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100 Interesting Research Paper Topics for High Schoolers

What’s covered:, how to pick the right research topic, elements of a strong research paper.

• Interesting Research Paper Topics

Composing a research paper can be a daunting task for first-time writers. In addition to making sure you’re using concise language and your thoughts are organized clearly, you need to find a topic that draws the reader in.

CollegeVine is here to help you brainstorm creative topics! Below are 100 interesting research paper topics that will help you engage with your project and keep you motivated until you’ve typed the final period. 

You can’t have a good research paper without a good research paper topic. “Good” is subjective and different students will find different topics interesting; however, what’s important is that you find a topic that makes you want to find out more and make a convincing argument. Maybe you’ll be so interested that you’ll want to take it further and submit your paper to a competition!

A research paper is similar to an academic essay but more lengthy and requires more research. This is bittersweet: although it is more work, you can create a more nuanced argument, and learn more about your topic area. Research papers are a demonstration of your research ability and your ability to formulate a convincing argument. How well you’re able to engage with the sources and make original contributions will determine the strength of your paper. 

Introduction

The introduction to a research paper serves two critical functions: it conveys the topic of the paper and illustrates how you will address it. A strong introduction will also pique the interest of the reader and make them excited to read more. Selecting a research paper topic that is meaningful, interesting, and fascinates you is an excellent first step toward creating an engaging paper that people will want to read.

Thesis Statement

A thesis statement is technically part of the introduction—generally the last sentence of it—but is so important that it merits a section of its own. The thesis statement is a declarative sentence that tells the reader what the paper is about. A strong thesis statement serves three purposes: present the topic of the paper, deliver a clear opinion on the topic, and summarize the points the paper will cover.

An example of a good thesis statement of diversity in the workforce is:

Diversity in the workplace is not just a moral imperative but also a strategic advantage for businesses, as it fosters innovation, enhances creativity, improves decision-making, and enables companies to better understand and connect with a diverse customer base.

The body is the largest section of a research paper. It’s here where you support your thesis, present your facts and research, and persuade the reader.

Each paragraph in the body of a research paper should have its own idea. The idea is presented, generally in the first sentence of the paragraph, by a topic sentence. The topic sentence acts similarly to the thesis statement, only on a smaller scale, and every sentence in the paragraph with it supports the idea it conveys.

An example of a topic sentence on how diversity in the workplace fosters innovation is:

Diversity in the workplace fosters innovation by bringing together individuals with different backgrounds, perspectives, and experiences, which stimulates creativity, encourages new ideas, and leads to the development of innovative solutions to complex problems.

The body of an engaging research paper flows smoothly from one idea to the next. Create an outline before writing and order your ideas so that each idea logically leads to another.

The conclusion of a research paper should summarize your thesis and reinforce your argument. It’s common to restate the thesis in the conclusion of a research paper.

For example, a conclusion for a paper about diversity in the workforce is:

In conclusion, diversity in the workplace is vital to success in the modern business world. By embracing diversity, companies can tap into the full potential of their workforce, promote creativity and innovation, and better connect with a diverse customer base, ultimately leading to greater success and a more prosperous future for all.

Reference Page

The reference page is normally found at the end of a research paper. It provides proof that you did research using credible sources, properly credits the originators of information, and prevents plagiarism.

There are a number of different formats of reference pages, including APA, MLA, and Chicago. Make sure to format your reference page in your teacher’s preferred style.

• Analyze the benefits of diversity in education.
• Are charter schools useful for the national education system?
• How has modern technology changed teaching?
• Discuss the pros and cons of standardized testing.
• What are the benefits of a gap year between high school and college?
• What funding allocations give the most benefit to students?
• Does homeschooling set students up for success?
• Should universities/high schools require students to be vaccinated?
• What effect does rising college tuition have on high schoolers?
• Do students perform better in same-sex schools?
• Discuss and analyze the impacts of a famous musician on pop music.
• How has pop music evolved over the past decade?
• How has the portrayal of women in music changed in the media over the past decade?
• How does a synthesizer work?
• How has music evolved to feature different instruments/voices?
• How has sound effect technology changed the music industry?
• Analyze the benefits of music education in high schools.
• Are rehabilitation centers more effective than prisons?
• Are congestion taxes useful?
• Does affirmative action help minorities?
• Can a capitalist system effectively reduce inequality?
• Is a three-branch government system effective?
• What causes polarization in today’s politics?
• Is the U.S. government racially unbiased?
• Choose a historical invention and discuss its impact on society today.
• Choose a famous historical leader who lost power—what led to their eventual downfall?
• How has your country evolved over the past century?
• What historical event has had the largest effect on the U.S.?
• Has the government’s response to national disasters improved or declined throughout history?
• Discuss the history of the American occupation of Iraq.
• Explain the history of the Israel-Palestine conflict.
• Is literature relevant in modern society?
• Discuss how fiction can be used for propaganda.
• How does literature teach and inform about society?
• Explain the influence of children’s literature on adulthood.
• How has literature addressed homosexuality?
• Does the media portray minorities realistically?
• Does the media reinforce stereotypes?
• Why have podcasts become so popular?
• Will streaming end traditional television?
• What is a patriot?
• What are the pros and cons of global citizenship?
• What are the causes and effects of bullying?
• Why has the divorce rate in the U.S. been declining in recent years?
• Is it more important to follow social norms or religion?
• What are the responsible limits on abortion, if any?
• How does an MRI machine work?
• Would the U.S. benefit from socialized healthcare?
• Elderly populations
• The education system
• State tax bases
• How do anti-vaxxers affect the health of the country?
• Analyze the costs and benefits of diet culture.
• Should companies allow employees to exercise on company time?
• What is an adequate amount of exercise for an adult per week/per month/per day?
• Discuss the effects of the obesity epidemic on American society.
• Are students smarter since the advent of the internet?
• What departures has the internet made from its original design?
• Has digital downloading helped the music industry?
• Discuss the benefits and costs of stricter internet censorship.
• Analyze the effects of the internet on the paper news industry.
• What would happen if the internet went out?
• How will artificial intelligence (AI) change our lives?
• What are the pros and cons of cryptocurrency?
• How has social media affected the way people relate with each other?
• Should social media have an age restriction?
• Discuss the importance of source software.
• What is more relevant in today’s world: mobile apps or websites?
• How will fully autonomous vehicles change our lives?
• How is text messaging affecting teen literacy?

Mental Health

• What are the benefits of daily exercise?
• How has social media affected people’s mental health?
• What things contribute to poor mental and physical health?
• Analyze how mental health is talked about in pop culture.
• Discuss the pros and cons of more counselors in high schools.
• How does stress affect the body?
• How do emotional support animals help people?
• What are black holes?
• Discuss the biggest successes and failures of the EPA.
• How has the Flint water crisis affected life in Michigan?
• Can science help save endangered species?
• Is the development of an anti-cancer vaccine possible?

Environment

• What are the effects of deforestation on climate change?
• Is climate change reversible?
• How did the COVID-19 pandemic affect global warming and climate change?
• Are carbon credits effective for offsetting emissions or just marketing?
• Is nuclear power a safe alternative to fossil fuels?
• Are hybrid vehicles helping to control pollution in the atmosphere?
• How is plastic waste harming the environment?
• Is entrepreneurism a trait people are born with or something they learn?
• How much more should CEOs make than their average employee?
• Can you start a business without money?
• Should the U.S. raise the minimum wage?
• Discuss how happy employees benefit businesses.
• How important is branding for a business?
• Discuss the ease, or difficulty, of landing a job today.
• What is the economic impact of sporting events?
• Are professional athletes overpaid?
• Should male and female athletes receive equal pay?
• What is a fair and equitable way for transgender athletes to compete in high school sports?
• What are the benefits of playing team sports?
• What is the most corrupt professional sport?

Where to Get More Research Paper Topic Ideas

If you need more help brainstorming topics, especially those that are personalized to your interests, you can use CollegeVine’s free AI tutor, Ivy . Ivy can help you come up with original research topic ideas, and she can also help with the rest of your homework, from math to languages.

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121+ Scientific Research Topics for High School Students

High school is a time of exploration, and for budding scientists, it’s the perfect opportunity to dive into the exciting world of scientific research. Whether you’re passionate about biology, chemistry, physics, or the social sciences, there’s a wealth of fascinating topics waiting to be explored. 

In this blog, we’ve compiled over engaging scientific research topics for high school students. These topics not only ignite your curiosity but also align with your academic journey. From unraveling the mysteries of genetics to exploring the cosmos, we’ve got you covered. So, let’s embark on this thrilling adventure of discovery and learning together!

What is a Scientific Research Topic?

Table of Contents

A scientific research topic is a specific subject or question that scientists or researchers investigate through a structured and systematic approach. These topics can cover a wide range of fields, from biology and chemistry to physics and social sciences. The goal of selecting a research topic is to address a problem, explore a hypothesis, or contribute new insights to an existing body of knowledge.

Why Engage in Scientific Research as a High School Student?

High school is the perfect time to start exploring scientific research because it:

• Fosters curiosity and a love for learning.
• Enhances problem-solving and critical thinking skills.
• Offers a taste of what a future career in science might entail.
• Provides an edge in college applications.

How to Choose the Right Scientific Research Topics for High School Students?

Selecting a research topic can be challenging, but it’s essential to choose something that genuinely interests you. When choosing a scientific research topic, it’s essential to consider the following factors:

• Interest: Select a topic that genuinely interests you. Your enthusiasm will drive your research forward.
• Relevance: Ensure that your topic is relevant to the field you’re studying or the scientific discipline you’re interested in.
• Feasibility: Assess whether you have access to the necessary resources and equipment to conduct research on your chosen topic.
• Ethical Considerations: Make sure your research is conducted ethically and follows all relevant guidelines and regulations.

Interesting Scientific Research Topics for High School Students

Now, let’s dive into the exciting world of scientific research topics for high school students in different categories:

Biology Research Topics

Let’s explore the scientific research topics for students in biology:

1. The impact of different types of diets on human health.

2. Investigating the effects of climate change on local ecosystems.

3. Studying the genetics of a specific inherited disease.

4. Exploring the biodiversity of a local habitat.

5. Investigating the role of microorganisms in soil health.

6. Analyzing the effects of pollution on aquatic life.

7. Studying the behavior of a specific animal species.

8. Investigating the impact of a new drug on cell growth.

9. Exploring the relationship between exercise and heart health.

10. Studying the effects of various fertilizers on plant growth.

11. Investigating the genetics of taste perception.

12. Exploring the impact of environmental factors on plant adaptation.

Chemistry Research Topics

Here are some scientific research topics for high school students in chemistry:

1. Investigating the properties of different types of polymers.

2. Studying the effects of pH on chemical reactions.

3. Analyzing the composition of a local water source.

4. Exploring the chemistry of food preservation methods.

5. Investigating the synthesis of a specific chemical compound.

6. Studying the effects of temperature on reaction rates.

7. Analyzing the chemical components of household products.

8. Investigating the properties of nanomaterials.

9. Exploring the chemistry of natural dyes.

10. Studying the chemical reactions involved in baking.

11. Investigating the chemistry of fireworks.

12. Analyzing the composition of air pollutants in your area.

Physics Research Topics

Let’s dive into the physics research topics for high school students:

1. Investigating the laws of motion using simple experiments.

2. Studying the behavior of light using prisms and lenses.

3. Analyzing the effects of different materials on magnetic fields.

4. Exploring the properties of waves and sound.

5. Investigating the relationship between temperature and electrical conductivity.

6. Studying the principles of electromagnetism.

7. Analyzing the motion of objects in a vacuum.

8. Investigating the behavior of pendulums.

9. Exploring the properties of different types of mirrors.

10. Studying the physics of roller coasters.

11. Investigating the properties of superconductors.

12. Analyzing the behavior of particles in nuclear reactions.

Environmental Science Research Topics

Discover some scientific research topics for high school students in environmental:

1. Studying the impact of deforestation on local climate.

2. Investigating the effects of pollution on aquatic ecosystems.

3. Analyzing the biodiversity of a local wetland area.

4. Exploring the use of renewable energy sources in your community.

5. Investigating the impact of plastic waste on marine life.

6. Studying the effects of urbanization on local wildlife.

7. Analyzing the water quality in a nearby river.

8. Investigating the effectiveness of different recycling methods.

9. Exploring the impact of climate change on bird migration patterns.

10. Studying the use of sustainable agriculture practices.

11. Investigating the effects of air pollution on respiratory health.

12. Analyzing the benefits of green roofs in urban areas.

Social Science Research Topics

Here are some social science research topics for high school students:

1. Investigating the impact of social media on mental health.

2. Studying the effects of peer pressure on academic performance.

3. Analyzing the relationship between family dynamics and child development.

4. Exploring the influence of music on mood and behavior.

5. Investigating the effects of bullying on adolescent well-being.

6. Studying the role of gender stereotypes in career choices.

7. Analyzing the impact of video games on cognitive skills.

8. Investigate the factors influencing voter turnout in your community.

9. Exploring the effects of income inequality on social mobility.

10. Studying the relationship between parental involvement and student success.

11. Investigating the influence of advertising on consumer behavior.

12. Analyzing the impact of cultural diversity on community cohesion.

Astronomy Research Topics

Let’s explore the scientific research topics for high school students in astronomy:

1. Studying the phases of the moon and their impact on tides.

2. Investigating the properties of asteroids and comets.

3. Analyzing the life cycle of stars.

4. Exploring the potential for life on other planets.

5. Investigating the effects of light pollution on stargazing.

6. Studying the orbits of planets in our solar system.

7 Analyzing the properties of black holes.

8. Investigating the formation of galaxies.

9. Exploring the search for extraterrestrial intelligence (SETI).

10. Studying the impact of solar flares on Earth’s magnetic field.

11. Investigating the history of space exploration.

12. Analyzing the concept of time dilation in relativity.

Psychology Research Topics

Discover the psychology research topics for students:

1. Investigating the effects of mindfulness meditation on stress reduction.

2. Studying the impact of early childhood experiences on adult behavior.

3. Analyzing the relationship between sleep patterns and mood.

4. Exploring the psychology of decision-making under uncertainty.

5. Investigating the effects of music therapy on patients with Alzheimer’s disease.

6. Studying the role of empathy in interpersonal relationships.

7. Analyzing the psychology of fear and phobias.

8. Investigating the effects of social isolation on mental health.

9. Exploring the influence of advertising on consumer behavior.

10. Studying the psychology of memory and recall.

11. Investigating the relationship between personality traits and career choices.

12. Analyzing the effects of social media on self-esteem.

Earth Science Research Topics

Here are some scientific research topics for high school students in earth science:

1. Studying the formation of earthquakes and their impact on landscapes.

2. Investigating the processes of erosion and sedimentation in rivers.

3. Analyzing the effects of climate change on glacial retreat.

4. Exploring the formation of volcanoes and their eruptions.

5. Investigating the geology of a specific region.

6. Studying the impact of tsunamis on coastal communities.

7. Analyzing the properties of different types of rocks and minerals.

8. Investigating the formation of caves and underground formations.

9. Exploring the processes of weathering and soil formation.

10. Investigating the geological history of a particular mountain range.

11. Studying the impact of wildfires on ecosystems and soil.

12. Analyzing the effects of climate change on the availability of freshwater resources.

Engineering and Technology Research Topics

Let’s dive into the engineering and technology research topics for high school students:

1. Investigating the efficiency of solar panels in different weather conditions.

2. Studying the aerodynamics of different wing designs in model airplanes.

3. Analyzing the impact of 3D printing on manufacturing processes.

4. Exploring the development of sustainable building materials.

5. Investigating the use of artificial intelligence in autonomous vehicles.

6. Studying the effectiveness of water purification methods.

7. Analyzing the design and performance of wind turbines.

8. Investigating the development of wearable health monitoring devices.

9. Exploring the use of drones for environmental monitoring.

10. Studying the impact of cybersecurity threats on modern technology.

11. Investigating the design and efficiency of energy-efficient homes.

12. Analyzing the potential of blockchain technology in various industries.

13. Investigating the impact of 5G technology on wireless communication networks.

Health and Medicine Research Topics

Discover the scientific research topics for high school students in health and medicine:

1. Investigating the effects of different types of exercise on physical fitness.

2. Studying the impact of nutrition on weight management.

3. Analyzing the relationship between sleep patterns and overall health.

4. Exploring the effectiveness of alternative medicine treatments.

5. Investigating the genetics of a specific medical condition.

6. Studying the effects of stress on the immune system.

7. Analyzing the impact of vaccinations on public health.

8. Investigating the use of telemedicine in healthcare delivery.

9. Exploring the factors influencing antibiotic resistance.

10. Studying the psychology of pain perception.

11. Investigating the effects of environmental pollutants on human health.

12. Analyzing the relationship between diet and chronic diseases.

13. Studying the potential benefits of gene therapy in treating genetic diseases.

Mathematics and Computer Science Research Topics

Let’s explore the mathematics and computer research topics for high school students:

1. Investigating the properties of prime numbers and their applications.

2. Studying the algorithms used in data encryption.

3. Analyzing the efficiency of sorting algorithms.

4. Exploring the applications of artificial intelligence in image recognition.

5. Investigating the mathematics of fractals and their visual representations.

6. Studying the use of data mining in predicting consumer behavior.

7. Analyzing the algorithms used in recommendation systems.

8. Investigating the mathematics of network theory.

9. Exploring the applications of game theory in decision-making.

10. Studying the mathematics behind cryptography.

11. Investigating the use of machine learning in natural language processing.

12. Analyzing the algorithms used in optimizing transportation routes.

13. Analyzing the applications of quantum computing in solving complex problems.

Tips for Conducting Scientific Research Topics for High School Students

Before you embark on your research journey, consider these tips:

• Define clear research objectives.
• Seek guidance from teachers or mentors.
• Maintain organized records of your work.
• Stay persistent and embrace failure as a learning opportunity.

Engaging in scientific research topics for high school students can be an incredibly rewarding experience. It allows you to explore your interests, develop critical skills, and contribute to our collective understanding of the world. When selecting a research topic, remember to choose something that genuinely excites you, is relevant to your field of interest, and is feasible given your available resources. 

Whether you’re passionate about biology , chemistry, physics, social sciences, or any other field, there’s a fascinating research topic waiting for you to explore. So, roll up your sleeves, ask questions, and embark on your scientific research journey—it’s an adventure that can shape your future and the world around you.

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65 Argumentative Research Topics For High School Students [PDF Included]

In today’s world, where information is readily available at our fingertips, it’s becoming increasingly important to teach students how to think critically, evaluate sources, and develop persuasive arguments. And one of the best ways to do this is through argumentative research topics.

In high school, students are often encouraged to learn and analyze factual information. However, much like other English and biology research topics , argumentative research topics offer a different kind of challenge. Instead of simply presenting facts, these topics require students to delve into complex issues, think critically, and present their opinions in a clear and convincing manner.

In this article, we will provide a list of compelling argumentative research topics for high school students. From education and politics to social issues and environmental concerns, these topics will challenge students to think deeply, evaluate sources critically, and develop and challenge their skills!

Argumentative research topics: Persuading the student to think and reason harder

Argumentative research topics are a fascinating and exciting way for students to engage in critical thinking and persuasive writing. This type of research topic encourages students to take a stance on a controversial issue and defend it using well-reasoned arguments and evidence. By doing so, students are not only honing their analytical skills and persuasive writing skills, but they are also developing a deeper understanding of their own beliefs and assumptions.

Unlike other research topics that may simply require students to regurgitate facts or summarize existing research, argumentative topics require students to develop and defend their own ideas.

Through argumentative research, students are encouraged to question their own biases and consider alternative perspectives. This type of critical thinking is a vital skill that is essential for success in any academic or professional context. Being able to analyze and evaluate information from different perspectives is an invaluable tool that will serve students well in their future careers.

Furthermore, argumentative research topics, are like writing prompts , which are meant to encourage students to engage in civil discourse and debate. These topics often involve controversial issues that can elicit strong emotions and passionate opinions from individuals with differing viewpoints.

By engaging in respectful, fact-based discussions and debates, students can learn how to engage with people who have different beliefs and opinions

Argumentative Research Topics

• The boundaries of free speech: where should the line be drawn?
• Internet privacy: Should websites and apps be restricted in collecting and utilizing user data?
• Has the internet been a force for progress or a hindrance?
• The role of public surveillance in modern society: is it necessary or invasive?
• Climate change and global warming: Are human activities solely responsible?
• Mandating physical education in schools to combat childhood obesity: Is it effective?
• The ethics of mandatory vaccination for high school students for public health reasons
• The ethics of wearing fur and leather: Is it always unethical?
• Keeping exotic pets: is it acceptable or inhumane?
• The impact of social media on mental health: Is it more positive or negative?
• Wildlife preserves: Are they suitable habitats for all species that reside there?
• Animal fashion: Should it be prohibited?
• Mental health services in schools: Should they be free or reduced-cost for students?
• Quality of high school education: Should teachers undergo regular assessments to ensure it?
• Healthy eating habits in schools: Should schools offer healthier food options in their cafeteria or allow students to bring food from home?
• Social media addiction: Is it a significant health concern for kids?
• Technology use and mental health problems: Is there a connection among high school students?
• Junk food in schools: Should schools ban it from vending machines and school stores to promote healthy eating habits?
• Dress codes in schools: Are they necessary or outdated
• Regulating social media: Should the government regulate it to prevent cyberbullying?
• Politicians and standardized testing: Should politicians be subject to standardized testing?
• Art vs Science: Are they equally challenging fields?
• School uniform and discrimination: Does it really reduce discrimination in schools?
• Teachers and poor academic performance: Are teachers the cause of poor academic performance?
• Physical discipline: Should teachers and parents be allowed to physically discipline their children?
• Telling white lies: Is it acceptable to tell a white lie to spare someone’s feelings?
• Sports in college: Should colleges promote sports as a career path?
• Gender and education: How does gender affect education?
• Refusing medical treatment: Is it acceptable to refuse medical treatment based on personal beliefs?
• Children’s rights and medical treatment: Do doctors violate children’s rights if they do not provide treatment when the parents refuse to treat the child?
• Parental influence on gender stereotypes: Do parents encourage gender stereotypes?
• Dating in schools: Should dating be permitted in schools with supervision?
• Human nature: Are people inherently good or evil by nature?
• Immigration and national economy: Can immigration benefit the national economy?
• Keeping animals in zoos: Is it appropriate?
• Cell phone use in schools: Should cell phone use be permitted in schools?
• Veganism: Should humans only consume vegan food?
• Animal testing: Should it be outlawed?
• Waste segregation: Should the government mandate waste segregation at home?
• Technology integration in schools: Is it beneficial for traditional learning?
• Homeschooling vs traditional schooling: Is homeschooling as effective as traditional schooling?
• Prohibition of smoking and drinking: Should it be permanently prohibited?
• Banning violent and aggressive video games: Should they be banned?
• Harmful effects of beauty standards on society: Are beauty standards harmful to society?
• The impact of advertising on consumer behavior
• The ethical considerations of artificial intelligence and its potential impact on society
• The impact of globalization on cultural diversity
• The effectiveness of alternative medicine in treating various illnesses
• The benefits and drawbacks of online learning compared to traditional classroom education
• The role of mass media in shaping public opinion and political discourse
• The impact of artificial intelligence on job automation and employment rates
• The impact of fast fashion on the environment and human rights
• The ethical considerations of using animals for entertainment purposes
• Parents are solely responsible for their child’s behavior.
• Is space exploration worth it or not?
•   stricter regulations on the use of plastic and single-use products to reduce waste
• Is capitalism the best economic system
• Should there be limits on the amount of wealth individuals can accumulate?
• Is it ethical to use animals for food production?
• Is the concept of national borders outdated in the modern era?
• Should the use of nuclear power be expanded or phased out?
• Self-driving cars: Convenience or threat?
• The implications of allowing influencers to advertise dietary supplements and weight loss products.
•  Faults in the education system: need change or modification?
• Are the intentions of “big pharma” genuinely aligned with the well-being of the public?

Argumentative research topics are an important tool for promoting critical thinking, and persuasive communication skills and preparing high school students for active engagement in society. These topics challenge students to think deeply and develop persuasive arguments by engaging with complex issues and evaluating sources. Through this process, students can become informed, engaged, and empathetic citizens who are equipped to participate actively in a democratic society.

Furthermore, argumentative research topics teach students how to engage in respectful, fact-based discussions and debates, and how to communicate effectively with people who have different beliefs and opinions. By fostering civil discourse, argumentative research topics can help bridge social, cultural, and political divides, and promote a more united and equitable society.

Overall, argumentative research topics are a crucial component of high school education, as they provide students with the skills and confidence they need to succeed in college, career, and life.

Having a 10+ years of experience in teaching little budding learners, I am now working as a soft skills and IELTS trainers. Having spent my share of time with high schoolers, I understand their fears about the future. At the same time, my experience has helped me foster plenty of strategies that can make their 4 years of high school blissful. Furthermore, I have worked intensely on helping these young adults bloom into successful adults by training them for their dream colleges. Through my blogs, I intend to help parents, educators and students in making these years joyful and prosperous.

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45 Research Problem Examples & Inspiration

A research problem is an issue of concern that is the catalyst for your research. It demonstrates why the research problem needs to take place in the first place.

Generally, you will write your research problem as a clear, concise, and focused statement that identifies an issue or gap in current knowledge that requires investigation.

The problem will likely also guide the direction and purpose of a study. Depending on the problem, you will identify a suitable methodology that will help address the problem and bring solutions to light.

Research Problem Examples

In the following examples, I’ll present some problems worth addressing, and some suggested theoretical frameworks and research methodologies that might fit with the study. Note, however, that these aren’t the only ways to approach the problems. Keep an open mind and consult with your dissertation supervisor!

Psychology Problems

1. Social Media and Self-Esteem: “How does prolonged exposure to social media platforms influence the self-esteem of adolescents?”

• Theoretical Framework : Social Comparison Theory
• Methodology : Longitudinal study tracking adolescents’ social media usage and self-esteem measures over time, combined with qualitative interviews.

2. Sleep and Cognitive Performance: “How does sleep quality and duration impact cognitive performance in adults?”

• Theoretical Framework : Cognitive Psychology
• Methodology : Experimental design with controlled sleep conditions, followed by cognitive tests. Participant sleep patterns can also be monitored using actigraphy.

3. Childhood Trauma and Adult Relationships: “How does unresolved childhood trauma influence attachment styles and relationship dynamics in adulthood?

• Theoretical Framework : Attachment Theory
• Methodology : Mixed methods, combining quantitative measures of attachment styles with qualitative in-depth interviews exploring past trauma and current relationship dynamics.

4. Mindfulness and Stress Reduction: “How effective is mindfulness meditation in reducing perceived stress and physiological markers of stress in working professionals?”

• Theoretical Framework : Humanist Psychology
• Methodology : Randomized controlled trial comparing a group practicing mindfulness meditation to a control group, measuring both self-reported stress and physiological markers (e.g., cortisol levels).

5. Implicit Bias and Decision Making: “To what extent do implicit biases influence decision-making processes in hiring practices?

• Theoretical Framework : Cognitive Dissonance Theory
• Methodology : Experimental design using Implicit Association Tests (IAT) to measure implicit biases, followed by simulated hiring tasks to observe decision-making behaviors.

6. Emotional Regulation and Academic Performance: “How does the ability to regulate emotions impact academic performance in college students?”

• Theoretical Framework : Cognitive Theory of Emotion
• Methodology : Quantitative surveys measuring emotional regulation strategies, combined with academic performance metrics (e.g., GPA).

7. Nature Exposure and Mental Well-being: “Does regular exposure to natural environments improve mental well-being and reduce symptoms of anxiety and depression?”

• Theoretical Framework : Biophilia Hypothesis
• Methodology : Longitudinal study comparing mental health measures of individuals with regular nature exposure to those without, possibly using ecological momentary assessment for real-time data collection.

8. Video Games and Cognitive Skills: “How do action video games influence cognitive skills such as attention, spatial reasoning, and problem-solving?”

• Theoretical Framework : Cognitive Load Theory
• Methodology : Experimental design with pre- and post-tests, comparing cognitive skills of participants before and after a period of action video game play.

9. Parenting Styles and Child Resilience: “How do different parenting styles influence the development of resilience in children facing adversities?”

• Theoretical Framework : Baumrind’s Parenting Styles Inventory
• Methodology : Mixed methods, combining quantitative measures of resilience and parenting styles with qualitative interviews exploring children’s experiences and perceptions.

10. Memory and Aging: “How does the aging process impact episodic memory , and what strategies can mitigate age-related memory decline?

• Theoretical Framework : Information Processing Theory
• Methodology : Cross-sectional study comparing episodic memory performance across different age groups, combined with interventions like memory training or mnemonic strategies to assess potential improvements.

Education Problems

11. Equity and Access : “How do socioeconomic factors influence students’ access to quality education, and what interventions can bridge the gap?

• Theoretical Framework : Critical Pedagogy
• Methodology : Mixed methods, combining quantitative data on student outcomes with qualitative interviews and focus groups with students, parents, and educators.

12. Digital Divide : How does the lack of access to technology and the internet affect remote learning outcomes, and how can this divide be addressed?

• Theoretical Framework : Social Construction of Technology Theory
• Methodology : Survey research to gather data on access to technology, followed by case studies in selected areas.

13. Teacher Efficacy : “What factors contribute to teacher self-efficacy, and how does it impact student achievement?”

• Theoretical Framework : Bandura’s Self-Efficacy Theory
• Methodology : Quantitative surveys to measure teacher self-efficacy, combined with qualitative interviews to explore factors affecting it.

14. Curriculum Relevance : “How can curricula be made more relevant to diverse student populations, incorporating cultural and local contexts?”

• Theoretical Framework : Sociocultural Theory
• Methodology : Content analysis of curricula, combined with focus groups with students and teachers.

15. Special Education : “What are the most effective instructional strategies for students with specific learning disabilities?

• Theoretical Framework : Social Learning Theory
• Methodology : Experimental design comparing different instructional strategies, with pre- and post-tests to measure student achievement.

16. Dropout Rates : “What factors contribute to high school dropout rates, and what interventions can help retain students?”

• Methodology : Longitudinal study tracking students over time, combined with interviews with dropouts.

17. Bilingual Education : “How does bilingual education impact cognitive development and academic achievement?

• Methodology : Comparative study of students in bilingual vs. monolingual programs, using standardized tests and qualitative interviews.

18. Classroom Management: “What reward strategies are most effective in managing diverse classrooms and promoting a positive learning environment?

• Theoretical Framework : Behaviorism (e.g., Skinner’s Operant Conditioning)
• Methodology : Observational research in classrooms , combined with teacher interviews.

19. Standardized Testing : “How do standardized tests affect student motivation, learning, and curriculum design?”

• Theoretical Framework : Critical Theory
• Methodology : Quantitative analysis of test scores and student outcomes, combined with qualitative interviews with educators and students.

20. STEM Education : “What methods can be employed to increase interest and proficiency in STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) fields among underrepresented student groups?”

• Theoretical Framework : Constructivist Learning Theory
• Methodology : Experimental design comparing different instructional methods, with pre- and post-tests.

21. Social-Emotional Learning : “How can social-emotional learning be effectively integrated into the curriculum, and what are its impacts on student well-being and academic outcomes?”

• Theoretical Framework : Goleman’s Emotional Intelligence Theory
• Methodology : Mixed methods, combining quantitative measures of student well-being with qualitative interviews.

22. Parental Involvement : “How does parental involvement influence student achievement, and what strategies can schools use to increase it?”

• Theoretical Framework : Reggio Emilia’s Model (Community Engagement Focus)
• Methodology : Survey research with parents and teachers, combined with case studies in selected schools.

23. Early Childhood Education : “What are the long-term impacts of quality early childhood education on academic and life outcomes?”

• Theoretical Framework : Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development
• Methodology : Longitudinal study comparing students with and without early childhood education, combined with observational research.

24. Teacher Training and Professional Development : “How can teacher training programs be improved to address the evolving needs of the 21st-century classroom?”

• Theoretical Framework : Adult Learning Theory (Andragogy)
• Methodology : Pre- and post-assessments of teacher competencies, combined with focus groups.

25. Educational Technology : “How can technology be effectively integrated into the classroom to enhance learning, and what are the potential drawbacks or challenges?”

• Theoretical Framework : Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK)
• Methodology : Experimental design comparing classrooms with and without specific technologies, combined with teacher and student interviews.

Sociology Problems

26. Urbanization and Social Ties: “How does rapid urbanization impact the strength and nature of social ties in communities?”

• Theoretical Framework : Structural Functionalism
• Methodology : Mixed methods, combining quantitative surveys on social ties with qualitative interviews in urbanizing areas.

27. Gender Roles in Modern Families: “How have traditional gender roles evolved in families with dual-income households?”

• Theoretical Framework : Gender Schema Theory
• Methodology : Qualitative interviews with dual-income families, combined with historical data analysis.

28. Social Media and Collective Behavior: “How does social media influence collective behaviors and the formation of social movements?”

• Theoretical Framework : Emergent Norm Theory
• Methodology : Content analysis of social media platforms, combined with quantitative surveys on participation in social movements.

29. Education and Social Mobility: “To what extent does access to quality education influence social mobility in socioeconomically diverse settings?”

• Methodology : Longitudinal study tracking educational access and subsequent socioeconomic status, combined with qualitative interviews.

30. Religion and Social Cohesion: “How do religious beliefs and practices contribute to social cohesion in multicultural societies?”

• Methodology : Quantitative surveys on religious beliefs and perceptions of social cohesion, combined with ethnographic studies.

31. Consumer Culture and Identity Formation: “How does consumer culture influence individual identity formation and personal values?”

• Theoretical Framework : Social Identity Theory
• Methodology : Mixed methods, combining content analysis of advertising with qualitative interviews on identity and values.

32. Migration and Cultural Assimilation: “How do migrants negotiate cultural assimilation and preservation of their original cultural identities in their host countries?”

• Theoretical Framework : Post-Structuralism
• Methodology : Qualitative interviews with migrants, combined with observational studies in multicultural communities.

33. Social Networks and Mental Health: “How do social networks, both online and offline, impact mental health and well-being?”

• Theoretical Framework : Social Network Theory
• Methodology : Quantitative surveys assessing social network characteristics and mental health metrics, combined with qualitative interviews.

34. Crime, Deviance, and Social Control: “How do societal norms and values shape definitions of crime and deviance, and how are these definitions enforced?”

• Theoretical Framework : Labeling Theory
• Methodology : Content analysis of legal documents and media, combined with ethnographic studies in diverse communities.

35. Technology and Social Interaction: “How has the proliferation of digital technology influenced face-to-face social interactions and community building?”

• Theoretical Framework : Technological Determinism
• Methodology : Mixed methods, combining quantitative surveys on technology use with qualitative observations of social interactions in various settings.

Nursing Problems

36. Patient Communication and Recovery: “How does effective nurse-patient communication influence patient recovery rates and overall satisfaction with care?”

• Methodology : Quantitative surveys assessing patient satisfaction and recovery metrics, combined with observational studies on nurse-patient interactions.

37. Stress Management in Nursing: “What are the primary sources of occupational stress for nurses, and how can they be effectively managed to prevent burnout?”

• Methodology : Mixed methods, combining quantitative measures of stress and burnout with qualitative interviews exploring personal experiences and coping mechanisms.

38. Hand Hygiene Compliance: “How effective are different interventions in improving hand hygiene compliance among nursing staff, and what are the barriers to consistent hand hygiene?”

• Methodology : Experimental design comparing hand hygiene rates before and after specific interventions, combined with focus groups to understand barriers.

39. Nurse-Patient Ratios and Patient Outcomes: “How do nurse-patient ratios impact patient outcomes, including recovery rates, complications, and hospital readmissions?”

• Methodology : Quantitative study analyzing patient outcomes in relation to staffing levels, possibly using retrospective chart reviews.

40. Continuing Education and Clinical Competence: “How does regular continuing education influence clinical competence and confidence among nurses?”

• Methodology : Longitudinal study tracking nurses’ clinical skills and confidence over time as they engage in continuing education, combined with patient outcome measures to assess potential impacts on care quality.

Communication Studies Problems

41. Media Representation and Public Perception: “How does media representation of minority groups influence public perceptions and biases?”

• Theoretical Framework : Cultivation Theory
• Methodology : Content analysis of media representations combined with quantitative surveys assessing public perceptions and attitudes.

42. Digital Communication and Relationship Building: “How has the rise of digital communication platforms impacted the way individuals build and maintain personal relationships?”

• Theoretical Framework : Social Penetration Theory
• Methodology : Mixed methods, combining quantitative surveys on digital communication habits with qualitative interviews exploring personal relationship dynamics.

43. Crisis Communication Effectiveness: “What strategies are most effective in managing public relations during organizational crises, and how do they influence public trust?”

• Theoretical Framework : Situational Crisis Communication Theory (SCCT)
• Methodology : Case study analysis of past organizational crises, assessing communication strategies used and subsequent public trust metrics.

44. Nonverbal Cues in Virtual Communication: “How do nonverbal cues, such as facial expressions and gestures, influence message interpretation in virtual communication platforms?”

• Theoretical Framework : Social Semiotics
• Methodology : Experimental design using video conferencing tools, analyzing participants’ interpretations of messages with varying nonverbal cues.

45. Influence of Social Media on Political Engagement: “How does exposure to political content on social media platforms influence individuals’ political engagement and activism?”

• Theoretical Framework : Uses and Gratifications Theory
• Methodology : Quantitative surveys assessing social media habits and political engagement levels, combined with content analysis of political posts on popular platforms.

Before you Go: Tips and Tricks for Writing a Research Problem

This is an incredibly stressful time for research students. The research problem is going to lock you into a specific line of inquiry for the rest of your studies.

So, here’s what I tend to suggest to my students:

• Start with something you find intellectually stimulating – Too many students choose projects because they think it hasn’t been studies or they’ve found a research gap. Don’t over-estimate the importance of finding a research gap. There are gaps in every line of inquiry. For now, just find a topic you think you can really sink your teeth into and will enjoy learning about.
• Take 5 ideas to your supervisor – Approach your research supervisor, professor, lecturer, TA, our course leader with 5 research problem ideas and run each by them. The supervisor will have valuable insights that you didn’t consider that will help you narrow-down and refine your problem even more.
• Trust your supervisor – The supervisor-student relationship is often very strained and stressful. While of course this is your project, your supervisor knows the internal politics and conventions of academic research. The depth of knowledge about how to navigate academia and get you out the other end with your degree is invaluable. Don’t underestimate their advice.

I’ve got a full article on all my tips and tricks for doing research projects right here – I recommend reading it:

• 9 Tips on How to Choose a Dissertation Topic

Chris Drew (PhD)

Dr. Chris Drew is the founder of the Helpful Professor. He holds a PhD in education and has published over 20 articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education. [Image Descriptor: Photo of Chris]

• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ 5 Top Tips for Succeeding at University
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ 50 Durable Goods Examples
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ 100 Consumer Goods Examples
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ 30 Globalization Pros and Cons

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Home » Research Problem – Examples, Types and Guide

Research Problem – Examples, Types and Guide

Table of Contents

Research Problem

Definition:

Research problem is a specific and well-defined issue or question that a researcher seeks to investigate through research. It is the starting point of any research project, as it sets the direction, scope, and purpose of the study.

Types of Research Problems

Types of Research Problems are as follows:

Descriptive problems

These problems involve describing or documenting a particular phenomenon, event, or situation. For example, a researcher might investigate the demographics of a particular population, such as their age, gender, income, and education.

Exploratory problems

These problems are designed to explore a particular topic or issue in depth, often with the goal of generating new ideas or hypotheses. For example, a researcher might explore the factors that contribute to job satisfaction among employees in a particular industry.

Explanatory Problems

These problems seek to explain why a particular phenomenon or event occurs, and they typically involve testing hypotheses or theories. For example, a researcher might investigate the relationship between exercise and mental health, with the goal of determining whether exercise has a causal effect on mental health.

Predictive Problems

These problems involve making predictions or forecasts about future events or trends. For example, a researcher might investigate the factors that predict future success in a particular field or industry.

Evaluative Problems

These problems involve assessing the effectiveness of a particular intervention, program, or policy. For example, a researcher might evaluate the impact of a new teaching method on student learning outcomes.

How to Define a Research Problem

Defining a research problem involves identifying a specific question or issue that a researcher seeks to address through a research study. Here are the steps to follow when defining a research problem:

• Identify a broad research topic : Start by identifying a broad topic that you are interested in researching. This could be based on your personal interests, observations, or gaps in the existing literature.
• Conduct a literature review : Once you have identified a broad topic, conduct a thorough literature review to identify the current state of knowledge in the field. This will help you identify gaps or inconsistencies in the existing research that can be addressed through your study.
• Refine the research question: Based on the gaps or inconsistencies identified in the literature review, refine your research question to a specific, clear, and well-defined problem statement. Your research question should be feasible, relevant, and important to the field of study.
• Develop a hypothesis: Based on the research question, develop a hypothesis that states the expected relationship between variables.
• Define the scope and limitations: Clearly define the scope and limitations of your research problem. This will help you focus your study and ensure that your research objectives are achievable.
• Get feedback: Get feedback from your advisor or colleagues to ensure that your research problem is clear, feasible, and relevant to the field of study.

Components of a Research Problem

The components of a research problem typically include the following:

• Topic : The general subject or area of interest that the research will explore.
• Research Question : A clear and specific question that the research seeks to answer or investigate.
• Objective : A statement that describes the purpose of the research, what it aims to achieve, and the expected outcomes.
• Hypothesis : An educated guess or prediction about the relationship between variables, which is tested during the research.
• Variables : The factors or elements that are being studied, measured, or manipulated in the research.
• Methodology : The overall approach and methods that will be used to conduct the research.
• Scope and Limitations : A description of the boundaries and parameters of the research, including what will be included and excluded, and any potential constraints or limitations.
• Significance: A statement that explains the potential value or impact of the research, its contribution to the field of study, and how it will add to the existing knowledge.

Research Problem Examples

Following are some Research Problem Examples:

Research Problem Examples in Psychology are as follows:

• Exploring the impact of social media on adolescent mental health.
• Investigating the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy for treating anxiety disorders.
• Studying the impact of prenatal stress on child development outcomes.
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to addiction and relapse in substance abuse treatment.
• Examining the impact of personality traits on romantic relationships.

Research Problem Examples in Sociology are as follows:

• Investigating the relationship between social support and mental health outcomes in marginalized communities.
• Studying the impact of globalization on labor markets and employment opportunities.
• Analyzing the causes and consequences of gentrification in urban neighborhoods.
• Investigating the impact of family structure on social mobility and economic outcomes.
• Examining the effects of social capital on community development and resilience.

Research Problem Examples in Economics are as follows:

• Studying the effects of trade policies on economic growth and development.
• Analyzing the impact of automation and artificial intelligence on labor markets and employment opportunities.
• Investigating the factors that contribute to economic inequality and poverty.
• Examining the impact of fiscal and monetary policies on inflation and economic stability.
• Studying the relationship between education and economic outcomes, such as income and employment.

Political Science

Research Problem Examples in Political Science are as follows:

• Analyzing the causes and consequences of political polarization and partisan behavior.
• Investigating the impact of social movements on political change and policymaking.
• Studying the role of media and communication in shaping public opinion and political discourse.
• Examining the effectiveness of electoral systems in promoting democratic governance and representation.
• Investigating the impact of international organizations and agreements on global governance and security.

Environmental Science

Research Problem Examples in Environmental Science are as follows:

• Studying the impact of air pollution on human health and well-being.
• Investigating the effects of deforestation on climate change and biodiversity loss.
• Analyzing the impact of ocean acidification on marine ecosystems and food webs.
• Studying the relationship between urban development and ecological resilience.
• Examining the effectiveness of environmental policies and regulations in promoting sustainability and conservation.

Research Problem Examples in Education are as follows:

• Investigating the impact of teacher training and professional development on student learning outcomes.
• Studying the effectiveness of technology-enhanced learning in promoting student engagement and achievement.
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to achievement gaps and educational inequality.
• Examining the impact of parental involvement on student motivation and achievement.
• Studying the effectiveness of alternative educational models, such as homeschooling and online learning.

Research Problem Examples in History are as follows:

• Analyzing the social and economic factors that contributed to the rise and fall of ancient civilizations.
• Investigating the impact of colonialism on indigenous societies and cultures.
• Studying the role of religion in shaping political and social movements throughout history.
• Analyzing the impact of the Industrial Revolution on economic and social structures.
• Examining the causes and consequences of global conflicts, such as World War I and II.

Research Problem Examples in Business are as follows:

• Studying the impact of corporate social responsibility on brand reputation and consumer behavior.
• Investigating the effectiveness of leadership development programs in improving organizational performance and employee satisfaction.
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful entrepreneurship and small business development.
• Examining the impact of mergers and acquisitions on market competition and consumer welfare.
• Studying the effectiveness of marketing strategies and advertising campaigns in promoting brand awareness and sales.

Research Problem Example for Students

An Example of a Research Problem for Students could be:

“How does social media usage affect the academic performance of high school students?”

This research problem is specific, measurable, and relevant. It is specific because it focuses on a particular area of interest, which is the impact of social media on academic performance. It is measurable because the researcher can collect data on social media usage and academic performance to evaluate the relationship between the two variables. It is relevant because it addresses a current and important issue that affects high school students.

To conduct research on this problem, the researcher could use various methods, such as surveys, interviews, and statistical analysis of academic records. The results of the study could provide insights into the relationship between social media usage and academic performance, which could help educators and parents develop effective strategies for managing social media use among students.

Another example of a research problem for students:

“Does participation in extracurricular activities impact the academic performance of middle school students?”

This research problem is also specific, measurable, and relevant. It is specific because it focuses on a particular type of activity, extracurricular activities, and its impact on academic performance. It is measurable because the researcher can collect data on students’ participation in extracurricular activities and their academic performance to evaluate the relationship between the two variables. It is relevant because extracurricular activities are an essential part of the middle school experience, and their impact on academic performance is a topic of interest to educators and parents.

To conduct research on this problem, the researcher could use surveys, interviews, and academic records analysis. The results of the study could provide insights into the relationship between extracurricular activities and academic performance, which could help educators and parents make informed decisions about the types of activities that are most beneficial for middle school students.

Applications of Research Problem

Applications of Research Problem are as follows:

• Academic research: Research problems are used to guide academic research in various fields, including social sciences, natural sciences, humanities, and engineering. Researchers use research problems to identify gaps in knowledge, address theoretical or practical problems, and explore new areas of study.
• Business research : Research problems are used to guide business research, including market research, consumer behavior research, and organizational research. Researchers use research problems to identify business challenges, explore opportunities, and develop strategies for business growth and success.
• Healthcare research : Research problems are used to guide healthcare research, including medical research, clinical research, and health services research. Researchers use research problems to identify healthcare challenges, develop new treatments and interventions, and improve healthcare delivery and outcomes.
• Public policy research : Research problems are used to guide public policy research, including policy analysis, program evaluation, and policy development. Researchers use research problems to identify social issues, assess the effectiveness of existing policies and programs, and develop new policies and programs to address societal challenges.
• Environmental research : Research problems are used to guide environmental research, including environmental science, ecology, and environmental management. Researchers use research problems to identify environmental challenges, assess the impact of human activities on the environment, and develop sustainable solutions to protect the environment.

Purpose of Research Problems

The purpose of research problems is to identify an area of study that requires further investigation and to formulate a clear, concise and specific research question. A research problem defines the specific issue or problem that needs to be addressed and serves as the foundation for the research project.

Identifying a research problem is important because it helps to establish the direction of the research and sets the stage for the research design, methods, and analysis. It also ensures that the research is relevant and contributes to the existing body of knowledge in the field.

A well-formulated research problem should:

• Clearly define the specific issue or problem that needs to be investigated
• Be specific and narrow enough to be manageable in terms of time, resources, and scope
• Be relevant to the field of study and contribute to the existing body of knowledge
• Be feasible and realistic in terms of available data, resources, and research methods
• Be interesting and intellectually stimulating for the researcher and potential readers or audiences.

Characteristics of Research Problem

The characteristics of a research problem refer to the specific features that a problem must possess to qualify as a suitable research topic. Some of the key characteristics of a research problem are:

• Clarity : A research problem should be clearly defined and stated in a way that it is easily understood by the researcher and other readers. The problem should be specific, unambiguous, and easy to comprehend.
• Relevance : A research problem should be relevant to the field of study, and it should contribute to the existing body of knowledge. The problem should address a gap in knowledge, a theoretical or practical problem, or a real-world issue that requires further investigation.
• Feasibility : A research problem should be feasible in terms of the availability of data, resources, and research methods. It should be realistic and practical to conduct the study within the available time, budget, and resources.
• Novelty : A research problem should be novel or original in some way. It should represent a new or innovative perspective on an existing problem, or it should explore a new area of study or apply an existing theory to a new context.
• Importance : A research problem should be important or significant in terms of its potential impact on the field or society. It should have the potential to produce new knowledge, advance existing theories, or address a pressing societal issue.
• Manageability : A research problem should be manageable in terms of its scope and complexity. It should be specific enough to be investigated within the available time and resources, and it should be broad enough to provide meaningful results.

Advantages of Research Problem

The advantages of a well-defined research problem are as follows:

• Focus : A research problem provides a clear and focused direction for the research study. It ensures that the study stays on track and does not deviate from the research question.
• Clarity : A research problem provides clarity and specificity to the research question. It ensures that the research is not too broad or too narrow and that the research objectives are clearly defined.
• Relevance : A research problem ensures that the research study is relevant to the field of study and contributes to the existing body of knowledge. It addresses gaps in knowledge, theoretical or practical problems, or real-world issues that require further investigation.
• Feasibility : A research problem ensures that the research study is feasible in terms of the availability of data, resources, and research methods. It ensures that the research is realistic and practical to conduct within the available time, budget, and resources.
• Novelty : A research problem ensures that the research study is original and innovative. It represents a new or unique perspective on an existing problem, explores a new area of study, or applies an existing theory to a new context.
• Importance : A research problem ensures that the research study is important and significant in terms of its potential impact on the field or society. It has the potential to produce new knowledge, advance existing theories, or address a pressing societal issue.
• Rigor : A research problem ensures that the research study is rigorous and follows established research methods and practices. It ensures that the research is conducted in a systematic, objective, and unbiased manner.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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5 Free Virtual Research Opportunities For High School Students

Virtual research opportunities for high school students are programs that provide hands-on experience and research projects in various STEM fields, such as mathematics, computer science, computational biology, physics, neuroscience, and engineering. These programs are designed to deepen students’ understanding of STEM and help them develop the skills needed to succeed in their academic and professional careers. 

Participating in these programs can also help high school students expand their knowledge and skills in their areas of interest and work on exciting, unsolved problems with established researchers from top-tier universities. 

Virtual research opportunities are especially useful for high school students who are unable to attend in-person programs due to distance, cost, or other factors. They offer a flexible and accessible way to gain valuable experience and knowledge from the comfort of their own homes. In this article, we will discuss five free virtual research opportunities available for high school students.

1. MIT Primes  

MIT PRIMES is a free, year-long after-school program that provides research projects and guided reading to high school students in the areas of mathematics, computer science, and computational biology. The program is designed for students living within driving distance from Boston, and it offers four sections: PRIMES, PRIMES-USA, Menezes Challenge PRIMES Circle, and Yulia’s Dream.

PRIMES is a research-focused program in which participants work with MIT researchers to solve exciting, unsolved problems. PRIMES-USA is a distance mentoring math research section for high school juniors and sophomores from across the United States. Menezes Challenge PRIMES Circle is a math enrichment section for underrepresented groups living within commuting distance from Boston. Yulia’s Dream is a math enrichment and research program for exceptional high school students from Ukraine.

In addition to these sections, PRIMES runs two collaborative initiatives: MathROOTS, a two-week summer program for high-potential high school students from underrepresented backgrounds or underserved communities, and CrowdMath, a year-long online collaborative research project open to all high school and college students worldwide.

Finally, PRIMES STEP is a year-long math enrichment program for middle school students from Greater Boston.

Overall, MIT PRIMES aims to provide challenging and engaging opportunities for students with a passion for mathematics and science. Through research projects, guided reading, and collaborative initiatives, PRIMES seeks to foster the intellectual growth and development of high school and middle school students, and to inspire them to pursue their interests in these fields.

MIT PRIMES is a prestigious year-long after-school program that offers research projects and guided reading to high school students interested in mathematics, computer science, and computational biology. 

The admissions for the 2023 cycle are closed, and the admission decisions are made by February 1. However, for the 2024 cycle, new problem sets will be posted on October 1, 2023, and applicants will have until November 30, 2023, to solve the relevant problem set(s). 

To apply for MIT PRIMES, you must be a high school student (or a home-schooled student of high school age) living in the Greater Boston area, able to come to MIT weekly from February to May.

To apply, you need to fill out a questionnaire, ask for two or three letters of recommendation, and submit your solutions of the PRIMES problem set. Applicants to the Math section must solve the Math problem set (at least 70%), and applicants to the Computer Science and Computational Biology sections must solve the Computer Science problem set (100%) and the General part of the Math problem set (at least 70%). Admission decisions are based on all components of your application, and there is no application fee.

MIT PRIMES suggests a list of recommended readings as a preparation for entering the program and as a background for further research. By participating in MIT PRIMES, students can gain hands-on experience working on exciting, unsolved problems with MIT researchers and expand their knowledge and skills in these areas.

The Summer Academy for Math and Science (SAMS) is a program that provides opportunities for underrepresented high school students to explore STEM fields. The program is designed to deepen students’ understanding of STEM through traditional classroom instruction, hands-on projects, and sustained engagement with faculty and staff mentors. 

SAMS Scholars are taught by renowned faculty and staff who are deeply committed to their success. They also have the opportunity to collaborate and develop meaningful relationships with peers from across the country. Through SAMS and other outreach initiatives, the program aims to develop a diverse and supportive community of STEM Scholars interested in attending top-tier universities.

The program consists of two parts: Part one is a virtual jumpstart that will occur prior to the start of the residential program. This will focus on skill-building that will be needed for the in-person program. Part two is a 5-week in-person Pre-College program where students will move into the residence halls and attend full days of courses and meetings. The academic portion of the program will conclude with a symposium, and students will move out of the residence halls at the end of the program. 

SAMS is a fully funded, merit-based program, and there is no cost for scholars to participate. To be eligible for the program, students must be at least 16 years old, a U.S. citizen or permanent resident, and a junior in high school at the time of application submission. Scholars are expected to participate fully for the duration of the program and cannot participate in any other programs if selected for SAMS.

3. University of Illinois – High School Summer Research Program

The High School Summer STEM research program invites current 9th-11th graders from Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Missouri, Iowa, or Wisconsin to apply for an authentic six-week STEMM research experience at a world-class research university. Participants will be matched with another student, and in some cases, a teacher from their school. 

The program aims to provide hands-on experience in various STEMM fields, including cancer immunology, neuroscience, artificial intelligence, physics, quantum mechanics, bioengineering, and electrical engineering.

Participants will work with established researchers in engineering, computer science, and medicine and attend weekly seminars on topics such as college admission processes and support available, communicating scientifically, and preparing research posters etc. Students will also interact with faculty, post-doctoral researchers, graduate students, undergraduate students, and local high school teachers.

Participants will showcase their research with a research poster and symposium at the end of the program. They should plan for 30-35 hours per week of research and professional development time, with a majority of activities taking place on the University of Illinois campus. 

The program covers some transportation/parking expenses, meals, and a monetary award.

High school teachers play an essential role in the program, with some research projects requiring a teacher to be a co-researcher, and others having a teacher mentor who checks in weekly with the students to discuss their research progress and address any issues or challenges. 

Teachers and students do not need to come from the same school, and interested individuals should apply regardless of whether they can recruit others from their school to apply.

The program also invites research faculty, staff, and graduate student researchers affiliated with The Grainger College of Engineering and the Carle Illinois College of Medicine to propose a high school research project for consideration. The proposals will be mentored by POETS YS, GEnYuS, or SpHERES research teams, which will guide two high school juniors/seniors from limited understanding to completion of a related project of their own and poster presentation explaining their research.

In summary, the High School Summer STEM research program provides high school students with an opportunity to engage in authentic STEMM research and develop professional and college-ready skills. Participants work with established researchers, attend weekly seminars, and showcase their research at the end of the program. 

The program aims to provide hands-on experience and build confidence in students as scientists and engineers.

4. Simons Summer Research Program

The Simons Summer Research Program is a highly selective program that offers high school students the opportunity to conduct hands-on research with Stony Brook faculty mentors. Founded in 1984, the program attracts applicants from all over the country, with Simons Fellows being paired with a faculty mentor, joining a research group or team, and taking responsibility for a project. Students are encouraged to demonstrate independence, creativity, and an aptitude for hands-on work, with a strong interest in science. The program takes place during the summer before the student’s senior year of high school, with students participating in the program from June 26, 2023 to August 11, 2023.

In addition to working on their research project, Simons Fellows attend weekly faculty research talks, special workshops, tours, and events. At the closing poster symposium, students present their research project through a written research abstract and a research poster. Participants receive a stipend award.

The Simons Summer Research Program is supported by the Simons Foundation and is open to US citizens and/or permanent residents who are at least 16 years of age by the start of the program. The program is an opportunity for high school students interested in science to learn valuable techniques, experience life at a major research university, and develop independence, creativity, and an aptitude for hands-on work. The program aims to give students a glimpse into the world of scientific research and inspire them to pursue careers in science.

5. EnergyMag Internship

EnergyMag is offering virtual internships for high school and college students interested in increasing the share of renewable energy in the world and gaining work experience in the energy storage industry. 

The internships aim to provide students with research and analysis skills that will be valuable for their future professional lives. The virtual internship allows students to complete their internship hours virtually, providing flexibility to fit the experience into their busy personal and professional lives. Additionally, virtual interns enjoy the unique rewards of learning from experts regardless of their geographic location and strengthening their information and computer skills. 

The internships are strong resume boosters for employers, graduate college programs, and undergraduate programs. 

EnergyMag offers half-time and quarter-time virtual internships. Half-time internships are available in the summer for two to eight weeks, with interns expected to work approximately 20 hours per week. Quarter-time internships are available all year round for one to nine months, with interns expected to work approximately eight hours per week. The internships are unpaid, and interns work from home while maintaining daily electronic contact with EnergyMag and their mentor. 

Depending on the student’s graduation date, academic record, and experience, interns will be asked to research and analyze a specific company, technology, or market. The intern will be mentored, briefed, supervised, and assisted in producing a draft analysis report. If the report is publishable, EnergyMag will give the intern an internship Letter of Accomplishment. 

The application process for college and high school internships requires an application explaining why EnergyMag should grant an internship, a Skype or voice interview, and a writing sample upon request. College interns are also required to provide their academic record, and high school interns should have at least one honors science or English class with a GPA above 3.25. 

EnergyMag believes that internships provide the opportunity for students to learn on-the-job skills that are not easy to acquire at school but will make a big difference in their future professional success, such as learning how to research a scientific or business issue, approach strangers with positions of authority in a friendly and professional manner, analyze and synthesize information from multiple sources, and communicate professionally in writing.

The blog highlights five virtual research opportunities for high school students, providing hands-on experience and research projects in various STEM fields such as mathematics, computer science, physics, neuroscience, and engineering. These virtual research opportunities aim to provide students with a deeper understanding of STEM and develop the necessary skills to succeed in academic and professional careers. Furthermore, these programs help expand knowledge and work on unsolved problems with established researchers from top-tier universities.

Virtual research opportunities for high school students provide a flexible and accessible way to gain valuable experience and knowledge from the comfort of their own homes. These programs aim to foster the intellectual growth and development of high school and middle school students, and inspire them to pursue their interests in these fields.

CCIR connects students to professors at universities and enables them to take classes with them and get publications which can help them get into better colleges. Learn how CCIR can help you live the life of your dreams and get your career on the right path.  Apply today !

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How Students Can Rethink Problem Solving

Finding, shaping, and solving problems puts high school students in charge of their learning and bolsters critical-thinking skills.

As an educator for over 20 years, I’ve heard a lot about critical thinking , problem-solving , and inquiry and how they foster student engagement. However, I’ve also seen students draw a blank when they’re given a problem to solve. This happens when the problem is too vast for them to develop a solution or they don’t think the situation is problematic. 

As I’ve tried, failed, and tried again to engage my students in critical thinking, problem-solving, and inquiry, I’ve experienced greater engagement when I allow them to problem-find, problem-shape, and problem-solve. This shift in perspective has helped my students take direct ownership over their learning.

Encourage Students to Find the Problem 

When students ask a question that prompts their curiosity, it motivates them to seek out an answer. This answer often highlights a problem. 

For example, I gave my grade 11 students a list of topics to explore, and they signed up for a topic that they were interested in. From that, they had to develop a research question. This allowed them to narrow the topic down to what they were specifically curious about. 

Developing a research question initiated the research process. Students launched into reading information from reliable sources including Britannica , Newsela , and EBSCOhost . Through the reading process, they were able to access information so that they could attempt to find an answer to their question.

The nature of a good question is that there isn’t an “answer.” Instead, there are a variety of answers. This allowed students to feel safe in sharing their answers because they couldn’t be “wrong.” If they had reliable, peer-reviewed academic research to support their answer, they were “right.”

Shaping a Problem Makes Overcoming It More Feasible 

When students identify a problem, they’re compelled to do something about it; however, if the problem is too large, it can be overwhelming for them. When they’re overwhelmed, they might shut down and stop learning. For that reason, it’s important for them to shape the problem by taking on a piece they can handle.

To help guide students, provide a list of topics and allow them to choose one. In my experience, choosing their own topic prompts students’ curiosity—which drives them to persevere through a challenging task. Additionally, I have students maintain their scope at a school, regional, or national level. Keeping the focus away from an international scope allows them to filter down the number of results when they begin researching. Shaping the problem this way allowed students to address it in a manageable way.

Students Can Problem-Solve with Purpose

Once students identified a slice of a larger problem that they could manage, they started to read and think about it, collaborate together, and figure out how to solve it. To further support them in taking on a manageable piece of the problem, the parameters of the solution were that it had to be something they could implement immediately. For example, raising $3 million to build a shelter for those experiencing homelessness in the community isn’t something that students can do tomorrow. Focusing on a solution that could be implemented immediately made it easier for them to come up with viable options. 

With the problem shaped down to a manageable piece, students were better able to come up with a solution that would have a big impact. This problem-solving process also invites ingenuity and innovation because it allows teens to critically look at their day-to-day lives and experiences to consider what actions they could take to make a difference in the world. It prompts them to look at their world through a different lens.

When the conditions for inquiry are created by allowing students to problem-find, problem-shape and problem-solve, it allows students to do the following:

• Critically examine their world to identify problems that exist
• Feel empowered because they realize that they can be part of a solution
• Innovate by developing new solutions to old problems

Put it All Together to Promote Change

Here are two examples of what my grade 11 students came up with when tasked with examining the national news to problem-find, problem-shape, and problem-solve.

Topic: Indigenous Issues in Canada

Question: How are Indigenous peoples impacted by racism?

Problem-find: The continued racism against Indigenous peoples has led to the families of murdered women not attaining justice, Indigenous peoples not being able to gain employment, and Indigenous communities not being able to access basic necessities like healthcare and clean water.

Problem-shape: A lot of the issues that Indigenous peoples face require government intervention. What can high school teens do to combat these issues?

Problem-solve: Teens need to stop supporting professional sports teams that tokenize Indigenous peoples, and if they see a peer wearing something from such a sports team, we need to educate them about how the team’s logo perpetuates racism.

Topic: People With Disabilities in Canada

Question: What leads students with a hearing impairment to feel excluded?

Problem-find: Students with a hearing impairment struggle to engage with course texts like films and videos.

Problem-shape: A lot of the issues that students with a hearing impairment face in schools require teachers to take action. What can high school teens do to help their hearing-impaired peers feel included?

Problem-solve: When teens share a video on social media, they should turn the closed-captioning on, so that all students can consume the media being shared.

Once my students came up with solutions, they wanted to do something about it and use their voices to engage in global citizenship. This led them to create TikTok and Snapchat videos and Instagram posts that they shared and re-shared among their peer group. 

The learning that students engaged in led to their wanting to teach others—which allowed a greater number of students to learn. This whole process engendered conversations about our world and helped them realize that they aren’t powerless; they can do things to initiate change in areas that they’re interested in and passionate about. It allowed them to use their voices to educate others and promote change.

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In cdc survey, 37% of u.s. high school students report regular mental health struggles during covid-19 pandemic.

Many high school students have reported experiencing mental health challenges during the coronavirus outbreak, according to recently published survey findings from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). High school students who are gay, lesbian or bisexual, as well as girls, were especially likely to say their mental health has suffered during the pandemic.

This analysis explores U.S. high school students’ self-reported mental health challenges during the COVID-19 pandemic. It expands on Pew Research Center surveys that have explored U.S. adults’ mental health difficulties during this time. Not all of the survey questions asked specifically about mental health during the pandemic.

This analysis relies on the Center for Disease Control and Prevention’s Adolescent Behaviors and Experiences Survey (ABES), which was conducted from January to June 2021 to assess students’ health-related behaviors and experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic. ABES surveyed high school students in grades 9-12 attending U.S. public and private schools. More information about the survey and its methodology can be found on the CDC’s website.

The results from this one-time survey are not directly comparable to previous CDC surveys on these topics.

Overall, 37% of students at public and private high schools reported that their mental health was not good most or all of the time during the pandemic, according to the CDC’s Adolescent Behaviors and Experiences Survey , which was fielded from January to June 2021. In the survey, “poor mental health” includes stress, anxiety and depression. About three-in-ten high school students (31%) said they experienced poor mental health most or all of the time in the 30 days before the survey. In addition, 44% said that, in the previous 12 months, they felt sad or hopeless almost every day for at least two weeks in a row such that they stopped doing some usual activities. (Not all of the survey questions asked specifically about mental health during the pandemic.)

High school students who are gay, lesbian or bisexual reported higher rates of mental health stresses than their heterosexual (straight) peers. The share of LGB high schoolers who said their mental health was not good most of the time or always during the pandemic was more than double that of heterosexual students (64% vs. 30%). More than half of LGB students (55%) said they experienced poor mental health at least most of the time in the 30 days before the survey, while 26% of heterosexual teens said the same. And about three-quarters of LGB high schoolers (76%) said they felt sad or hopeless almost daily for at least two weeks such that they stopped doing some of their usual activities, compared with 37% of heterosexual students.

There were also differences by gender. About half of high school girls (49%) said their mental health was not good most of the time or always during the COVID-19 outbreak – roughly double the share of boys who said this (24%). And roughly four-in-ten girls (42%) reported feeling this way in the 30 days before the survey; 20% of boys said the same. About six-in-ten high school girls (57%) reported that at some point in the 12 months before taking the survey (in the first half of 2021) they felt sad or hopeless almost every day for at least two weeks in a row such that they stopped doing some usual activities, compared with 31% of high school boys who said this.

LGB high schoolers were also more likely than their heterosexual peers to have sought mental health care – including treatment or counseling for alcohol or drug use – via telemedicine during the COVID-19 pandemic. Around one-in-five LGB students (19%) said they received treatment this way at some point during the pandemic, compared with 6% of heterosexual students. Girls were more likely than boys to have received mental health care through telemedicine (10% vs. 7%, respectively).

Pandemic-related disruptions to schooling, socializing and family life have created a situation that the U.S. surgeon general has described as a “ youth mental health crisis ,” with high rates of teens experiencing distress. But public health experts had called attention to teen mental health even before the coronavirus outbreak. For instance, a separate CDC survey conducted in 2015 found that LGB teens were at greater risk of depression than their heterosexual peers. And a Pew Research Center analysis of pre-pandemic data from the National Survey for Drug Use and Health showed teenage girls were more likely than their male peers to report recent experiences with depression , as well as to receive treatment for it.

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School Start Times, Sleep, Behavioral, Health, and Academic Outcomes: a Review of the Literature

Anne g. wheaton.

Epidemiologist, Division of Population Health, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 4770 Buford Hwy. NE, Mailstop F-78, Atlanta, GA 30341-3717, Phone: (770) 488-5362, Fax: (770) 488-5965, vog.cdc@9opi

Daniel P. Chapman

Epidemiologist, Division of Population Health, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 4770 Buford Hwy. NE, Mailstop F-78, Atlanta, GA 30341-3717, Phone: (770) 488-5463, vog.cdc@2cpd

Janet B. Croft

Branch Chief, Epidemiology and Surveillance Branch, Division of Population Health, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 4770 Buford Hwy. NE, Mailstop F-78, Atlanta, GA 30341-3717, Phone: (770) 488-2566, vog.cdc@0cbj

Insufficient sleep in adolescents has been shown to be associated with a wide variety of adverse outcomes, from poor mental and physical health to behavioral problems and lower academic grades. However, most high school students do not get sufficient sleep. Delaying school start times for adolescents has been proposed as a policy change to address insufficient sleep in this population and potentially to improve students’ academic performance, reduce engagement in risk behaviors, and improve health.

This paper reviews 38 reports examining the association between school start times, sleep, and other outcomes among adolescent students.

Most studies reviewed provide evidence that delaying school start time increases weeknight sleep duration among adolescents, primarily by delaying rise times. Most of the studies saw a significant increase in sleep duration even with relatively small delays in start times of half an hour or so. Later start times also generally correspond to improved attendance, less tardiness, less falling asleep in class, better grades, and fewer motor vehicle crashes.

CONCLUSIONS

Although additional research is necessary, research results that are already available should be disseminated to stakeholders to enable the development of evidence-based school policies.

Sleepy adolescents have doubtlessly been a problem for a long time. However, it is only since the late 1980s that this issue has progressed from teachers’ anecdotes of students falling asleep in class and parental complaints of daily struggles to get their children out of bed to scientific investigations into the causes and consequences of insufficient sleep.

Most adolescents may need at least 9 hours sleep per night 1 – 3 ; however, fewer than 8% of high school students report getting this amount. 4 Less than a third of students report 8 or more hours of sleep, and this proportion decreases as school grade level increases so that fewer than a quarter of high school seniors get this amount. 4 Healthy People 2020, a national initiative designed to guide disease prevention and health promotion efforts to improve the health of all Americans ( http://www.healthypeople.gov/ ), contains 4 objectives related to sleep, including one for adolescents. 5 This objective is to “increase the proportion of students in grades 9 through 12 who get sufficient sleep (defined as 8 or more hours of sleep on an average school night).”

Insufficient sleep in children and adolescents has been shown to be associated with a wide variety of adverse outcomes in multiple aspects of their lives from poor mental and physical health to behavioral problems and poor academic grades. Insufficient sleep has been linked to excess weight, 6 – 13 decreased physical activity, 14 and increased food intake, possibly due to alterations in appetite-regulating hormones. 12 Results of investigations into longitudinal changes in weight attributable to sleep duration, however, have been mixed. 10 , 15

A solid body of literature has found that insufficient sleep in this young population is tied to poor mental health, including depression, depressive symptoms, 8 , 16 – 22 and suicidal ideation. 8 , 18 , 20 , 22 – 25 In addition, a few studies have shown an association between insufficient sleep and unhealthy risk behaviors including alcohol use, 17 , 19 , 20 , 22 tobacco smoking, 20 , 22 marijuana use, 20 , 22 use of other illicit/prescription drugs, 22 unhealthy weight control strategies, 26 and recent sexual activity. 20 Other factors that have been found to be associated with insufficient sleep include risk-taking behaviors, 27 bullying, 28 school violence-related behaviors, 29 and physical fighting. 20 Short sleep duration has also been found to be associated with a higher risk of unintentional injury. 30 Finally, students who do not get enough sleep also may be more likely to have problems paying attention and poor academic performance, 17 , 21 , 31 – 36 although not all research agrees. 37 , 38 One of these negative studies failed to find a correlation between school night sleep duration and grade point average. 37 However, class grading and subsequently grade point averages are not standardized and may vary by subject, teacher, and school. That study also did not adjust by sex of student, which was a strong predictor of grade point average. Ming et al. found that “students with a sleep length of less than 7 hours on both weekdays and weekends exhibited poorer performance, while those who made up this sleep loss on weekends did not.” 38 That study also relied on a non-standardized measure of academic performance and did not adjust for variables such as grade in school, which is strongly related to prevalence of insufficient sleep.

Adolescents tend to get insufficient sleep because of a combination of late bedtimes and early rise times. External factors that contribute to later bedtimes among adolescents include an increase in schoolwork; participation in afterschool activities, including employment; fewer parent-set bedtimes; and late-night use of technology in the bedroom. 39 – 43 Biology also plays a part in later bedtimes among adolescents. One of the early changes associated with puberty is alteration of a child’s circadian rhythms, such that adolescents are more alert in the afternoons and evenings and require morning sleep. 44 Their natural body clocks can keep adolescents awake until 11 PM or later, in spite of going to bed earlier and good sleep hygiene, such as avoiding stimulating activity at night and minimizing caffeine intake in the afternoon or evening. 39 School-based sleep promotion programs have been tried as a means of improving sleep hygiene among adolescents. However, these programs may improve knowledge of sleep without having a significant effect on behavior. 45 , 46

Rise times, on the other hand, are primarily determined by a single factor—school start times. 43 Delaying school start times for adolescents has been proposed as a policy change to address insufficient sleep in this population and potentially to improve students’ academic performance, reduce engagement in risk behaviors, and improve health. In 2014, the American Academy of Pediatrics published a policy statement urging middle and high schools to adjust start times to permit students to obtain adequate sleep and improve physical and mental health, safety, academic performance, and quality of life. 3 This paper reviews studies examining the association between school start times, sleep, and other outcomes including academic performance, mental health, and motor vehicle collisions among adolescent students. This paper, and especially the table provided, is intended to be a resource for educators, parents, and other stakeholders who wish to learn more about the impact of changing school start times for adolescents.

LITERATURE REVIEW

An outline of the steps in identification of articles and reports included in the literature review is presented in the Figure . To be included in the review, analyses had to include the variable of “school start time” either by comparing different schools with different start times (cross-sectional) or the same schools before and after changes in start times (longitudinal). Since the focus of this review is on the effect of school start times on adolescent students, studies that focused on elementary school (pre-middle school) students were excluded. Additionally, reports had to be available in English, but could include schools either in or outside the United States. Articles for the literature review were initially identified through a PubMed search for “school start time” OR “school start times” (Step A). Some exclusions from this initial search included a study that compared students in public or private schools to homeschooled students, 47 a comparison of adolescent sleep during summer and during the school year, 48 and one that modeled the effect of modifying school start times on the frequency of encounters between child pedestrians and motor vehicles. 49 Another broader PubMed search for “sleep” AND “adolescent” AND “school” resulted in approximately 3200 articles (Step B). Titles and abstracts were reviewed to identify studies that might meet primary inclusion criteria. Full-text review of candidate articles confirmed inclusion of articles for this review. Reference lists of articles identified in Steps A and B and reviews of the topic of school start times were reviewed for identification of additional reports (Step C). Several of the earliest studies with results presented in abstract form only were identified in this manner, 50 – 54 as were some studies from the education or economics literature that were not indexed by PubMed. 55 – 59 A Scopus search for “school start time” (all fields) found 320 documents (Step D), of which 3 satisfied the inclusion criteria and had not been identified in previous steps. Finally (Step E), one additional non-duplicative report was identified in the reference list for articles in Step D. Final searches in Steps A, B, and D were conducted July 1, 2015. For this review, 38 reports were reviewed for years of study, study design, sample size, students’ ages, location, school start times, outcomes, and key reported findings. Five of these reports are listed more than once in the table. Three reports included multiple study populations whose data are analyzed separately. 59 – 61 Three reports included cross-sectional and longitudinal components, with data for each component presented separately. 55 , 57 , 61

Identification of Reports for Review

The primary limitation to this review is its reliance on indexing by PubMed and Scopus, which could lead to omission of reports not indexed by these databases. To address this limitation, we also examined the reference lists on previous articles on the topic of school start times (Steps C and E). Five of the 38 reports were identified in this manner. Publication bias and over-representation of studies with significant results is also possible, however, some studies included in this review had results that did not agree with the majority.

Types of School Start Time Studies

We reviewed 38 reports on the impact of changes in school start time (see Table ). Unfortunately, the earliest reports, 50 – 54 which have been cited frequently, were only published in abstract form. However, since they seem to have provided the impetus for much of the subsequent research and are fairly detailed, we have included them in this review. The studies presented in this review can be categorized as either cross-sectional or longitudinal. The cross-sectional studies simply compared characteristics for students at two or more schools having different start times, such that School A had an earlier start time than School B and compared how students at the two schools with respect to such outcomes as sleep duration, school attendance, academic performance, and morning traffic accidents among teens.

Descriptions of School Start Time (SST) Studies in Preadolescents, Adolescents, and College-Age Students

Abbreviations: ACT, originally American College Testing – one of two standardized tests commonly used in college admissions in the United States; HS, high school; MS, middle school; NR, not reported; SD, standard deviation; SST, school start time.

Changing school start times is often a major endeavor that involves coordination between school faculty and staff, transportation resources, parents, students, and administration, and can take years to accomplish. Cross-sectional studies can be conducted without having to wait for a school or school district to undertake a change in school start time. However, as with all cross- sectional studies, only associations between school start times and other variables can be shown—not cause and effect. Other school characteristics, such as socioeconomic status of students, can also have effects on sleep and other outcomes but is often not reported.

In the longitudinal studies, data are collected on students and schools before and after a change in start time. Some data that are regularly collected by schools, such as attendance and grades, can be obtained retroactively by researchers. Other data, such as those obtained from student sleep surveys, need to be collected before the start time change is implemented, and including these data can increase the duration of the study. Some studies evaluate characteristics of the same students before and after the change. Others evaluate the student population (either the entire school or specific grades in school) before and after the change. This second method, for instance, could compare outcomes in 9th-grade students in the year before the start time change with the same outcomes in 9th-grade students in the year after the change. Both of these methods have their drawbacks. Although it would seem to be preferable to evaluate the same students before and after a change, individual students can undergo significant changes from year to year that could exaggerate or diminish the effect of changing start times. However, by being able to evaluate changes in variables for individual students, researchers are able to address questions such as, “Did the students who got more sleep after the start time’s change have improved outcomes?” Although longitudinal studies may provide stronger evidence of causation than cross-sectional studies by addressing the issue of temporality, it is important to assess whether appropriate control conditions are used, whether analyses account for covariates (eg, age, sex, or socioeconomic status), and whether other explanatory variables are considered (eg, implementation of graduated drivers licensing).

Sleep and Sleepiness

Since delaying school start times is primarily intended to address the problem of insufficient sleep among adolescents, most of the studies focused on the association between school start times and sleep variables. Not surprisingly, students at schools with later start times got out of bed later on school days than those at earlier starting schools. 35 , 36 , 50 , 53 , 55 , 56 , 60 , 62 – 69 The association between school start times and bedtimes, however, was mixed. Of 19 studies that evaluated the association between school start times and bedtime, there were no start time-associated differences in weekday bedtimes in eleven studies. 35 , 50 , 53 – 55 , 60 , 62 , 67 , 68 , 70 However, six studies observed a later bedtime among students in schools that started at later times. 34 , 36 , 56 , 64 , 66 , 71 It should be noted that in the study by Wolfson and colleagues, this bedtime difference was observed only in the autumn. 64 Two studies unexpectedly reported earlier bedtimes after a delay in start times. 65 , 69 In the study by Owens et al., some students stated that after seeing the benefits of getting more sleep with the delay in school start times, they sought to further increase their sleep by going to bed earlier. 65 In Paksarian et al, bedtimes were delayed by only 10 minutes for each 30 minute delay in school start times. 71 In 29 reports, a later start time was found to be associated with longer weekday sleep duration, 34 , 36 , 38 , 51 – 56 , 60 – 79 including the studies that noted later bedtimes. 34 , 36 , 56 , 64 , 66 , 71 In contrast to the majority of studies that observed longer sleep duration in later starting schools, two studies comparing students from schools with different start times did not observe a significant difference in sleep duration. 35 , 50 For one of these, the difference in sleep duration did not meet the authors’ effect size criterion, although the difference would not have been expected to be large since the difference in school start times was only 20 minutes. 35 The other study observed longer sleep duration for students at the later starting school, but the difference was not statistically significant. 50 Another study observed a significantly longer sleep duration for 7th- and 8th-grade students of only one of two later-starting districts. 60 Sleep duration for the second later-starting district was also longer than for the early-starting district, but the difference was not statistically significant. 60 Paksarian et al. observed longer sleep durations with later school start times (11 minutes for each 30 minute delay in school start times), but only for schools that started before 8:01 AM. 71 In further analysis, the authors found the longer sleep duration for boys only (20 minutes for each 30 minute delay in school start times) and that there was variation by urbanicity, with an increase in sleep duration for boys in major metropolitan areas and a decrease for boys in nonurban counties. 71 The authors suggested that the different association according to urbanicity may be due to differences in mode of transportation to school and time spent traveling to school, but they did not have data to investigate the possible role of transportation in their study. Although nearly all the studies reviewed used self-reported sleep data either from sleep diaries or survey questions, the two studies that used data from electronic wrist monitors (actigraphs) worn during sleep confirmed the general finding of longer weeknight sleep duration for students with later start times. 62 , 70 Eleven of the positive studies found that students got at least one additional minute of sleep for every two minutes of difference in start time (eg, at least 30 minutes more sleep when start time was one hour later), 34 , 55 , 56 , 60 , 61 , 64 , 65 , 68 , 70 , 72 , 78 although six other studies observed smaller, yet statistically significant, differences. 51 , 52 , 62 , 63 , 73 , 74

In addition to reporting longer sleep durations, students with later start times were less likely to report daytime sleepiness or falling asleep in class in nearly all studies that assessed these outcomes. 34 , 36 , 55 , 56 , 60 , 64 , 65 , 69 , 72 , 74 Two studies observed no difference in sleepiness based on school start times. In the Norwegian study, 78 start times were delayed from 8:30 AM to 9:30 AM on Mondays only. The lack of association could have been due to either the change being in effect only one day a week or the earlier start time already being late enough. In the Croatian study, 80 the students at the earlier starting schools were predominantly boys, while girls made up most of the population at the later starting schools. That study found that girls had later chronotype (evening preference) and more sleepiness. In addition, the schools in the Croatian study alternated their schedule weekly, with schools starting in the morning one week and in the afternoon the next. Even with a delay in start time, falling asleep during class appears to remain a major problem, however. In Wahlstrom and colleagues’ survey of students post-start time change, 27% reported falling asleep in a morning class in the previous 2 weeks, and 29% fell asleep in an afternoon class. 61

Other methods for assessing students’ degree of sleep-deficiency were used in various studies. Students in a study by Carskadon and colleagues underwent polysomnography (a type of sleep study that measures multiple factors such as electrical activity in the brain, heart rate, movements of the eyelids and legs, and respiratory airflow) and multiple sleep latency tests. 62 After an advance in start time from 8:25 AM to 7:20 AM, students had a shorter REM sleep latency (time between sleep onset and onset of REM sleep) on polysomnography and a shorter sleep latency (time to sleep onset during a standard testing protocol). 62 Both of these results indicate sleep-deficiency. Differences in sleep patterns between weeknights and weekend nights can also indicate insufficient weeknight sleep as students try to make up for lost sleep on the weekends. Seven reports that evaluated weekend sleep patterns found more “catch-up” sleep on the weekends for earlier start times, 51 , 61 , 64 , 66 , 69 , 74 , 78 although one found no difference in this outcome. 71 One study assessed weeknight and weekend sleep and observed longer weeknight sleep duration and no change in weekend sleep patterns after a delay in school start time, which could be interpreted as a decrease in “catch-up” sleep. 67 However, the difference between weeknight and weekend sleep was not analyzed. Three studies that included information about daytime naps noted that students with earlier school start times reported more napping, 38 , 66 , 75 presumably in an attempt to make up for insufficient nighttime sleep. Sleepy adolescents may also attempt to lessen sleepiness with caffeine. One study asked students about caffeine consumption and observed that caffeine use decreased after a 25 minute delay in school start time. 67

Academics and Cognition

An outcome of particular interest to school administrators, teachers, and parents is academic performance; however, evaluating how delayed start times affect school grades or academic performance is difficult for several reasons. Class grading is not standardized and varies by subject, teacher, and school. Standardized tests such as the Scholastic Aptitude Test or the ACT are not taken by all students and are more likely to be taken by students planning to attend college. Finally, students with very good academic performance before a delay in school start time do not have much room for improvement. Given these limitations, however, some evidence suggests a positive association between later school start time and academic performance, 57 , 58 , 60 , 61 , 64 , 81 although the association may be relatively weak 55 and not universal. 59 , 67 , 80

The first cross-sectional school start time study by the University of Minnesota found higher self-reported grades for students in later starting schools. 60 Mean self-reported grades for the two districts that started before 7:30 AM were 6.4 and 6.5 (on a scale from 1 = mostly F’s to 9 = mostly A’s) compared to 7.1 for the district starting at 8:30 AM (p < .05). However, the increase in grades observed from this group’s subsequent longitudinal study was small and not statistically significant. 55 In their latest longitudinal study including 8 schools, the same group noted that most schools saw an increase in grade point average after delaying school start times. 61 Arlington Public Schools (Arlington County, Virginia) observed an improvement in 10 th grade students’ 1 st period grades after a 45 minute delay in high school start times, with no change in 7 th grade students’ 1 st period grades after a 20 minute advance in middle school start times. 81 Hinrichs’ investigation into ACT scores and school start times in the Minneapolis-St. Paul area, which included school districts that did not delay school start times, controlled for various covariates and found no association between school start times and ACT scores. 59 The annual ACT participation rate among Minnesota high school graduates varied from 59% to 66% during the study period (1993–2002). 59 Hinrichs also evaluated the association between school start times and standardized test scores in Kansas (Kansas State Assessments) and the Virginia suburbs of Washington DC. 59 Again, he found no association between school start times and academic achievement in these analyses. 59 Wolfson and colleagues observed higher grades after delaying school start times for 8th grade, although not for 7th-grade students. 64 Another study linked school start times and standardized test scores for middle school students (grades 6–8) from 1999 to 2006 in the eighteenth largest public school district in the United States. 57 In the cross-sectional component of that study, an hour later start time corresponded to higher test scores on both math and reading (on the order of 3 percentile points). 57 The longitudinal component of the same report looked at schools that had changed school start times over the course of the study and found that a one hour delay in start time corresponded to a 2 percentile increase in math and 1.5 percentile increase in reading. 57 Among older students, U.S. Air Force Academy freshmen, students assigned to a first period course and therefore an earlier start to the school day had poorer grades. 58 A longitudinal study of nearly 200 boarding school students did not see a change in self-reported grades after a 25 minute delay in school start times. 67 In Milic et al.’s study in Croatia, students with an earlier school start time performed better academically than students at the schools with later start times. 80 However, in addition to the difference in the make-up of the student populations (more boys at earlier schools and more girls at later schools) in that study, students were also aware of the school schedule at enrollment and the response rate was low.

Several studies have investigated the association between school start time and cognitive outcomes. Two studies found that students with later start times reported fewer problems concentrating and paying attention. 70 , 72 In contrast, a study in Spain measured attention level via a sustained attention task among students at three schools with different start times (8:00, 8:15, and 8:30) and observed the highest average attention level at the school starting at 8:15. 77 However, it should be noted that the mean inductive reasoning score, a measure of intelligence which is positively associated with attention, was significantly lower for the latest-starting school than the other two schools. 77 The Norwegian study that delayed start times on Mondays included reaction time tests and found that students at the school with delayed start time had significantly fewer lapses and faster reaction times on Monday than Friday compared to no difference among students at the control (no delay) school. 78

Several studies asked students how much time they spent on homework. There was no consistent association between school start time and homework time. Wahlstrom and colleagues found that students with later school start times reported less hours of homework, 60 whereas Edwards observed the reverse 57 and Boergers and colleagues saw no difference. 67 Interpretation of these results in difficult. An increase in time doing homework could indicate an improved ability to concentrate or less efficient studying. Since the value of homework is hotly debated, this outcome should not be taken out of context.

Attendance/Tardiness

School attendance is also important for academic success. A recent report found that short sleep duration was strongly associated with odds of school absences. 82 Several studies included in this review found that earlier start times were also related to more frequent tardiness and more absences. 55 , 57 , 60 , 61 , 64 , 65 In one study, even with delaying start times from 8:00 AM to 8:55 AM, nearly a third of students reported being late to class because of oversleeping in the 2 weeks before the survey. 61 However, one study of schools in the Minneapolis-St. Paul area found no association between school start times and overall attendance rates. 59 The report by Arlington Public Schools stated that “maturity, rather than starting time, has the biggest impact on attendance rates.” 81 However, when comparing 10 th graders before and after the delay in high school start times, attendance rates were lower after the delay. Despite this finding, academic performance improved for those students. The report also noted that the attendance reporting procedures changed during the course of the study.

Sleep is strongly linked with many psychiatric disorders, including depression and anxiety. 83 Although sleep problems may be symptoms of mental health disorders such as depression, there is also evidence of a causal relationship between insufficient sleep and depression, as well as mood in general. 84 , 85 Due to this observation, some school start time studies included depression symptoms as part of their student assessments. Students at later-starting schools appeared to experience fewer depression symptoms (lower depression scores). 55 , 60 , 65 , 67 Incidentally, shorter REM sleep latency, such as was observed by Carskadon and colleagues after an advance in start time, 62 is also often observed in major depression. 86 One study found no difference in students’ positive or negative affect with delayed school start time. 78 However, in that study, the start time was delayed on Mondays only.

Motor Vehicle Crashes

Four studies also investigated motor vehicle crashes among young drivers (aged 18 years or younger) in areas served by schools with different start times. In a Kentucky county, Danner and Phillips saw a 16.5% decrease (p < .01) in motor vehicle crash rates for 17- and 18-year-old students in the 2 years following a 1-hour delay in school start time by county high schools. 74 During the same time period, crash rates for this age group increased by 7.8% in the rest of the state. 74 In their 2011 report, Vorona and colleagues compared crash rates for teen drivers aged 16 to 18 years in 2 neighboring, demographically similar cities (in eastern Virginia) with different start times. In 2007 and 2008, the teen crash rates were significantly higher in the city with an earlier school start time. 87 For both cities, teen crashes peaked during the morning commute time. 87 The group went on to perform similar analyses for two adjacent counties in central Virginia with different school start times. 88 During the 2009–2010 school year, crash rates among 16–18 year olds were higher (p < .05) in the county with the earlier school start times. 88 The following year, crash rates among 16–17 year olds were higher (p < .05) in the same county, but difference was not statistically significant when 18 year olds were included in comparison (p = 0.09). 88 Finally, Wahlstrom and colleagues investigated crash rates among 16- to 18-year-old students in 4 areas near schools that underwent delays in start time. Two areas saw major decreases (≥65%) in teen crash rates after the delays, while one saw a small decrease (6%), and another saw a small increase (9%). 61

Other Outcomes

There are a handful of other outcomes that have been reported by only one study each. One study saw that students at schools with later start times spent less time at work during the school week (p < .05). 60 More time working has been linked to poorer academic performance. 89 However, the start time study was cross-sectional and other variables such as socioeconomic status may explain the difference in time spent at work. In the cross-sectional component of his study, Edwards found that students at schools that started later reported less time watching television. 57 When he limited his analyses to schools that changed start times over the time course of the study, he confirmed that students at schools that delayed their start times reported significantly less time watching television. 57 Among 197 boarding school students, no change in time spent in athletics or extracurricular activities was reported after a 25 minute delay in start time. 67 Finally, in a small study of 15 students who transitioned from grade 9 (school start time 8:25) to grade 10 (school start time 7:20), self-reported conduct problems and aggressive behaviors decreased with the change to an earlier start time. 54 However, within each grade, these behaviors were associated with shorter sleep duration, which indicates that at least some of the decrease in these behaviors may be due to maturation. 54

Delaying school start times for adolescents has been proposed as a policy change to address insufficient sleep among adolescents, a largely sleep-deprived population, and potentially to improve students’ academic performance, reduce engagement in risk behaviors, and improve health. Nearly all studies to date provide evidence that delaying school start time accomplishes the goal of increasing sleep duration among these students, primarily by delaying rise times. Most of the studies saw a significant increase in sleep duration even with relatively small delays in start times of half an hour or so. Later school start times also generally corresponded to improved attendance, less tardiness, less falling asleep in class, fewer depression symptoms, and fewer motor vehicle crashes. Although not all studies found that later start times corresponded to improved academic performance, no studies found a negative impact of later school start times on academics.

IMPLICATIONS FOR SCHOOL HEALTH

In 2014, the American Academy of Pediatrics published a policy statement urging middle and high schools to adjust start times to permit students to obtain adequate sleep and improve physical and mental health, safety, academic performance, and quality of life, and suggested that middle and high schools not start before 8:30 AM. 3 Schools and school districts cannot make evidence-based policy decision without data. Therefore, research results such as those presented in this review, as well as the recent recommendations by the American Academy of Pediatrics, should be disseminated to school districts, teachers, parents, and other stakeholders. The field still needs rigorous research, including trials with controls, if possible. Many questions remain, such as the issue of how late is late enough? Much of the focus has been on high school students, but biological changes begin earlier, so further research into middle-school students is warranted. More qualitative research about overcoming obstacles to delaying school start times would also be valuable.

Schools contemplating a change in school start time may consider partnering with researchers before a decision is even made. Baseline data on student sleep characteristics, tardiness due to sleepiness, and prevalence of falling asleep during class may be used in the initial decision of whether to delay school start times. Parents and administrators may not realize the extent of the problem of insufficient sleep among their students and this data may help persuade them that some action is necessary. If school start times are delayed, everyone would benefit from collection of detailed data before and after a time change. Not only would other schools or school districts contemplating a change benefit from expanded evidence, the district that undertook the start time change would be able to evaluate the impact of the change and communicate their findings to their stakeholders. Data collected should include not only sleep-related variables and academic achievement measures, but also measures of mental health (such as depression and anxiety symptoms), behavioral problems, risk behaviors, safety statistics such as motor vehicle crash rates and pedestrian injuries, and information on mode of transportation and travel time. Several obstacles to implementing start time delays are often cited, including costs of changing bus schedules, possible impact on athletics and extracurricular activities, and school faculty and staff resistant to change. However, as recently reported by Owens et al. 90 in their examination of school districts that have delayed school start times, many anticipated problems fail to materialize or are only temporary. Several school districts have seen savings in transportation costs after changes made to facilitate delayed start times. 90 Success stories describing how districts creatively overcame obstacles to school start time changes should be shared (for example http://www.startschoollater.net/success-stories.html ) to provide ideas to other districts contemplating change.

Disclaimer : The findings and conclusions in this report are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official position of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

Contributor Information

Anne G. Wheaton, Epidemiologist, Division of Population Health, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 4770 Buford Hwy. NE, Mailstop F-78, Atlanta, GA 30341-3717, Phone: (770) 488-5362, Fax: (770) 488-5965, vog.cdc@9opi .

Daniel P. Chapman, Epidemiologist, Division of Population Health, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 4770 Buford Hwy. NE, Mailstop F-78, Atlanta, GA 30341-3717, Phone: (770) 488-5463, vog.cdc@2cpd .

Janet B. Croft, Branch Chief, Epidemiology and Surveillance Branch, Division of Population Health, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 4770 Buford Hwy. NE, Mailstop F-78, Atlanta, GA 30341-3717, Phone: (770) 488-2566, vog.cdc@0cbj .

Disruptions to School and Home Life Among High School Students During the COVID-19 Pandemic — Adolescent Behaviors and Experiences Survey, United States, January–June 2021

Supplements / April 1, 2022 / 71(3);28–34

Kathleen H. Krause, PhD 1 ; Jorge V. Verlenden, PhD 1 ; Leigh E. Szucs, PhD 1 ; Elizabeth A. Swedo, MD 2 ; Caitlin L. Merlo, MPH 3 ; Phyllis Holditch Niolon, PhD 2 ; Zanie C. Leroy, MD 3 ; Valerie M. Sims, MA 1 ; Xiaoyi Deng, MS 4 ; Sarah Lee, PhD 3 ; Catherine N. Rasberry, PhD 1 ; J. Michael Underwood, PhD 1 ( View author affiliations )

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Introduction, limitations, acknowledgment.

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Youths have experienced disruptions to school and home life since the COVID-19 pandemic began in March 2020. During January–June 2021, CDC conducted the Adolescent Behaviors and Experiences Survey (ABES), an online survey of a probability-based, nationally representative sample of U.S. public- and private-school students in grades 9–12 (N = 7,705). ABES data were used to estimate the prevalence of disruptions and adverse experiences during the pandemic, including parental and personal job loss, homelessness, hunger, emotional or physical abuse by a parent or other adult at home, receipt of telemedicine, and difficulty completing schoolwork. Prevalence estimates are presented for all students and by sex, race and ethnicity, grade, sexual identity, and difficulty completing schoolwork. Since the beginning of the pandemic, more than half of students found it more difficult to complete their schoolwork (66%) and experienced emotional abuse by a parent or other adult in their home (55%). Prevalence of emotional and physical abuse by a parent or other adult in the home was highest among students who identified as gay, lesbian, or bisexual (74% emotional abuse and 20% physical abuse) and those who identified as other or questioning (76% and 13%) compared with students who identified as heterosexual (50% and 10%). Overall, students experienced insecurity via parental job loss (29%), personal job loss (22%), and hunger (24%). Disparities by sex and by race and ethnicity also were noted. Understanding health disparities and student disruptions and adverse experiences as interconnected problems can inform school and community initiatives that promote adolescent health and well-being. With community support to provide coordinated, cross-sector programming, schools can facilitate linkages to services that help students address the adverse experiences that they faced during the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. Public health and health care professionals, communities, schools, families, and adolescents can use these findings to better understand how students’ lives have been affected during the pandemic and what challenges need to be addressed to promote adolescent health and well-being during and after the pandemic.

Youths have experienced disruptions to school and home life since the COVID-19 pandemic began in March 2020 ( 1 ). The COVID-19 pandemic has disrupted the lives of adolescents by creating or exacerbating economic, food and nutrition, and housing insecurity as well as experiences of abuse, all of which negatively affect health and well-being ( 2 , 3 ). Racial and ethnic discrimination is a social determinant of health ( 4 ), and existing health disparities persisted or worsened during the pandemic. For example, American Indian or Alaska Native, Black, and Hispanic or Latino populations typically experienced higher rates of morbidity and mortality and economic vulnerability compared with the White population before the pandemic and also were more likely than the White population to experience morbidity and mortality from COVID-19 and economic vulnerability during the pandemic ( 5 ). Adolescents experienced disruptions to education and accessing health care, although schools and health care providers shifted rapidly to virtual platforms and telemedicine to continue providing services ( 6 ).

To date, no study has assessed national prevalence of disruptions and adverse experiences experienced by high school students during the COVID-19 pandemic. This study addresses this knowledge gap by estimating the prevalence of disruptions and adverse experiences during the pandemic, overall and by sex, race and ethnicity, grade, and sexual identity. Public health and health care professionals, communities, schools, families, and adolescents can use these findings to better understand how students’ lives have been affected during the pandemic and what challenges need to be addressed to promote adolescent health and well-being during and after the pandemic.

Data Source

This report includes data from the Adolescent Behaviors and Experiences Survey (ABES) conducted by CDC during January–June 2021 to assess student behaviors and experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic. ABES was a one-time, probability-based online survey of U.S. high school students. ABES used a stratified, three-stage cluster sample to obtain a nationally representative sample of public- and private-school students in grades 9–12 in the 50 U.S. states and the District of Columbia (N = 7,705). Participation in ABES was voluntary; each school and teacher decided whether students completed the survey during instructional time or on their own time. Additional information about ABES sampling, data collection, response rates, and processing is available in the overview report of this supplement ( 7 ). The ABES questionnaire, datasets, and documentation are available ( https://www.cdc.gov/healthyyouth/data/abes.htm ).

Students’ self-reported disruptions and adverse experiences were assessed ( Table 1 ), including economic, food and nutrition, and housing insecurity; abuse by a parent or other adult in the home (hereafter referred to as abuse by a parent); receipt of telemedicine; and difficulty completing schoolwork. All questions included the timeframe “During the COVID-19 pandemic,” except for the question about housing insecurity, which asked about experiencing homelessness during the previous 30 days. Demographic variables included sex, race and ethnicity (non-Hispanic American Indian or Alaska Native, non-Hispanic Asian [Asian], non-Hispanic Black [Black], Hispanic or Latino [Hispanic], non-Hispanic persons of multiple races [multiracial], non-Hispanic Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander [NH/OPI], and non-Hispanic White [White]), grade (9–12), and sexual identity (gay, lesbian, or bisexual; other or questioning; or heterosexual).

Weighted prevalence estimates and 95% CIs were calculated for disruptions and adverse experiences; estimates were calculated among all students and by demographic characteristics. Bivariate associations between disruptions and adverse experiences and difficulty completing schoolwork are presented. Pairwise t -tests were used to compare prevalence estimates between groups. Estimates were suppressed when n<30; consequently, all results for NH/OPI students were suppressed. Statistical significance was assessed at p<0.05; only significant results are presented. Analyses were completed using SUDAAN (version 11.0.1; RTI International) to account for the complex survey design and weighting.

More than one fourth of adolescents experienced a parent losing a job (28.5%), and nearly one fourth experienced their own job loss (22.3%) or hunger (23.8%) during the COVID-19 pandemic ( Table 2 ). Some experienced homelessness (2.0%). Over half of adolescents experienced emotional abuse by a parent (55.1%), and more than one in 10 experienced physical abuse by a parent (11.3%). Approximately one fourth of students received telemedicine from a doctor or nurse (25.8%), and some received telemedicine for mental health or drug and alcohol counseling (8.5%). Two thirds of students had difficulty completing their schoolwork since the start of the pandemic (66.6%).

Student disruptions and adverse experiences differed by sex and race and ethnicity. Female students experienced a higher prevalence of parental and personal job loss (31.3% and 25.5%), emotional abuse by a parent (62.8%), and difficulty completing schoolwork (69.1%) compared with male students; whereas males experienced homelessness (3.0%) more often. The prevalence of parental job loss was higher among Asian (37.1%) and Hispanic or Latino (38.0%) students compared with all other racial and ethnic groups. Black students experienced the highest prevalence of hunger (32.0%); this estimate is similar to other students of color. White students had the lowest prevalence of experiencing hunger (18.5%), which differed from most other racial and ethnic groups. Multiracial students reported the highest prevalence of emotional abuse by a parent (65.5%), which differed from most other racial and ethnic groups. Black students experienced the highest prevalence of physical abuse by a parent (15.0%); this estimate did not differ from most other students of color, but it was higher than the prevalence of physical abuse experienced by White students (9.8%). Students who reported difficulty completing their schoolwork reported a higher percentage of parental job loss, hunger, or emotional abuse by a parent compared with students who did not have difficulty completing their schoolwork ( Table 3 ).

Students who identified as gay, lesbian, or bisexual and those who identified as other or questioning experienced a higher prevalence of parental job loss (34.9% and 34.9%, respectively), hunger (34.0% and 32.5%, respectively), and emotional abuse by a parent (74.4% and 75.9%, respectively) compared with heterosexual students ( Figure ) (Supplementary Table, https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/114936 ). Gay, lesbian, or bisexual students experienced a higher prevalence of physical abuse by a parent and difficulty completing their schoolwork (19.7% and 74.4%, respectively) than students who identified as other or questioning (13.4% and 63.8%, respectively) or as heterosexual (9.5% and 65.9%, respectively).

During January–June 2021, approximately half of high school students in the United States reported emotional abuse by a parent or reported difficulty completing their schoolwork since the COVID-19 pandemic began in March 2020. In addition, nearly one in four students reported experiencing hunger or economic insecurity and one in 10 students reported physical abuse by a parent. These findings indicate that adolescents have encountered disruptions and adverse experiences during the pandemic that might impact their immediate and long-term health and well-being.

The finding that more than half of adolescents reported emotional abuse and one in 10 reported physical abuse by a parent or other adult in the home during the pandemic is a public health concern; comparatively, a nationally representative sample from the National Survey of Children’s Exposure to Violence (NSCEV)reported a lower proportion of children aged 14–17 years (13.9% for past-year emotional abuse and 5.5% for past-year physical abuse by a caregiver) ( 8 ). Although these differences might be attributable in part to variations in sampling frame, methodology (e.g., NSCEV is not school based and is administered by telephone) and question wording, the high prevalence of self-reported emotional and physical abuse during the pandemic highlights that increased stress contributes to violence. The situation is further complicated by the fact that school closings because of COVID-19 have resulted in students’ decreased contact with mandated reporters ( 9 ); therefore, the self-reported data in this report are critically important to elucidate the occurrence of child abuse during the pandemic and underscores the need for enhanced violence surveillance and prevention strategies during public health emergencies.

Disparities in experiences of disruption and adversity were observed by sexual identity, race and ethnicity, and sex. Students identifying as gay, lesbian, or bisexual, other or questioning; students of color;,and female students more commonly had disruptions and adverse experiences compared with heterosexual, White, and male students, respectively. Among any demographic grouping, youths who identified as gay, lesbian, or bisexual and other or questioning experienced the highest levels of emotional and physical abuse by a parent. Per analyzed chat transcripts from national online LGBTQ+ support groups for youth, adolescents identifying as lesbian, gay, bisexual, or questioning have been struggling with isolation during the COVID-19 pandemic and coping with family dynamics described as “unsupportive” and “homophobic” ( 10 ). Disparities based on race and ethnicity and sex have been documented throughout the pandemic. Previous research shows that during the pandemic, Black and Hispanic or Latino students were more likely to be in households experiencing food and nutrition insecurity, difficulty paying rent, and difficulty affording household expenses compared with White students ( 11 ), and that approximately two thirds of female adolescents reported an increase in household chores during the pandemic compared with less than half (43%) of the boys, and more girls (20%) compared with boys (10%) reported having too many chores to do to be able to learn ( 12 ).

Many student disruptions and adverse experiences in this report are interconnected with the social determinants of health. Previous research shows that disparities based on race and ethnicity and sex existed among persons who experienced economic, food and nutrition, or housing insecurity before the pandemic, and these persons had a greater likelihood of experiencing these insecurities during the pandemic ( 13 ). In addition, financial and social stressors of the COVID-19 pandemic have been documented as risk factors for increased child abuse ( 9 ). Finally, the bivariate analysis provides evidence that these experiences are interconnected; students who had difficulty completing their schoolwork experienced higher levels of parental job loss, food and nutrition insecurity, and emotional abuse.

One in four students reported using telemedicine to access care from a doctor or nurse and less than one in 10 reported using telemedicine to access mental health or drug and alcohol counseling, with differences by sex and race and ethnicity; White and multiracial students and female students using telemedicine more than other groups. Given the paucity of data on adolescent use of telemedicine, the context for the telemedicine findings of this report remains unclear. Telemedicine might serve as an alternative access point for adolescents seeking essential health services that might address disruptions and adverse experiences, but data describing adolescents’ prepandemic telemedicine use are lacking. A study using data from four major U.S. telehealth providers found that use of telemedicine decreased slightly among youths aged 5–17 years at the start of the pandemic in early 2020 (8.6%) compared with early 2019 (10.0%) ( 6 ), which reflects a lower use than what was found in this report. Future studies could help researchers better understand the range of telemedicine services received and quality of care.

Two thirds of adolescents had difficulty completing their schoolwork since the beginning of the pandemic. These findings are consistent with previous research, which indicates that throughout the COVID-19 pandemic, adolescents have had difficulty transitioning to virtual learning, reporting inconsistencies in school coursework expectations, and confusion about complex and complicated assignments ( 14 ). Students who had difficulty completing their schoolwork experienced higher levels of emotional abuse by a parent, parental job loss, and hunger. These disruptions and adverse experiences threaten adolescents’ health and safety in addition to acting as barriers to learning. Learning is fostered in environments where students’ basic needs are met and where students feel safe, supported, challenged, and engaged ( 15 ). Before the pandemic, schools offered essential health services and social supports, such as school meals, chronic disease management, and mental health counseling; however, the pandemic has challenged the ability of schools to meet students’ evolving academic and health needs ( 16 ).

Schools offer an important pathway to help address the needs of students, but they rely on coordinated efforts across sectors to meet these needs. Prioritization of school health programs and services within schools, in collaboration with families and communities, will be critical to address disruptions to student life and other related effects of the pandemic ( 17 ). For example, during the pandemic, the U.S. Department of Agriculture issued multiple waivers that permitted schools flexibility in distributing free meals to school-aged youths, regardless of family income level, through June 2022 ( 18 ). In addition to traditional meal service in schools, meals are also being distributed in alternative locations, including along school bus routes and in school parking lots and churches ( 18 ). Coordinated, cross-sector programs and services like these are important for providing continued support for students in their lives both inside and outside of school.

General limitations to ABES are outlined in the overview report in this supplement ( 7 ). The findings in this report are subject to at least three specific limitations First, causality or directionality of observed association cannot be determined; although the questions about disruption and adversity ask students about what happened to them during the pandemic (e.g., temporaility associated), it cannot be ascertained that the pandemic caused these student experiences. Second, the telemedicine measures should be interpreted with caution given the unknown context for students’ prepandemic use of telemedicine services. Although most students did not receive telemedicine care from a doctor or nurse since the beginning of the pandemic, students might have accessed in-person health care or might not have needed well-child or other health care visits. In addition, without knowing who provided the care or for which reason, the receipt of telemedicine for mental health or drug and alcohol counseling might not align with students’ needed access to care. Finally, the prevalence of food and nutrition insecurity might have been misclassified because self-reported hunger was used as a proxy measure and this measure has not been validated. In addition, other factors are associated with food and nutrition insecurity (e.g., reducing the size of a meal or the variety of foods consumed) ( 19 ).

Since the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic in March 2020, many high school students have experienced hunger and economic insecurity. More than half of students have experienced emotional abuse by a parent and have had difficulty completing their schoolwork. Approximately 10% reported physical abuse by a parent. Disparities by sex, race and ethnicity, and sexual identity highlight the importance of strategies to increase health equity in these domains. Understanding health disparities and student experiences of disruptions and adverse experienes as interconnected problems can inform school and community initiatives that promote adolescent health and well-being. With community support to provide coordinated, cross-sector programming, schools can serve as the setting to facilitate linkages to services that help address the adverse experiences that students have faced during the pandemic. Public health and health care professionals, communities, schools, families, and adolescents can use these findings to better understand how students’ lives have been affected during the pandemic and what challenges need to be addressed to promote adolescent health and well-being during and after the pandemic.

Nicole Liddon.

Corresponding author: Kathleen H. Krause, PhD, Division of Adolescent and School Health, National Center for HIV, Viral Hepatitis, STD, and TB Prevention, CDC. Telephone: 404-498-5963; Email: [email protected] .

1 Division of Adolescent and School Health, National Center for HIV, Viral Hepatitis, STD, and TB Prevention, CDC; 2 Division of Violence Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, CDC; 3 Divison of Population Health, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, CDC; 4 ICF International, Rockville, Maryland

Conflicts of Interest

All authors have completed and submitted the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors form for disclosure of potential conflicts of interest. No potential conflicts of interest were disclosed.

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• Center on Budget and Policy Priorities. Tracking the COVID-19 recession’s effects on food, housing, and employment hardships. Washington, DC: Center on Budget and Policy Priorities; 2021. https://www.cbpp.org/research/poverty-and-inequality/tracking-the-covid-19-economys-effects-on-food-housing-and external icon
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• Perry BL, Aronson B, Pescosolido BA. Pandemic precarity: COVID-19 is exposing and exacerbating inequalities in the American heartland. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2021;118:e20206851118. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2020685118 external icon PMID:33547252 external icon
• Cockerham D, Lin L, Ndolo S, Schwartz M. Voices of the students: adolescent well-being and social interactions during the emergent shift to online learning environments. Educ Inf Technol (Dordr) 2021:1–19. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10639-021-10601-4 external icon
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*The denominator includes only those who had jobs prior to the beginning of the pandemic.

Abbreviation: AI/AN = American Indian or Alaska Native. * Weighted estimate. † Pairwise t -test significantly different from female students (p<0.05). § Dash indicates that results are suppressed because n<30. ¶ Pairwise t -test significantly different from non-Hispanic AI/AN students (p<0.05). ** Pairwise t -test significantly different from non-Hispanic Asian students (p<0.05). †† Pairwise t -test significantly different from non-Hispanic Black students (p<0.05). §§ Pairwise t -test significantly different from Hispanic or Latino students (p<0.05). ¶¶ Pairwise t -test significantly different from non-Hispanic multiracial students (p<0.05). *** Pairwise t -test significantly different from 9th-grade students (p<0.05). ††† Pairwise t -test significantly different from 10th-grade students (p<0.05). §§§ Pairwise t -test significantly different from 11th-grade students (p<0.05).

* Weighted estimate. † Pairwise t -test significantly different from students who responded “yes” (p<0.05).

FIGURE . Percentage* of parent job loss, †,§ student job loss, hunger, †,§ homelessness, emotional abuse by a parent, †,§ physical abuse by a parent ,†,§,¶ receipt of telemedicine by a nurse or doctor, †,§ receipt of telemedicine for mental health or drug and alcohol counseling, †,§ and schoolwork difficulty †,¶ among high school students during the COVID-19 pandemic, by sexual identity — Adolescent Behaviors and Experiences Survey, United States, January–June 2021

* Weighted estimate.

† Pairwise t -test heterosexual students significantly different from gay, lesbian, or bisexual students (p<0.05).

§ Pairwise t -test heterosexual students significantly different from other or questioning students (p<0.05).

¶ Pairwise t -test other or questioning students significantly different from gay, lesbian, or bisexual students (p<0.05).

Suggested citation for this article: Krause KH, Verlenden JV, Szucs LE, et al. Disruptions to School and Home Life Among High School Students During the COVID-19 Pandemic — Adolescent Behaviors and Experiences Survey, United States, January–June 2021. MMWR Suppl 2022;71(Suppl-3):28–34. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.su7103a5 external icon .

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The Top 10 Bad Outcomes of Social Media Use, According to Students

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The downsides of social media use are getting a lot of attention in 2024.

The year started with Facebook founder Mark Zuckerberg getting grilled in a congressional hearing about the negative impact of social media use on children. The U.S. House passed a bill in March to ban the use of TikTok in the United States, and the Senate is considering a similar measure. And at the end of March, Florida Gov. Ron DeSantis signed one of the country’s most restrictive state social media bans for minors that is scheduled to go into effect in January.

Addressing adolescents’ worsening mental health recently has become a top priority for school, district, state, and federal leaders as young people struggle with record-high rates of depression and anxiety. And much of the conversation around the mental health crisis has centered on young people’s constant use of cellphones and social media.

“Children have been sold this belief that the more [social media] connections they have, the better off they are,” said Lisa Strohman , a clinical psychologist who specializes in technology-overuse issues and is featured in Education Week’s Technology Counts report. [But] their relationships are not deep, they’re not authentic.”

As part of its Technology Counts report, the EdWeek Research Center surveyed 1,056 high school students across the country about a whole host of issues related to social media use. The survey was conducted Feb. 9 through March 4.

One question asked students what negative consequences they had experienced as a result of their social media use. The question gave them 25 possible options to pick from. Here is a look at the top 10 answers:

1.    I believed information I later learned was fake.

2.    i was too tired to do what i needed to do because i didn't get enough sleep., 3.    i have used social media, but i cannot think of any negative outcomes i experienced as a result., 4.    i got in trouble with my parents/family/home., 5.    my self-esteem got worse., 6.    i was bullied., 7.    i embarrassed myself., 8.    i lost a friend or friends., 9.    it made me feel more isolated/alone., 10.    my grades/test scores got worse., sign up for the savvy principal, edweek top school jobs.

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Professor Promotes Data Literacy With New Book

Adam Tashman has seen firsthand the value of teaching data science at the high school level.

In 2022, Tashman, an associate professor of data science at the University of Virginia, and one of his former master’s students, Matt Dakolios, launched a pilot course at The Covenant School in Charlottesville where they worked with high school students on data analysis, covering key tools and applications.

“My feeling was we can and should teach even really young kids,” Tashman said. “There are lots of opportunities where kids are doing math and science to just do more with data,” he said. 

The course went well, Tashman said, but it was also a lot of work, and he began to wonder how the materials he was developing could be used to promote data literacy on a larger scale. 

Out of this experience and the insights it provided emerged a new book, authored by Tashman, titled “From Concepts to Code: Introduction to Data Science,” set to be published on April 12 . The book includes weekly lesson plans that could be used as part of a full-year introductory course for advanced high school or college students.

Tashman said he hopes the book will be a valuable resource for educators and students but also for anyone interested in learning more about this transformative discipline.  

The book is the latest step in Tashman’s journey to data science that began when he was a mathematics major at UVA. After graduating, he discovered that there was significant demand for quantitative analysts on Wall Street, positions known as quants, whose worked focused on derivative pricing, portfolio optimization, and risk management. 

Eventually, though, he discovered a new path. 

“I got excited about working in other areas apart from finance,” Tashman said. He would soon get an opportunity to lead a team of data scientists who worked on a variety of projects.  

In 2019 he joined the faculty of UVA’s School of Data Science where he has taught a wide range of courses on topics such as big data systems, R programming, and probability. He has also served as director of the online master’s program.

In November 2022 tragedy struck Charlottesville when UVA football players Devin Chandler, Lavel Davis Jr., and D’Sean Perry were shot and killed on Grounds after returning from a class field trip. The incident had a profound impact on the University community, including on Tashman.

“I was just thinking, what is something that I could do that maybe could be helpful, just based on my background, my experience?” he said. 

So, using the materials he created during his work with The Covenant School, he got to work, waking up early every morning and writing about two pages per day.

After many months of writing, Tashman produced a resource that aims to demystify the world of data, educating readers on tools they can use to address data questions. 

For some, the book could serve as an entry point to a career in data science. But Tashman hopes that, even for readers who are not interesting in becoming a data scientist, the book will expand their data literacy and allow them to better understand the potential and impact of this rapidly expanding field.

“We’re all going to be faced with a lot of data, and unfortunately some of it can be quite technical,” Tashman said. “It can be easy for people to be misled or mislead with data.” 

“I really feel like, even if people don’t want to necessarily be a data scientist or mathematician, to have that literacy just gives them power to be able to critically examine things, even if it’s just reading the newspaper,” he added.

Tashman also hopes that readers of his new book will realize that data science is not just a field for people who already excel in math or computer science.

“It’s really about solving problems where data is at the forefront,” Tashman said, noting that he only took one computing class in college but developed into a good programmer through continued practice and motivation. 

“I feel like that there are a lot of people out there not giving themselves enough credit,” he said. 

In addition to his new book, Tashman recently worked with Siri Russell , associate dean for diversity, equity, inclusion, and community partnerships at the School of Data Science, to develop the content for the Data and Society Challenge , a competition for 11 th and 12 th grade students in Virginia to learn more about data science and the career opportunities it can provide. It’s all part of Tashman’s work to show young people that data science is a field that is both impactful and inclusive.

“It turns out, with data science you can make a nice living, you can improve the lives of people, and you can do things that you feel passionate about,” Tashman said. “I think if you get that, then you’ll be more motivated to keep an open mind and learn these tools.”

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Study Tracks Shifts in Student Mental Health During College

Dartmouth study followed 200 students all four years, including through the pandemic.

Phone App Uses AI to Detect Depression From Facial Cues

A four-year study by Dartmouth researchers captures the most in-depth data yet on how college students’ self-esteem and mental health fluctuates during their four years in academia, identifying key populations and stressors that the researchers say administrators could target to improve student well-being. 

The study also provides among the first real-time accounts of how the coronavirus pandemic affected students’ behavior and mental health. The stress and uncertainty of COVID-19 resulted in long-lasting behavioral changes that persisted as a “new normal” even as the pandemic diminished, including students feeling more stressed, less socially engaged, and sleeping more.

The researchers tracked more than 200 Dartmouth undergraduates in the classes of 2021 and 2022 for all four years of college. Students volunteered to let a specially developed app called StudentLife tap into the sensors that are built into smartphones. The app cataloged their daily physical and social activity, how long they slept, their location and travel, the time they spent on their phone, and how often they listened to music or watched videos. Students also filled out weekly behavioral surveys, and selected students gave post-study interviews. 

The study—which is the longest mobile-sensing study ever conducted—is published in the Proceedings of the ACM on Interactive, Mobile, Wearable and Ubiquitous Technologies .

The researchers will present it at the Association of Computing Machinery’s UbiComp/ISWC 2024 conference in Melbourne, Australia, in October. 

These sorts of tools will have a tremendous impact on projecting forward and developing much more data-driven ways to intervene and respond exactly when students need it most.

The team made their anonymized data set publicly available —including self-reports, surveys, and phone-sensing and brain-imaging data—to help advance research into the mental health of students during their college years. 

Andrew Campbell , the paper’s senior author and Dartmouth’s Albert Bradley 1915 Third Century Professor of Computer Science, says that the study’s extensive data reinforces the importance of college and university administrators across the country being more attuned to how and when students’ mental well-being changes during the school year.

“For the first time, we’ve produced granular data about the ebb and flow of student mental health. It’s incredibly dynamic—there’s nothing that’s steady state through the term, let alone through the year,” he says. “These sorts of tools will have a tremendous impact on projecting forward and developing much more data-driven ways to intervene and respond exactly when students need it most.”

First-year and female students are especially at risk for high anxiety and low self-esteem, the study finds. Among first-year students, self-esteem dropped to its lowest point in the first weeks of their transition from high school to college but rose steadily every semester until it was about 10% higher by graduation.

“We can see that students came out of high school with a certain level of self-esteem that dropped off to the lowest point of the four years. Some said they started to experience ‘imposter syndrome’ from being around other high-performing students,” Campbell says. “As the years progress, though, we can draw a straight line from low to high as their self-esteem improves. I think we would see a similar trend class over class. To me, that’s a very positive thing.”

Female students—who made up 60% of study participants—experienced on average 5% greater stress levels and 10% lower self-esteem than male students. More significantly, the data show that female students tended to be less active, with male students walking 37% more often.

Sophomores were 40% more socially active compared to their first year, the researchers report. But these students also reported feeling 13% more stressed during their second year than during their first year as their workload increased, they felt pressure to socialize, or as first-year social groups dispersed.

One student in a sorority recalled that having pre-arranged activities “kind of adds stress as I feel like I should be having fun because everyone tells me that it is fun.” Another student noted that after the first year, “students have more access to the whole campus and that is when you start feeling excluded from things.” 

In a novel finding, the researchers identify an “anticipatory stress spike” of 17% experienced in the last two weeks of summer break. While still lower than mid-academic year stress, the spike was consistent across different summers.

In post-study interviews, some students pointed to returning to campus early for team sports as a source of stress. Others specified reconnecting with family and high school friends during their first summer home, saying they felt “a sense of leaving behind the comfort and familiarity of these long-standing friendships” as the break ended, the researchers report. 

“This is a foundational study,” says Subigya Nepal , first author of the study and a PhD candidate in Campbell’s research group. “It has more real-time granular data than anything we or anyone else has provided before. We don’t know yet how it will translate to campuses nationwide, but it can be a template for getting the conversation going.”

The depth and accuracy of the study data suggest that mobile-sensing software could eventually give universities the ability to create proactive mental-health policies specific to certain student populations and times of year, Campbell says.

For example, a paper Campbell’s research group published in 2022 based on StudentLife data showed that first-generation students experienced lower self-esteem and higher levels of depression than other students throughout their four years of college.

“We will be able to look at campus in much more nuanced ways than waiting for the results of an annual mental health study and then developing policy,” Campbell says. “We know that Dartmouth is a small and very tight-knit campus community. But if we applied these same methods to a college with similar attributes, I believe we would find very similar trends.”

Weathering the pandemic

When students returned home at the start of the coronavirus pandemic, the researchers found that self-esteem actually increased during the pandemic by 5% overall and by another 6% afterward when life returned closer to what it was before. One student suggested in their interview that getting older came with more confidence. Others indicated that being home led to them spending more time with friends talking on the phone, on social media, or streaming movies together. 

The data show that phone usage—measured by the duration a phone was unlocked—indeed increased by nearly 33 minutes, or 19%, during the pandemic, while time spent in physical activity dropped by 52 minutes, or 27%. By 2022, phone usage fell from its pandemic peak to just above pre-pandemic levels, while engagement in physical activity had recovered to exceed the pre-pandemic period by three minutes. 

Despite reporting higher self-esteem, students’ feelings of stress increased by more than 10% during the pandemic. By the end of the study in June 2022, stress had fallen by less than 2% of its pandemic peak, indicating that the experience had a lasting impact on student well-being, the researchers report. 

In early 2021, as students returned to campus, their reunion with friends and community was tempered by an overwhelming concern about the still-rampant coronavirus. “There was the first outbreak in winter 2021 and that was terrifying,” one student recalls. Another student adds: “You could be put into isolation for a long time even if you did not have COVID. Everyone was afraid to contact-trace anyone else in case they got mad at each other.”

Female students were especially concerned about the coronavirus, on average 13% more than male students. “Even though the girls might have been hanging out with each other more, they are more aware of the impact,” one female student reported. “I actually had COVID and exposed some friends of mine. All the girls that I told tested as they were worried. They were continually checking up to make sure that they did not have it and take it home to their family.”

Students still learning remotely had social levels 16% higher than students on campus, who engaged in activity an average of 10% less often than when they were learning from home. However, on-campus students used their phones 47% more often. When interviewed after the study, these students reported spending extended periods of time video-calling or streaming movies with friends and family.

Social activity and engagement had not yet returned to pre-pandemic levels by the end of the study in June 2022, recovering by a little less than 3% after a nearly 10% drop during the pandemic. Similarly, the pandemic correlates with students sticking closer to home, with their distance traveled nearly cut in half during the pandemic and holding at that level since then.

Campbell and several of his fellow researchers are now developing a smartphone app known as MoodCapture that uses artificial intelligence paired with facial-image processing software to reliably detect the onset of depression before the user even knows something is wrong.

Morgan Kelly can be reached at [email protected] .

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