: 1804295

What to include:

Background/Objectives: include the hypothesis
Methods: Briefly explain the type of study, sample/population size and description, the design, and any particular techniques for data collection and analysis
Results: Essential data, including statistically significant data (use # & %)
Conclusions: Summarize interpretations of results and explain if hypothesis was supported or rejected
Be concise!
Emphasize the methods and results
Do not copy the introduction
Only include data that is included in the paper
Write the abstract last
Avoid jargon and ambiguity
Should stand-alone

Additional resources: Fisher, W. E. (2005) Abstract Writing. Journal of Surgical Research. 128(2):162-4. PubMed ID: 16165161 Peh, W.C. and Ng, K.H. (2008) Abstract and keywords. Singapore Medical Journal. 49(9): 664-6. PubMed ID: 18830537

How does your study fit into what has been done
Explain evidence using limited # of references
Why is it important
How does it relate to previous research
State hypothesis at the end
Use present tense
Be succinct
Clearly state objectives
Explain important work done

Additional resources: Annesley, T. M. (2010) "It was a cold and rainy night": set the scene with a good introduction. Clinical Chemistry. 56(5):708-13. PubMed ID: 20207764 Peh, W.C. and Ng, K.H. (2008) Writing the introduction. Singapore Medical Journal. 49(10):756-8. PubMed ID: 18946606

What was done
Include characteristics
Describe recruitment, participation, withdrawal, etc.
Type of study (RCT, cohort, case-controlled, etc.)
Equipment used
Measurements made
Usually the final paragraph
Include enough details so others can duplicate study
Use past tense
Be direct and precise
Include any preliminary results
Ask for help from a statistician to write description of statistical analysis
Be systematic

Additional resources: Lallet, R. H. (2004) How to write the methods section of a research paper. Respiratory Care. 49(10): 1229-32. PubMed ID: 15447808 Ng, K.H. and Peh, W.C. (2008) Writing the materials and methods. Singapore Medical Journal. 49(11): 856-9. PubMed ID: 19037549

Describe study sample demographics
Include statistical significance and the statistical test used
Use tables and figures when appropriate
Present in a logical sequence
Facts only - no citations or interpretations
Should stand alone (not need written descriptions to be understood)
Include title, legend, and axes labels
Include raw numbers with percentages
General phrases (significance, show trend, etc. should be used with caution)
Data is plural ("Our data are" is correct, "Our data is" is in-correct)

Additional resources: Ng, K.H and Peh, W.C. (2008) Writing the results. Singapore Medical Journal. 49(12):967-9. PubMed ID: 19122944 Streiner, D.L. (2007) A shortcut to rejection: how not to write the results section of a paper. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry. 52(6):385-9. PubMed ID: 17696025

Did you reject your null hypothesis?
Include a focused review of literature in relation to results
Explain meaning of statistical findings
Explain importance/relevance
Include all possible explanations
Discuss possible limitations of study
Suggest future work that could be done
Use past tense to describe your study and present tense to describe established knowledge from literature
Don't criticize other studies, contrast it with your work
Don't make conclusions not supported by your results
Stay focused and concise
Include key, relevant references
It is considered good manners to include an acknowledgements section

Additional resources: Annesley, T. M. (2010) The discussion section: your closing argument. Clinical Chemistry. 56(11):1671-4. PubMed ID: 20833779 Ng, K.H. and Peh, W.C. (2009) Writing the discussion. Singapore Medical Journal. 50(5):458-61. PubMed ID: 19495512

Tables & Figures: Durbin, C. G. (2004) Effective use of tables and figures in abstracts, presentations, and papers. Respiratory Care. 49(10): 1233-7. PubMed ID: 15447809 Ng, K. H. and Peh, W.C.G. (2009) Preparing effective tables. Singapore Medical Journal. (50)2: 117-9. PubMed ID: 19296024

Statistics: Ng, K. H. and Peh, W.C.G. (2009) Presenting the statistical results. Singapore Medical Journal. (50)1: 11-4. PubMed ID: 19224078

References: Peh, W.C.G. and Ng, K. H. (2009) Preparing the references. Singapore Medical Journal. (50)7: 11-4. PubMed ID: 19644619

Additional Resources

More from Elsevier Elsevier's Research Academy is an online tutorial to help with writing books, journals, and grants. It also includes information on citing sources, peer reviewing, and ethics in publishing
Research4Life Training Portal Research4Life provides downloadable instruction materials, including modules on authorship skills as well as other research related skills.
Coursera: Science Writing Coursera provides a wide variety of online courses for continuing education. You can search around for various courses on scientific writing or academic writing, and they're available to audit for free.

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Scientific Writing: Structuring a scientific article

Resume/Cover letter
Structuring a scientific article
AMA Citation Style This link opens in a new window
APA Citation Style This link opens in a new window
Scholarly Publishing This link opens in a new window

How to Structure a Scientific Article

Many scientific articles include the following elements:

I. Abstract: The abstract should briefly summarize the contents of your article. Be sure to include a quick overview of the focus, results and conclusion of your study.

II. Introduction: The introduction should include any relevant background information and articulate the idea that is being investigated. Why is this study unique? If others have performed research on the topic, include a literature review.

III. Methods and Materials: The methods and materials section should provide information on how the study was conducted and what materials were included. Other researchers should be able to reproduce your study based on the information found in this section.

IV. Results: The results sections includes the data produced by your study. It should reflect an unbiased account of the study's findings.

V. Discussion and Conclusion: The discussion section provides information on what researches felt was significant and analyzes the data. You may also want to provide final thoughts and ideas for further research in the conclusion section.

For more information, see How to Read a Scientific Paper.

Scientific Article Infographic

Structure of a Scientific Article
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Scientific Essay | How To Write It, Parts And Characteristics

We explain what a scientific essay is, its characteristics and the parts that make it up. Also, how to write a scientific essay?

What is a scientific essay?

A scientific essay is a type of prose writing in which the author gives his opinion or position on a particular topic based on certain objective information that comes from laws or scientifically reliable evidence.

The scientific essay uses formal language , although not necessarily elaborate or sophisticated, to convey an idea or present a thought of the author. It is made up of two fundamental parts: an objective part, in which the thesis or scientific theory is exposed, and another subjective part in which the writer of the essay presents conclusions or hypotheses on the issue raised.

The type of content that a scientific essay addresses is varied, but always revolves around science-related topics . In addition, the essays vary among themselves in length, objective and audience to which they are directed.

Characteristics of a scientific essay

Some of the main characteristics of a scientific essay are:

It must be original and unpublished . An essay must present an opinion or point of view drawn up by the author himself, so subjective information from other authors cannot be copied or replicated.
You can use a free theme . There is no specific area or topic for the development of a scientific essay, but the author can choose the subject that is of interest to him.
It should only address one topic . A scientific essay does not address multiple topics at once, but rather focuses on expressing a single, central idea. Then you can address related or secondary topics, but always in relation to the main topic.
Use a scientific theory or law as a basis . The starting point of any scientific essay is to investigate a topic and then develop the conclusions or hypotheses.
It must be synthetic . All scientific essays must be brief but must always include relevant data. In general terms, although it depends on the topic addressed, scientific essays do not usually exceed four or five A4 pages.
It has stages . A scientific essay is carried out by following certain steps that guide the author and allow him to do a good job.
It is written in simple and formal language . For the writing of a scientific essay, a formal and objective language must be used, although it does not have to be strictly scientific.
It must have order and coherence . For the organization of an essay, it is advisable to follow certain guidelines or order when organizing and capturing the information.
Bibliography must be included . Any scientific essay must include the sources from which the scientific data is obtained. This is extremely important to give seriousness and confidence in the essay and to give credit to the authors of the scientific theories or laws.

How to do a scientific essay?

There are certain steps or stages that can be carried out when doing a scientific essay. These are:

Selection of the research area . The author of the essay chooses the field or discipline on which he wants to investigate.
Research . We proceed to the reading of different topics of interest that allow reducing the field of action and result in the topic on which it will be investigated.
Delimitation of the subject . After defining the theme, the author recognizes something that he does not understand or is interesting about a theory and discovers the axis of his essay.
Information search . The author investigates everything that is published on that particular topic and collects the data and information he needs to later refute or affirm his own hypotheses or conclusions.
Organization and selection of information . The author uses all the information previously collected and chooses which is the essential information, which will be discarded and which will be complementary data.
Elaboration of an outline . From the information collected, the most important concepts are extracted and the primary and secondary ideas are recognized. The data of interest and the conclusions drawn from the research are turned over on a sheet.
Preparation of a draft . The order that the information will have within the essay is defined and the writing begins.
Writing the essay . The final version of the essay is written and contents of the draft can be added or deleted. In this instance, attention must be paid to the correction and editing of the writing, since it is important that the essay does not have errors in style or in spelling and grammar.

Parts of a scientific essay

A scientific essay consists of the following elements:

Title . It is the name that the scientific essay will bear. It is important that it is original and refers to the content of the writing.
Introduction . The topic that the essay will address is raised and the hypotheses or what explains the reason for the choice of that topic are formulated.
Development . The ideas or data that support the author's position are presented and developed and the bases on which the author starts for the investigation are raised and made known . Information and data from certified sources are used in the development of the essay and opinions and points of view of the author may be included (although always duly justified). The essay must be a personal and original analysis and, in the event that extracts or content from other authors are cited, the source must be specified.
Conclusions . The conclusions reached by the author after the investigation and analysis of information are detailed.
Bibliography. The sources of information used throughout the research and writing process are listed.

Kalum Talbot

MA student of the TransAtlantic Masters program at UNC-Chapel Hill. Political Science with a focus on European Studies. Expressed ideas are open to revision. He not only covers Technical articles but also has skills in the fields of SEO, graphics, web development and coding. .

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Writing an Introduction for a Scientific Paper

Dr. michelle harris, dr. janet batzli, biocore.

This section provides guidelines on how to construct a solid introduction to a scientific paper including background information, study question , biological rationale, hypothesis , and general approach . If the Introduction is done well, there should be no question in the reader’s mind why and on what basis you have posed a specific hypothesis.

Broad Question : based on an initial observation (e.g., “I see a lot of guppies close to the shore. Do guppies like living in shallow water?”). This observation of the natural world may inspire you to investigate background literature or your observation could be based on previous research by others or your own pilot study. Broad questions are not always included in your written text, but are essential for establishing the direction of your research.

Background Information : key issues, concepts, terminology, and definitions needed to understand the biological rationale for the experiment. It often includes a summary of findings from previous, relevant studies. Remember to cite references, be concise, and only include relevant information given your audience and your experimental design. Concisely summarized background information leads to the identification of specific scientific knowledge gaps that still exist. (e.g., “No studies to date have examined whether guppies do indeed spend more time in shallow water.”)

Testable Question : these questions are much more focused than the initial broad question, are specific to the knowledge gap identified, and can be addressed with data. (e.g., “Do guppies spend different amounts of time in water <1 meter deep as compared to their time in water that is >1 meter deep?”)

Biological Rationale : describes the purpose of your experiment distilling what is known and what is not known that defines the knowledge gap that you are addressing. The “BR” provides the logic for your hypothesis and experimental approach, describing the biological mechanism and assumptions that explain why your hypothesis should be true.

The biological rationale is based on your interpretation of the scientific literature, your personal observations, and the underlying assumptions you are making about how you think the system works. If you have written your biological rationale, your reader should see your hypothesis in your introduction section and say to themselves, “Of course, this hypothesis seems very logical based on the rationale presented.”

A thorough rationale defines your assumptions about the system that have not been revealed in scientific literature or from previous systematic observation. These assumptions drive the direction of your specific hypothesis or general predictions.
Defining the rationale is probably the most critical task for a writer, as it tells your reader why your research is biologically meaningful. It may help to think about the rationale as an answer to the questions— how is this investigation related to what we know, what assumptions am I making about what we don’t yet know, AND how will this experiment add to our knowledge? *There may or may not be broader implications for your study; be careful not to overstate these (see note on social justifications below).
Expect to spend time and mental effort on this. You may have to do considerable digging into the scientific literature to define how your experiment fits into what is already known and why it is relevant to pursue.
Be open to the possibility that as you work with and think about your data, you may develop a deeper, more accurate understanding of the experimental system. You may find the original rationale needs to be revised to reflect your new, more sophisticated understanding.
As you progress through Biocore and upper level biology courses, your rationale should become more focused and matched with the level of study e ., cellular, biochemical, or physiological mechanisms that underlie the rationale. Achieving this type of understanding takes effort, but it will lead to better communication of your science.

***Special note on avoiding social justifications: You should not overemphasize the relevance of your experiment and the possible connections to large-scale processes. Be realistic and logical —do not overgeneralize or state grand implications that are not sensible given the structure of your experimental system. Not all science is easily applied to improving the human condition. Performing an investigation just for the sake of adding to our scientific knowledge (“pure or basic science”) is just as important as applied science. In fact, basic science often provides the foundation for applied studies.

Hypothesis / Predictions : specific prediction(s) that you will test during your experiment. For manipulative experiments, the hypothesis should include the independent variable (what you manipulate), the dependent variable(s) (what you measure), the organism or system , the direction of your results, and comparison to be made.

If you are doing a systematic observation , your hypothesis presents a variable or set of variables that you predict are important for helping you characterize the system as a whole, or predict differences between components/areas of the system that help you explain how the system functions or changes over time.

Experimental Approach : Briefly gives the reader a general sense of the experiment, the type of data it will yield, and the kind of conclusions you expect to obtain from the data. Do not confuse the experimental approach with the experimental protocol . The experimental protocol consists of the detailed step-by-step procedures and techniques used during the experiment that are to be reported in the Methods and Materials section.

Some Final Tips on Writing an Introduction

As you progress through the Biocore sequence, for instance, from organismal level of Biocore 301/302 to the cellular level in Biocore 303/304, we expect the contents of your “Introduction” paragraphs to reflect the level of your coursework and previous writing experience. For example, in Biocore 304 (Cell Biology Lab) biological rationale should draw upon assumptions we are making about cellular and biochemical processes.
Be Concise yet Specific: Remember to be concise and only include relevant information given your audience and your experimental design. As you write, keep asking, “Is this necessary information or is this irrelevant detail?” For example, if you are writing a paper claiming that a certain compound is a competitive inhibitor to the enzyme alkaline phosphatase and acts by binding to the active site, you need to explain (briefly) Michaelis-Menton kinetics and the meaning and significance of Km and Vmax. This explanation is not necessary if you are reporting the dependence of enzyme activity on pH because you do not need to measure Km and Vmax to get an estimate of enzyme activity.
Another example: if you are writing a paper reporting an increase in Daphnia magna heart rate upon exposure to caffeine you need not describe the reproductive cycle of magna unless it is germane to your results and discussion. Be specific and concrete, especially when making introductory or summary statements.

Where Do You Discuss Pilot Studies? Many times it is important to do pilot studies to help you get familiar with your experimental system or to improve your experimental design. If your pilot study influences your biological rationale or hypothesis, you need to describe it in your Introduction. If your pilot study simply informs the logistics or techniques, but does not influence your rationale, then the description of your pilot study belongs in the Materials and Methods section.

How will introductions be evaluated? The following is part of the rubric we will be using to evaluate your papers.

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The Principles of Biomedical Scientific Writing: Introduction

Zahra bahadoran.

1 Nutrition and Endocrine Research Center, Research Institute for Endocrine Sciences, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

Sajad Jeddi

2 Endocrine Physiology Research Center, Research Institute for Endocrine Sciences, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

Parvin Mirmiran

Asghar ghasemi.

A well-written introduction of a scientific paper provides relevant background knowledge to convince the readers about the rationale, importance, and novelty of the research. The introduction should inform the readers about the “problem”, “existing solutions”, and “main limitations or gaps of knowledge”. The authors’ hypothesis and methodological approach used to examine the research hypothesis should also be stated. After reading a good introduction, readers should be guided through “a general context” to “a specific area” and “a research question”. Incomplete, inaccurate, or outdated reviews of the literature are the more common pitfalls of an introduction that may lead to rejection. This review focuses on the principles of writing the introduction of an article and provides a quick look at the essential points that should be considered for writing an optimal introduction.

1. Introduction

Writing scientific papers is currently the most accepted outlet of research dissemination and scientific contribution. A scientific paper is structured by four main sections according to IMRAD (Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion) style ( 1 ).

To quote Plato, the Greek philosopher, “the beginning is half of the whole”, and the introduction is probably one of the most difficult sections in writing a paper ( 2 ). For writing introduction of a scientific paper, a “deductive approach” is generally used; deduction is the reasoning used to apply general theories and principles to reach specific consequences or hypotheses ( 3 ).

The initial impression of readers about writing style, the overall quality of research, validity of its findings, and the conclusion is strongly influenced by the introduction ( 4 ). A poor introduction misleads the readers about the content of the paper, possibly discouraging them from reading the subsequent sections; a well-written introduction, however, convinces the reader about the research logic ( 4 , 5 ). A good introduction is hence the main challenge faced by authors when drafting a research manuscript ( 2 ).

Historically, writing an introduction as an independent section of a research paper was underscored in the 1980s ( 6 ). Studies available on scientific writing provide evidence emphasizing the complexity of the compositional process of writing an introduction; these studies concluded that “introduction is not just wrestling with words to fit the facts, but it is also strongly modulated by perceptions of the anticipated reactions of peer-colleagues” ( 6 ).

Although there is no single correct way to organize different components of a research paper ( 7 ), scientific writing is an experimental science ( 7 ), and several guides have been developed to improve the quality of research disseminations ( 8 - 11 ). Typically, an introduction contains a summary of relevant literature and background knowledge, highlights the gap of knowledge, states the research question or hypothesis, and describes the methodological approach used to fill in the gap and respond to the question ( 12 - 14 ). Some believe that introduction can be a major context for debate about research methodology ( 6 ).

This review focuses on the principles of writing the introduction section and provides a quick look at the main points that must be considered for writing a good introduction.

2. Functions of the Introduction

The introduction of a scientific paper may be described as the gate to a city ( 5 ). It may also resemble a mental road map that should elucidate “the known”, “the unknown”, and “the new knowledge added by findings of the current study” ( 4 ); it presents the background knowledge to convince the readers of the importance of data added to that available in the field ( 15 ); in addition, the introduction sets the scene for readers ( 16 ) and paves the way for what is to follow ( 17 ). The introduction should be tailored to the journal to which the manuscript is being submitted ( 18 ). It has two functions, to be informative enough for understanding the paper and to evoke the reader’s interest ( 19 , 20 ). An introduction should serve as a hook, informing the readers of the question they should expect the paper to address ( 7 ). “A good introduction will sell the study to editors, reviewers, and readers” ( 18 , 21 ).

3. Common Models of Writing an Introduction

A historical overview of scientific writing shows that several models have been proposed overtime on how to organize the introduction of a research paper. One of the most common approaches is the “problem-solving model” developed in 1979; according to this model, a series of subcontexts including “goal”, “current capacity”, “problem”, “solution”, and “criteria for evaluation” have been described ( 6 ). The structure of this model could vary across disciplines ( 22 , 23 ).

Another popular model proposed is “creating a research space”, which mainly focuses on “the dark side” of the issue; this model, is usually known as CARS (create-a-research-space) model and follows three moves including establishing a territory (the situation), establishing a niche (the problem), and occupying a niche (the solution) ( 24 , 25 ). This model can be modified to a four-move model by expanding move 3 to include a “concluding step” when it is required to explain the structure of remaining parts of the paper ( 6 , 25 ).

4. A Typical Model of Introduction

In this paper, we focused on a typical model of introduction commonly used in biomedical papers. As shown in Figure 1 , the form of introduction is a funnel or an inverted pyramid, from large to small or broad to narrow ( 7 , 16 , 19 , 26 ). The largest part of the funnel at the top describes the general context/topic and the importance of the study; the funnel then narrows down to the gap of knowledge, and ends with the authors’ hypothesis or aim of the study and the methodological approach used to examine the research hypothesis ( 18 , 26 ). In fact, introduction presents research ideas flowing from general to specific ( 27 ). As given below, in hypothesis-testing papers, the introduction usually consists of 2 - 3 ( 28 ) and sometimes 4 paragraphs ( 16 ), including the known, the unknown (knowledge gap), hypothesis/question or specific topic, and sometimes the approach ( 16 , 19 ). Some authors end the introduction with essential findings of the paper ( 29 ). It has, however, been argued that the introduction should not include results or conclusion from the work being reported ( 2 , 16 , 20 ), as readers would then lose their interest in reading the rest of the manuscript ( 2 ). The introduction may also be expanded by including some uncommon parts like “future implications of the work” ( 30 ).

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4.1. The Known

In this section, a brief summary of background information is provided to present the general topic of the paper ( 20 ). This section should arouse and build the audience’s attention and interest in the hypothesis/question or specific topic ( 29 ). This part may be considered the same as move 1 of the CARS model and includes “claiming importance”, “making topic generalizations”, and “reviewing items of previous research” ( 22 , 24 ).

Besides the different roles proposed for citation, its primary motive is believed to be “perceived relevance” ( 31 ). It is important that the review of literature be complete, fair, balanced ( 29 ), to the point ( 19 ), and directly related to the study ( 16 ); it should not be too long or contain a very detailed review of literature ( 7 , 28 ) or a complete history of the field ( 9 ). Depending on the audience ( 16 ), authors should include background information that they think readers need for following the rest of the paper ( 16 ).

Contrary to the current view that the introduction should be short and act as a prelude to the manuscript itself, another opinion, however, suggests this section provides a complete introduction to the subject ( 32 ). Sweeping generalizations (i.e., applying a general rule to a specific situation) should be avoided in the first (the opening) sentence of the introduction ( 8 ). The first three sentences of the first paragraph should present the issue that will be addressed by the paper ( 8 ). If the general topic be presented in the very first word of a very short sentence, the reader is able to immediately focus on and understand the issue ( 30 ).

4.2. The Unknown/Gap of Knowledge

The importance and novelty of the work should be stated in the introduction ( 19 ). This section describes the gaps in our present understanding of the field and why it is necessary that these gaps in data be filled ( 29 ). In this section, the author should present limitations of prior studies, needed (but currently unavailable) information, or an unsolved problem and highlight the importance of the missing pieces of the puzzle ( 16 ). This section provides information to justify the aim of the study, that is, it provides rationale for the readers to convince them ( 8 , 20 ); however, one-sided or biased views of controversial issues should be avoided ( 33 ).

The unknown section of the introduction is similar to “establishing a niche” and includes “counter-claiming” and “indicating a gap” ( 6 , 25 ). To develop a “counter-claiming” statement, the author needs to mention an opposing viewpoint or perspective or highlight a gap or limitation in current literature ( 24 ). “Counter-claiming” sentences are usually distinguished by a specific terminology, including albeit, although, but, howbeit, however, nevertheless, notwithstanding, unfortunately, whereas, and yet ( 24 ). This step toward or “continuing a tradition” part ( 6 , 25 ) is an extension of prior research to expand upon or clarify a research problem ( 24 ), and the connection is commonly initiated with the following terms: “hence,” “therefore,” “consequently,” or “thus” ( 24 ). An alternative approach for “counter-claiming” within the context of prior research is giving a “new perspective” without challenging the validity of previous research or highlighting their limitations ( 24 ).

Pitfalls in this section include missing an important paper and overstating the novelty of the study ( 29 ).

4.3. Rationale of Research/Hypothesis/Question

Defining the rationale of research is the most critical mission of the introduction section, where the author should tell the reader why the research is biologically meaningful ( 34 ). In stating the rationale of the study, an author should clarify that the study is the next logical step in a line of investigations, addressing the limitations of previous works ( 8 ). This section corresponds to “occupying the niche” in the CARS model ( 6 ), where contribution of the research in the development of “novel” knowledge is stated in contrast to prior research on the topic ( 24 ). The question/hypothesis, something that is not yet proven ( 35 ), is placed at the tip of the inverted cone/pyramid ( 16 ), and it is usually last sentence of the last paragraph in the introduction that presents the specific topic, which is “ What was done in your paper ?” ( 7 , 8 , 19 ).

The main and secondary objectives should be clear and preferably comprise no more than two sentences ( 20 ). The question should be clearly stated as the most common reason for rejection of a manuscript is the inability to do this ( 8 ); it would be a bad start that reviewers/readers cannot grasp the research question of the paper ( 36 ).

5. Writing Tips

5.1. the length.

The introduction should be generally short ( 7 , 37 ) and not exceed one double-spaced typed page ( 37 ), approximately 250 - 300 words are typically sufficient and sometimes it may be longer (500 - 600 words) ( 19 , 38 ); however, depending on the audience and type of paper, the length of the introduction could vary ( 20 ); if it is more than two-thirds the length of the results section, it is probably too long ( 9 ). It has been recommended that the introduction should be no more than 10% to 15% of total manuscript excluding abstract and references ( 18 , 26 ). A long introduction may be used to compensate for the limited data given about the actual research, a pitfall that peer-reviewers are aware of ( 30 ).

5.2. Sentence and Paragraph

In a scientific paper, each paragraph should contain a single main idea ( 7 , 39 ) that stands alone and is very clear ( 7 ). The first sentence of a paragraph should tell the reader what to expect to get out of the paragraph ( 7 ). Flow is a critical element in paragraph structure, that is to say, every sentence should arise logically from the sentence before it and transition logically into the next sentence ( 7 ). It is suggested that length of a sentence in a scientific text should not exceed 25 - 30 words; maximum three to four 30-word sentences are allowed in a paper ( 40 ). The ideal size for a paragraph is 3 - 4 sentences (maximum five sentences) ( 39 ) or 75 - 150 words (ideally not exceeding 150 words) ( 30 ). The maximum length of a paragraph in a well-written paper should not exceed 15 lines ( 30 ).

To test readability of a paragraph or passage, the Gunning Fog scoring formula may be helpful. This index helps the author to write clearly and simply. Fog score is typically between 0 and 20 and estimates the years of formal education the reader requires to understand the text on the first reading (5, is very easy; 6 is easy to read; 14 is difficult; 16 is very difficult) ( 41 , 42 ). Fog score is calculated as follow:

Where a complex word is defined as a word containing three or more syllables ( 43 ). An online tool that calculates the Gunning Fog Index is available at http://gunning-fog-index.com/index.html.

Using the correct verb tense in scientific writing enables authors to manage time and establish a logical relation or “time framework” within different parts of a paper ( 44 ). Two tenses are mostly used in scientific writing, namely the present and the past ( 18 , 45 ); “present tense” is used for established general knowledge (general truths) and “past tense” for the results that you are currently reporting ( 11 , 39 , 45 ). Some authors believe that “present tense” better describes most observations in a scientific paper ( 5 , 7 ). To manage the time framework of the introduction, a transitional verb tense from “present simple” at the beginning (to describe general background) to “present perfect” (describing the problem over time), and again “present simple” at the end of introduction (to state the hypothesis and approach) is commonly recommended ( 30 ).

Although a review of the literature may recommend several tenses, using “present simple” or “present perfect” is more common ( 46 ); the use of “present tense” to refer to the existing research indicates that the authors believe the findings of an older research are still true and relevant ( 44 ). The “present perfect tense” may be adopted when authors communicate “currency” (being current), in both positive (asserting that previous studies have established a firm research foundation) and negative (asserting that not enough relevant or valid work has yet been done) forms ( 44 ).

As seen in Table 1 , much of the introduction emphasizes on previously established knowledge, hence using the present tense ( 11 , 37 ). If you give the author’s name non-parenthetically, present or past tense could be used for the verb that is linked to the author; however, scientific work itself is given in the present tense; for instance, Smith (1975) showed that streptomycin inhibits growth of the organism ( 11 ).

5.4. Citation

Reference section is a vital component of papers ( 51 ). Peer-reviewed articles are preferred by scientific journals ( 51 ). Be cautious never to cite a reference that you have not read ( 51 ) and be sure to cite the source of the original document ( 18 ). The number of references in the introduction should be kept to a minimum ( 19 ) according to the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (http://icmje.org). Only directly pertinent references should be selected, but do not miss important previous works ( 9 , 20 ). A common error in the writing of an introduction is the struggle to review all evidence available on the topic, which confuses the readers and often buries the aim of the study in additional information ( 26 , 52 ). If there are many references, select the first, the most important, the most elegant, the most pertinent, and the most recent ones ( 18 , 19 ). References should be selected from updated papers with higher impact factors ( 5 ). In addition, select original rather than review articles ( 2 , 53 ), as this is what most editors/reviewers expect ( 18 ). In the presence of newer references, older ones are usually used if considered as being an influential work ( 16 ).

Unnecessary overlap of introduction and discussion is a problem for both sections, therefore, it has been strongly recommended to cite the references where it makes most sense ( 16 ). No reference needs to be made for accepted facts such as double-helical structure of DNA ( 9 ). There is usually no need to list standard text books as references and if this has been done, specify the place in the book ( 32 ). Some authors believe that referring to papers using author names should be avoided, as it slows the pace of writing ( 8 ).

6. Common Pitfalls in Writing Introduction

The most common pitfalls that occur during writing the introduction include: ( 1 ) Providing too much general information, ( 2 ) going into details of previous studies, ( 3 ) containing too many citations, ( 4 ) criticizing recent studies extensively, ( 5 ) presenting the conclusion of the study, except for studies where the format requires this, ( 6 ) having inconsistency with other sections of the manuscript, ( 7 ) including overlapping information with the discussion section, and ( 8 ) not reporting most relevant papers ( 2 ). In Table 2 , most do’s and don’ts for writing a good introduction are summarized; examples of the principles for writing an introduction for a scientific paper can be found in the literature ( 16 , 19 ).

7. Conclusion

The introduction of scientific original papers should be short but informative. Briefly, the first part of a well-written introduction is expected to contain the most important concisely cited references, focused on the research problem. In the second part, the problem and existing solutions or current limitations should be elaborated, and the last paragraph should describe the rationale for the research and the main research purpose. The introduction is suggested be concluded with a brief paragraph that describes the organization of the rest of the paper. Overall, a good introduction should convince the readers that the study is important in the context of what is already known.

Acknowledgments

The authors wish to acknowledge Ms Niloofar Shiva for critical editing of English grammar and syntax of the manuscript.

Essential Parts of a Scientific Research Paper

For some students, mentioning the word research paper structure makes them shiver, get stressed, and feel like the earth should swallow them already. However, the point of having well-defined parts of a research paper is to make your academic life easier.

In both academic and scientific writing, the various parts of a research paper are established to form a framework, a skeleton, or a structure that can be ubiquitously used to make writing and reading research projects easier. For instance, a student writing a research paper in the USA will follow the same format as a student writing a research paper in Australia, as long as they apply the proper scientific methodology.

Given the confusion about the real parts of a research paper, we have developed a guide that will explore the structure of a research paper. We aim to make it easier for you to write a great research paper that will meet the checklist of a good research paper.

Like an essay, a research paper is supposed to explore a given topic in-depth, with information organized in a specific way that makes it easier to read, understand, and internalize the contents.

Without further delay, let’s delve deeper into the essential parts of a research paper.

Scientific Research Paper vs. Typical Research Paper

Although this article focuses on the parts of a research paper, it mainly dwells on the scientific paper.

A scientific research paper is usually written after conducting research. It is a report of research that was conducted and findings made, correlated with literature, and explanations are given to inform the audience about a given topic. Dissertations, capstone projects, and thesis papers are perfect examples of scientific research papers.

On the other hand, a typical research paper can be an argumentative, interpretive, definitive, narrative, or compare and contrast paper where a student explores a given research question or a topic. Typical research papers are common assignments in English, social sciences, political sciences, nursing, and humanities subjects. They are usually long papers between 5 to 20 pages that are written based on findings and facts from other studies rather than primary research.

On the other hand, scientific research papers are usually ten pages and above but entail experimentation or primary research. They entail calculations, manipulation of data, drawing of inferences. For the standard research papers, students only research a topic, define it, take sides, compare and contrast, explore the causes and consequences, perform rhetorical analysis, or synthesize their findings.

In most cases, scientific research papers can be published in online journals such as Elsevier if they meet the publication guidelines. On the other hand, typical research papers are for assignments to gauge the understanding, research, and writing skills of a student.

While a scientific research paper entails the IMRAD format in its body, a typical research paper only has the introduction, body, and conclusion. The body paragraphs develop the main ideas based on the topics. It is also uncommon to find a typical research paper including the appendices, unless on rare occasions.

In general, typical research papers dwell on written literature. In contrast, scientific research papers dwell on research data contrasted against the secondary and primary data.

What are the various parts of a research paper?

Whether scientific or academic, a scientific research paper has a total of 10 parts: title/cover page, table of content, abstract, introduction, methodology, data analysis, results/findings and discussion, conclusion and recommendations, references, and appendices.

Following this structure helps develop an organized, flowing, and top-quality research paper. You have to follow the exact research paper structure as failing to do so could lead to deduction of marks and a poor grade overall.

In most cases, when writing a research paper, it is important to stick to the structure we will explore shortly. It should be the same structure you use to develop a good research paper outline.

Although different academic papers have their preferred structures, a research paper has a defined structure that is ubiquitous worldwide. Sometimes, suppose you are writing a research paper that does not require you to conduct an experiment. In that case, you are allowed to skip the methodology section. Instead, such research papers will have the introduction and body paragraphs divided into sub-sections that tackle different aspects of the topic before writing the conclusion and recommendations.

If you face trouble with any of these parts, go through our step-by-step guide for writing a good research paper , and develop concepts and ideas for each section.

Let’s see what makes a research paper structure.

Cover Page/Title Page

The cover or title page is the very first page of your research paper. It majorly contains the details of the author and the paper. The details include:

The title of the paper, which should be 10-12 words long and reflect the content of the paper.
Your name/name of the author
Name of the affiliated institution or university
Name of your instructor/professor
Year/Date of submission
Acknowledgment (if it is mandatory)

Without the cover page, your research paper will probably miss some marks or risk not being published in an online journal if that is the intention behind writing it.

Although making a title page is a straightforward process, you need to be keen on the different formatting style requirements for the cover page. For instance, the APA cover page differs from an MLA research paper cover page, and so do research papers in Chicago, IEEE, Oxford, or Harvard formats.

Therefore, if you get the formatting right, you will notice that it is the simplest part of writing a scientific research paper.

This is the part of the research paper you save for the last. The table of contents lists all the sections of your research paper. The list of items in the research paper are based on the subheadings and headings of the research paper and depends on the levels of these headings.

There is never a limit on the number of items or headings/subheadings to use in a research paper. However, the formatting, content, and length of the research paper will determine the items featured in the table of contents.

Usually, the various word processors have inbuilt features that allow you to generate a table of content automatically. After generating the table of content, you can update it if you make any changes to the paper or just before submitting your research paper for marking.

A research paper abstract is a short summary or a snapshot of the research paper. It is typically between 150-200 words or less (sometimes up to 300 or 450 words depending on the instructions and length of the paper) and lists the most important points of the paper.

An abstract briefly states the rationale for the study, what was done, a summary of the results, and concludes with a brief statement of the importance of these results. In most cases, your abstract should have a detailed overview of the research question and its significance, participants, methods, data collection and analysis, snapshot of the results, and conclusions.

An abstract does not include the background information, neither is it cited. Abstracts allow the readers of the research paper to quickly fill themselves in with the points of the paper without reading the paper. As such, an abstract should be a self-contained section that can easily be understood without reading the entire text of the research paper or article.

Abstracts are litmus papers to determine whether the audience wants to read the entire paper or is just not worth their time.

A good abstract has strong content, aesthetic appeal, good style, and carefully selected language. So, you should write it with care, slowly, and keenly.

Introduction

As is the custom of writing academic papers, some students might write the introduction first to set the direction of the research paper while others will leave it for the last, where it summarizes the entire paper.

No method is wrong as long as you have a good research paper structure and outline for the parts of the research paper.

A perfect research paper introduction consists of three distinct parts:

The background information of the research problem, which introduces the research question and topic of your research paper
The statement of purpose (sometimes referred to as the statement of the problem) of the research paper where you expound on the research problem. It is in this section that you place your thesis statement or hypothesis, although these could very well be included as the last sentences of your introduction.
The statement of intent , which gives the context of your research and the general organization of your research paper.

Literature Review

The literature review section is one of the basic elements of a research paper that one can never miss out on. In the literature review section, you consider the current published works related to the subject matter or topic of your research paper. In addition, you will be evaluating what other researchers have already done as concerns your topic. Therefore, the purpose of your literature review is to describe the past research and how it relates to your research thesis or topic. When writing the literature review, you need to synthesize the previous literature and the new idea you are researching. Therefore, it must examine the major theories, frameworks, conceptual models, and data related to your research topic and their contributions. You must also look at the findings to be able to:

Establish a research gap that exists in the literature
Explain the connection between literature and your topic
Identify new ways of interpreting the previous research
Show connections and disparities between literature

Our definitive writing literature review guide will come in handy here.

Research Methodology

Also referred to as the Materials and Procedures section, the methodology section of your research paper details the approach you took while researching. The research methodology completes the structure of a scientific research paper.

In your research methodology section, you will explore:

Research design (qualitative, quantitative, or mixed-methods)
Sampling strategy
Participants (demographics and other information)
Data collection methods (Questionnaire, survey, interviews, focus groups, observation, experiments, secondary data, etc.)
Data analysis method (qualitative: content, discourse, narrative, and thematic analysis or Quantitative, through the use of statistical tests such as t-test or linear regression)
Justification of the data collection tools and data analysis methods

The methodology section of your research paper must have relevant citations to fortify it and give credibility, reliability, and authority to your findings. In this part of your research paper, you will be using passive voice since it is based on something that was done previously.

Data Analysis

Although all the other parts are important in a research paper, the data analysis section is also among the most critical from a practical perspective. It depends on the research approach or design you have chosen for your paper.

The data analysis process encompasses drawing inferences or making meaning from the collected data through manipulating the data. It could be through statistical methods or qualitative approaches such as content, a thematic, narrative, and discourse analysis.

This is by far the toughest part of a research paper, as analyzing data is time-consuming, confusing, and challenging. When handling this part, you need to bring on your A-game. Be accurate, keen, and aware of different formulae to apply.

If your data analysis is a sham, your entire research process will be deemed a failure, irrelevant, inconsistent, unreliable, and invalid.

Findings/Results and Discussion

This is another part of the paper that is longer. Again, the results and discussions combine to make sense to the readers without interpretation.

In this section of the research paper, you will be drawing comparisons between existing literature, the ones you included in your literature review, and the findings of your research study.

Ask yourself these questions:

Are the findings of your study supporting or refuting the existing knowledge?
Do your research findings fill the gap in the literature?

When writing this section, it is important to focus on what happened and develop the message to convince your audience. This section should contain:

A link between the results and the hypothesis or thesis statement
A potential explanation of the unexpected results or observations
Integration of the results to the previous studies to explain an observed phenomenon

As you write, end your discussion with a small summary of the key points that your readers should note. It is also prudent to point to your readers the relevance of the findings and who should care to implement or read the findings. For instance, if you are writing about childhood obesity , it is prudent to outline the implications of the findings to policymakers, healthcare practitioners, or parents.

You need to also weigh in on the limitations of your research study in this section of your research paper so that subsequent research can cover that as a research gap. It also contextualizes your study and qualifies your findings. Furthermore, it also explains the various factors that might have influenced your findings and suggestions that could lead to otherwise different results. This is the last section of the Introduction, Methods, Results, And, Discussion (IMRAD) format, which defines how the main body of the research paper should be.

Conclusion and Recommendations

A research paper, like an essay, is not complete without a proper conclusion. The conclusion is one of the most important parts of a research paper that every student looks up to. It usually signals that you are almost done.

In this section, you will summarize your research findings, weigh in on the findings vis a vis your identified research gap, express the limitations of your research, propose recommendations based on the findings for stakeholders and other researchers, and finalize your research paper.

When writing the conclusion, ask yourself:

Are the findings valid?
What are the implications of these findings for future research?
Does the research answer the research question?
Is the research relevant, valid, and credible?
Do the findings deviate from or support what other researchers found?
What are future recommendations based on the findings?
Can the outcomes shape policymaking and actions in society?
Who needs to take keen note of the findings?

References Page

Depending on the formatting/citation style, the references, sometimes labeled as bibliography or works cited, depending on the formatting/citation style, come in as the second-last part of the research paper. It begins on a new page immediately a research paper’s conclusion.

The length of this section depends on the number of references. We explored the estimated number of references for a research paper depending on length in our guide. Rightfully so, the more the references, the longer the reference section.

The references are usually arranged in alphabetic order unless it is the IEEE formatting and citation style that uses numbers instead of an alphabetized approach to arranging the references.

You are allowed to use one or more appendices in your research paper. Although many students and authors often ignore this part of a research paper, it entails material that is appropriate to expound the understanding of the readers but does not fit directly to the man body of the research paper.

This section can include tables, charts, summaries, images, figures, pictures, questionnaires, interview guides/questions, survey tools, maps, pictures, list of terms, glossary, letters, copies of documentation, and other supplementary material.

The appendices are referred to within the text of your research paper. It is placed right after the works cited, bibliography, or references page.

You can designate them as Appendix A, Appendix B, C, D…etc.

Final Remarks!

Although there is no single bulletproof style or approach for writing a research paper, writing a scientific research paper has to follow a specific format. We have explored all the customary parts of a scientific research paper, where data collection and analysis are involved.

Structure aside, the presentation deviates when writing a typical research paper, such as an English or political science research paper, where no data collection takes place. In this context, the content will be organized as a long essay. These standard research papers lack the methodology, results/findings, discussion, and sometimes the appendices sections, but the others remain standard. Nevertheless, scientific research papers must have all the 11 parts we have covered above in the order we have listed them.

Ensure that you focus on these 10 essential parts of a research paper to have a fulfilling and successful research and writing process. Producing a research paper should not be arduous when you have a solid outline. We have listed and discussed these parts to ease your life and help you maintain good focus.

To this end, we believe that you will be able to write a research paper with ease, taking into account its various parts. For now, we wish you all the best, and if you need help, our professional research paper writers are available to help.

Gradecrest is a professional writing service that provides original model papers. We offer personalized services along with research materials for assistance purposes only. All the materials from our website should be used with proper references. See our Terms of Use Page for proper details.

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Complete Guide: How to Write a Scientific Essay

Are you dealing with a science course in high school or college? Your professor will require you to write a paper that showcases the knowledge you’ve obtained, as well as your potential for research and logical conclusions.

The scientific essay format seems easy to maintain. However, you can’t simply follow an outline and come up with a unique paper. It takes a lot of work to complete a brilliant essay.

We have a few clear guidelines for you.

Tips on Writing Scientific Papers

Understand What a Scientific Essay Is

When you get this type of assignment for the first time, you have to understand it. Professors rarely spend enough time guiding you through the requirements. You should check if they published some instructions online. If not, you can follow this tutorial on how to write essays for science subjects, published by the University of Oxford.

In essence, a scientific essay sets up a problem and suggests potential solution. The solution has to be based on facts and scientific data. This is not the type of paper that requires your personal opinion.

For example, your professor may ask you to write a scientific essay about COVID-19. You will have to go through factual information and develop a pragmatic solution based on facts.

Choose a Topic

You can’t start writing on the general theme that your professor assigns. As an example, COVID-19 is a too broad team to be discussed in a five-paragraph paper. You’ll have to narrow it down to a specific problem, which you’ll try to solve.

Brainstorming is a good technique that helps you with the selection. Write down all scientific problems linked to the general issue. Then, use Google to see if you can find actual solutions for some of them. Choose a topic that gives you enough information to deal with. You don’t want to get stuck because you can’t find enough facts, so you’ll end up speculating.

Always Make an Outline

The scientific paper outline will guide you through an effortless process of writing. It’s a map for all facts and arguments that you plan to include. It’s pretty standard:

Introduction

Most professors don’t require you to follow the traditional five-paragraph format for scientific essays. However, you still need those three main elements in the paper, so you’ll maintain its logical flow. You still need a thesis statement supported with clear arguments.

Write notes on what you plan to include in each section of the paper. That’s your outline.

Find Scientific Articles to Reference

Research is an important part of a scientific essay. Use Google Scholar to find research studies related to your topic. You won’t find one discussing your exact topic. That would mean that your topic isn’t unique enough. Find studies that are related, and combine them to come down to your own conclusions.

Make sure to reference the sources you use. APA (American Psychological Association) is the preferred citation style for scientific papers. Analyze its guidelines and use them to format the references.

Go with the Flow

When you’re looking for writing tips, you’ll see a common recommendation: start writing early on .

That’s a good tip to follow. As soon as you get the instructions, you should start working on the paper.

But what if you don’t feel inspired? Don’t worry about it! You can’t sit in front of the computer and force yourself to write. Take it easy. Start with a light online search and take notes. That’s work, too. You’ll come to the outline in no time. Once you’re done with that part, it will be easy to carry on with the writing process.

Don’t Skip the Editing

It’s the easiest stage to skip, yet it’s the most important one. You may be pressured by time, but you can find half an hour to edit the paper, right?

Start with an evaluation of the logical flow. Read it from a beginner’s point of view. Are there some background details that you could add? Is there any wordiness or unnecessary argumentation? Don’t worry; you won’t butcher your work. You’ll only make it better.

You’re not done yet! Proofreading is the final stage. You have to check your spelling and grammar before you get to the final version of your paper. All that effort could go to waste for a silly mistake. You don’t want that.

You Can Do This

A scientific essay is not an easy challenge to undertake. You don’t know much about the topic, but you have to act like you’re an expert on it. To get to that level, you’ll need to read tons of research studies.

That’s why it’s important to give yourself enough time. When you do a good research, you’ll inevitably get inspired. You can find an interesting angle on any topic, no matter how boring it seems.

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Science Essay Examples

Best Science Essay Examples to Learn From

Published on: May 3, 2023

Last updated on: Jan 31, 2024

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Are you struggling to write a science essay that stands out?

Are you tired of feeling overwhelmed by scientific jargon and complicated concepts?

You're not alone.

Science essays can be a challenge for even the most dedicated students. It's no wonder that so many students struggle to produce top-notch papers.

But fear not!

In this blog post, we'll provide you with some science essay examples and tips. We will help you write a top-notch paper that impresses your professor and earns you a high grade.

So buckle up and get ready to tackle science essays like a pro!

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Science Essay Examples for Students

Writing a science essay can be a daunting task for students. However, with the right guidance and examples, it can also be a rewarding and enlightening experience.

Here, we'll provide you with examples so you can elevate your own writing.

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Science Essay Examples for Different Subjects

Science is a vast field that encompasses many different subjects, from biology to physics to chemistry. As a student, you may find yourself tasked with writing a science essay on a subject that you're not particularly familiar with.

We have provided you with science essay examples for different subjects to help you get started.

Social Science Essay Example

Political Science Essay Example

Environmental Science Essay Example

Health Science Essay Example

Computer Science Essay Example

University Science Essay Examples

Science essays are important part of university-level education. However, different universities may have different requirements and expectations when it comes to writing these essays.

That's why we've compiled some science essay examples for different universities. You can see what works and what doesn't, and tailor your own writing accordingly.

Scientific Essay Example University

Mcmaster Health Science Essay Example

Cornell Arts And Science Essay Example

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Structure of a Science Essay

Science essays are a crucial part of many subjects, and learning to structure them effectively is essential for achieving academic success.

Letâs explore scientific essay structure.

Introduction

The introduction of a science essay should introduce the topic and provide some context for the reader.

You should explain the purpose of the essay and provide a thesis statement that outlines the main argument you will make in the essay. A good introduction should also capture the reader's interest and motivate them to read on.

Check out these how to start a science essay examples for better understanding:

Body Paragraphs

The body paragraphs of a science essay should provide evidence to support the thesis statement. You should use scientific evidence, research, and data to support your argument.

Each paragraph should focus on one key point, and the points should be organized logically to create a coherent argument. It is essential to provide citations for all sources you use in your essay.

Here is an example for you:

The conclusion of a science essay should summarize the main points of the essay and restate the thesis statement in a compelling manner.

You should also provide some final thoughts or recommendations based on the evidence presented in the essay.

The conclusion should be concise and leave a lasting impression on the reader.

Natural Science Essay Topics

There are countless interesting, thought-provoking and problem solving essay topics in science.

Explore some compelling natural science essay topics to inspire your writing.

Science Essay Topics for 5th Graders

The importance of recycling for our environment
The different types of clouds and how they form
How animals hibernate during the winter months
The different types of rocks and how they are formed
The role of bees in pollination and food production
How light travels and how we see objects
The properties of magnets and how they work
The different stages of stem cell research
The human digestive system and how it works
The effects of pollution on our environment and health

Science Essay Topics for 6th Graders

The impact of climate change on the planet
The different types of energy and how they are produced
The importance of water conservation and management
The role of artificial intelligence in human life
The structure and function of the human respiratory system
The properties and uses of acids and bases
The effect of light on plant growth and development
The differences between renewable and non-renewable energy sources
The process of photosynthesis and its importance for life on Earth
The impact of technology on the environment and society

Science Essay Topics for 7th Graders

The structure and function of the human circulatory system
The different types of fossils and how they are formed
The impact of natural disasters on the environment and human life
The pros and cons of bacteria in our bodies and in the environment
The physics of sound and how it travels
The effects of air pollution in United States
The properties and uses of different types of waves (sound, light, etc.)
The process of cell division and its role in growth and repair
The structure and function of the human nervous system
The different types of ecosystems and their unique characteristics

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Tips for Writing a Science Essay

Writing a science essay can be challenging, especially if you don't have much experience in writing academic papers.

However, with the right approach and strategies, you can produce a high-quality science essays.

Here are some tips to help you write a successful science essay:

Understand the assignment requirements: Before you start writing your essay, make sure you understand the assignment requirements. Read the prompt carefully and make note of any specific guidelines or formatting requirements.

Choose a topic that interests you: Writing about a topic that you find interesting and engaging can make the process enjoyable and rewarding. Consider topics that you have studied in class or that you have a personal interest in.

Conduct thorough research: To write a successful science essay, you need to have a deep understanding of the topic you are writing about. Conduct thorough research using reliable sources such as academic journals, textbooks, and reputable websites.

Develop a clear and concise thesis statement: Your thesis statement should clearly state your argument or position on the topic you are writing about. It should be concise and specific, and should be supported by evidence throughout your essay.

Use evidence to support your claims: When writing a science essay, it's important to use evidence to support your claims and arguments. This can include scientific data, research findings, and expert opinions.

Edit and proofread your essay: Before submitting your essay, make sure to edit and proofread it carefully. Check for spelling and grammatical errors. Ensure that your essay is formatted correctly according to the assignment requirements.

In conclusion, this blog has provided a comprehensive guide to writing a successful science essay.

By following the tips, students can produce high-quality essays that showcase their understanding of science.

If you're struggling to write a science essay or need additional assistance, CollegeEssay.org is one of the best online essay services to help you out,

Our expert writers have extensive experience in writing science essays for students of all levels.

So why wait? Contact our science essay writing service today!

Frequently Asked Questions

What are some common mistakes to avoid when writing a science essay.

Some common mistakes to avoid include:

Plagiarizing content
Using incorrect or unreliable sources
Failing to clearly state your thesis
Using overly complex language

How can I make my science essay stand out?

To make your science essay stand out, consider choosing a unique or controversial topic. Using relevant and up-to-date sources, and present your information in a clear and concise manner. You can also consider using visuals such as graphs or charts to enhance your essay.

What should I do if I'm struggling to come up with a topic for my science essay?

If you're struggling to come up with a topic for your science essay, consider discussing potential topics with your instructor or classmates. You can also conduct research online or in academic journals to find inspiration.

How important is research when writing a science essay?

Research is an essential component of writing a science essay. Your essay should be grounded in accurate and reliable scientific information. That is why it's important to conduct thorough research using reputable sources.

Can I use personal anecdotes or experiences in my science essay?

While personal anecdotes or experiences can be engaging, they may not always be relevant to a science essay. It's important to focus on presenting factual information and scientific evidence to support your argument or position.

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Caleb S. has extensive experience in writing and holds a Masters from Oxford University. He takes great satisfaction in helping students exceed their academic goals. Caleb always puts the needs of his clients first and is dedicated to providing quality service.

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Scientific Writing Made Easy: A Step-by-Step Guide to Undergraduate Writing in the Biological Sciences
While writing is a critical part of the scientific process, it is often taught secondarily to scientific concepts and becomes an afterthought to students. ... Boulder 2016 graduate writing seminar for helpful discussions that greatly enhanced the quality of this essay. Potential Conflicts of Interest. None. Literature Cited. ...
How to Write a Scientific Essay • Oxford Learning College
An exceptional essay. reflects the detail that could be expected from a comprehensive knowledge and understanding of relevant parts of the specification; is free from fundamental errors; maintains appropriate depth and accuracy throughout; includes two or more paragraphs of material that indicates greater depth or breadth of study; A good essay
Parts of the paper
Parts of a Scientific & Scholarly Paper. Different sections are needed in different types of scientific papers (lab reports, literature reviews, systematic reviews, methods papers, research papers, etc.). Projects that overlap with the social sciences or humanities may have different requirements. Generally, however, you'll need to include:
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essay won't just be a list of factual statements, you're looking to identify the key principles and to illustrate them with examples and evidence. Often the hardest part of writing an essay is working out how and where to start. Sometimes the best way of getting round this problem is to start in the middle,
How to Write a Scientific Essay
Take concise notes while reading, focusing on information relevant to the essay. Identify the most crucial information and examples that support the argument. Begin writing the essay, considering starting with the middle sections for clarity. Circle back to the introduction and conclusion once the main body is outlined.
Successful Scientific Writing and Publishing: A Step-by-Step Approach
The abstract needs to stand alone from the article and tell the most important parts of the scientific story up front. Introduction. The purpose of the introduction is to explain how the study sought to create knowledge that is new and useful. The introduction section may often require only 3 paragraphs. First, describe the scope, nature, or ...
How to Write a Science Essay
A descriptive science essay aims to describe a certain scientific phenomenon according to established knowledge. On the other hand, the exploratory science essay requires you to go beyond the current theories and explore new interpretations. So before you set out to write your essay, always check out the instructions given by your instructor.
How to successfully write a scientific essay
Conclude your essay by summarizing all the key points. Also, highlight the practical potential of our findings and their impacts. Proofread and check for errors in the paper. Before submitting or forwarding your article, it is fundamental that you proofread and correct all the errors that you come across.
PDF WRITING A SCIENTIFIC ESSAY
of scientific work . 2. State. where your work could be extended or improved . 1. Clear. Citation . 2. Complete. Reference list . 3. Accepted . Style . 4. Accurately . reproduced . Acknowledge . work of other researchers so that readers can see how your point of view developed
Guide: Writing the Scientific Paper
The scientific paper has developed over the past three centuries into a tool to communicate the results of scientific inquiry. The main audience for scientific papers is extremely specialized. The purpose of these papers is twofold: to present information so that it is easy to retrieve, and to present enough information that the reader can ...
Scientific Writing: Sections of a Paper
Overview. Typically scientific journal articles have the following sections: References used: Kotsis, S.V. and Chung, K.C. (2010) A Guide for Writing in the Scientific Forum. Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery. 126 (5):1763-71. PubMed ID: 21042135. Van Way, C.W. (2007) Writing a Scientific Paper. Nutrition in Clinical Practice. 22: 663-40.
Structuring a scientific article
Many scientific articles include the following elements: I. Abstract: The abstract should briefly summarize the contents of your article.Be sure to include a quick overview of the focus, results and conclusion of your study.
Scientific Essay
Parts of a scientific essay. A scientific essay consists of the following elements: Title . It is the name that the scientific essay will bear. It is important that it is original and refers to the content of the writing. Introduction . The topic that the essay will address is raised and the hypotheses or what explains the reason for the choice ...
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The thesis is generally the narrowest part and last sentence of the introduction, and conveys your position, the essence of your argument or idea. See our handout on Writing a Thesis Statement for more. The roadmap Not all academic papers include a roadmap, but many do. Usually following the thesis, a roadmap is a
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Dr. Michelle Harris, Dr. Janet Batzli,Biocore. This section provides guidelines on how to construct a solid introduction to a scientific paper including background information, study question, biological rationale, hypothesis, and general approach. If the Introduction is done well, there should be no question in the reader's mind why and on ...
The Principles of Biomedical Scientific Writing: Introduction
2. Functions of the Introduction. The introduction of a scientific paper may be described as the gate to a city ().It may also resemble a mental road map that should elucidate "the known", "the unknown", and "the new knowledge added by findings of the current study" (); it presents the background knowledge to convince the readers of the importance of data added to that available in ...
Writing a Research Paper Introduction
Table of contents. Step 1: Introduce your topic. Step 2: Describe the background. Step 3: Establish your research problem. Step 4: Specify your objective (s) Step 5: Map out your paper. Research paper introduction examples. Frequently asked questions about the research paper introduction.
Parts of a Research Paper (Scientific vs. Typical)
Whether scientific or academic, a scientific research paper has a total of 10 parts: title/cover page, table of content, abstract, introduction, methodology, data analysis, results/findings and discussion, conclusion and recommendations, references, and appendices. Following this structure helps develop an organized, flowing, and top-quality ...
Complete Guide: How to Write a Scientific Essay
Find Scientific Articles to Reference; Research is an important part of a scientific essay. Use Google Scholar to find research studies related to your topic. You won't find one discussing your exact topic. That would mean that your topic isn't unique enough. Find studies that are related, and combine them to come down to your own conclusions.
5 Main Parts of an Essay: An Easy Guide to a Solid Structure
What are the 5 parts of an essay? Explore how the introduction, body paragraphs, and conclusion parts of an essay work together.
How to Write an Argumentative Essay
Make a claim. Provide the grounds (evidence) for the claim. Explain the warrant (how the grounds support the claim) Discuss possible rebuttals to the claim, identifying the limits of the argument and showing that you have considered alternative perspectives. The Toulmin model is a common approach in academic essays.
Top 15 Science Essay Examples for Students
Science essays are important part of university-level education. However, different universities may have different requirements and expectations when it comes to writing these essays. That's why we've compiled some science essay examples for different universities. You can see what works and what doesn't, and tailor your own writing accordingly.

How to Write a Scientific Essay

Planning your answer

Analysing the question

Writing the Essay

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Scientific and Scholarly Writing

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Learn How to Write an A+ Science Essay

What Is a Science Essay?

How To Write a Science Essay?

Choose Your Topic

Conduct Research

Create an Outline

Start Writing

Proofread & Edit

How to Structure a Science Essay?

Science Essay Examples

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How to Choose the Right Science Essay Topic

Science Essay Topics

Science Essay Writing Tips

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