aiou 1421 assignment spring 2023

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Aiou code 1421 introduction to environment assignments spring and autumn.

AIOU Code 1421 Introduction To Environment Assignments Spring And Autumn Within the tutorial tapestry of Allama Iqbal Open University (AIOU), Code 1421 – Introduction to Environment emerges as a beacon of environmental consciousness. As University students embark on the journey of understanding the fragile steadiness between human actions and the pure world, the assignments of Code 1421, supplied in each spring and autumn semester, play a pivotal function in shaping their ecological views.

Code 1421 Introduction To Environment:

Code 1421 shouldn’t be merely a course; it is a name to motion. This module serves as a gateway for University students to discover the intricate relationships between people and their surroundings. From the fundamentals of ecosystems to the complexities of environmental challenges, Code 1421 supplies a complete overview, inviting University students to ponder their function as stewards of the planet.

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علامہ اقبال اوپن یونیورسٹی کی ہاتھ سے لکھی ہوِئی حل شدہ مشقیں حاصل کرنے کے لیے رابطہ کریں

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Download aiou past papers last five years old papers, spring assignments:.

Because the flowers bloom and the world awakens from winter slumber, spring assignments in Code 1421 typically deal with foundational environmental ideas. University students could discover themselves unraveling the intricacies of biodiversity, understanding the impression of local weather change, and exploring sustainable practices. These assignments function as a springboard for delving into the interconnected net of environmental science.

Autumn Assignments:

Come autumn, Code 1421 assignments delve into extra nuanced elements of environmental research. University students could grapple with subjects equivalent to environmental insurance policies, conservation methods, and the worldwide footprint of human actions. The autumn part challenges University students to assume critically concerning the environmental implications of societal decisions and fosters a way of duty for sustainable dwelling.

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Thursday, July 20

Introduction to environment (1421) - spring 2023 - assignment 1.

Introduction to Environment (1421)

Q. 1      a.          Define the following terms in your own words.        

i.           Ecofeminism           

ii.         Weathering

iii.   Green House Effect    

iv.    Lithosphere

v.   Topography       

vi.    Food Chain

vii.   Soil Organic Matter    

viii. Fragmentation of Habitat

ix.    Infiltration         

x.     Ozone

b.          Justify the following Statements:                                

a.     The increase in C02 in atmosphere can result in global warming.

b.     Vegetation cover prevents soil erosion.

c.     The top layer of soil is usually darker in color.

d.     Most of the gases in the atmosphere are concentrated in the lower     atmosphere.

e.     A food chain does not exceed more than 3-5 levels.

c.          Write down five water conservation practices that you can adopt at     household levels to avoid wastage of water.         

d.          Draw a well labeled diagram of a Hydrological cycle.

a. Definitions:

i. Ecofeminism: Ecofeminism is a philosophical and social movement that emphasizes the interconnectedness of the oppression of women and the destruction of nature. It highlights the parallels between the domination and exploitation of women and the exploitation of the environment, advocating for a holistic approach to addressing environmental and social issues.

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ii. Weathering: Weathering refers to the process by which rocks, minerals, and other geological materials are broken down and altered over time due to various physical, chemical, and biological factors. It is a natural process that contributes to the formation of soil and the shaping of landscapes.

iii. Greenhouse Effect: The greenhouse effect is a natural process that regulates the Earth's temperature. Certain gases in the atmosphere, such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4), trap heat from the sun, preventing it from escaping back into space. This trapped heat warms the Earth, making it habitable. However, human activities have led to an enhanced greenhouse effect, resulting in global warming and climate change.

iv. Lithosphere: The lithosphere refers to the rigid outer layer of the Earth, encompassing the crust and part of the upper mantle. It is composed of various solid geological materials and is where tectonic plates move and interact, leading to geological phenomena such as earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.

v. Topography: Topography relates to the physical features and elevation of the Earth's surface in a particular area. It includes the arrangement of landforms, such as mountains, valleys, hills, plains, and other natural features that define the landscape.

vi. Food Chain: A food chain is a linear representation of the transfer of energy and nutrients through different organisms in an ecosystem. It starts with producers (plants) that convert sunlight into food through photosynthesis, followed by a series of consumers (herbivores, carnivores, and omnivores) that eat each other successively. The chain ends with decomposers, which break down dead organic matter.

vii. Soil Organic Matter: Soil organic matter refers to the decomposed remains of plants, animals, and microorganisms in the soil. It plays a crucial role in soil fertility, structure, and nutrient retention, promoting healthier plant growth and overall ecosystem health.

viii. Fragmentation of Habitat: Fragmentation of habitat occurs when large continuous areas of natural habitat are divided into smaller, isolated patches due to human activities such as urbanization, agriculture, or infrastructure development. This fragmentation disrupts ecosystems, reduces biodiversity, and hinders the movement and survival of wildlife.

ix. Infiltration: Infiltration is the process by which water on the Earth's surface seeps into the soil. It is an essential component of the hydrological cycle, as it replenishes groundwater and contributes to the flow of water in streams and rivers.

x. Ozone: Ozone is a molecule made up of three oxygen atoms (O3). It occurs both in the Earth's upper atmosphere (stratospheric ozone), where it plays a crucial role in protecting life on Earth by absorbing harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation, and at ground level (tropospheric ozone), where it is a harmful air pollutant and a component of smog.

b. Justification of Statements:

a. The increase in CO2 in the atmosphere can result in global warming: This statement is justified because CO2 and other greenhouse gases trap heat in the atmosphere, preventing it from escaping into space. The excess emissions of CO2 from human activities, such as burning fossil fuels and deforestation, enhance the natural greenhouse effect, leading to an increase in global temperatures, known as global warming.

b. Vegetation cover prevents soil erosion: This statement is justified because the roots of vegetation, such as trees and plants, help hold the soil together, reducing its susceptibility to erosion caused by wind and water. The presence of vegetation also aids in slowing down water flow, allowing more water to infiltrate into the soil, which further reduces erosion.

c. The top layer of soil is usually darker in color: This statement is justified because the top layer of soil, known as topsoil, contains a higher concentration of organic matter, such as decomposed plant material and organic nutrients. This organic matter contributes to the darker color of the topsoil and makes it more fertile and conducive to plant growth.

d. Most of the gases in the atmosphere are concentrated in the lower atmosphere: This statement is justified because the Earth's atmosphere is composed of several layers, with the troposphere being the lowermost layer where most weather phenomena occur. The troposphere contains the highest concentration of atmospheric gases, including nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and other trace gases.

e. A food chain does not exceed more than 3-5 levels: This statement is justified due to the concept of ecological efficiency. As energy is transferred from one trophic level to the next in a food chain, a significant amount of energy is lost as heat or used for metabolic processes. This limits the number of trophic levels that can be sustained efficiently, typically ranging from 3 to 5 levels.

c. Five water conservation practices at the household level:

1. Fix leaks: Regularly check for and repair any leaks in faucets, pipes, and toilets to prevent wastage of water.

2. Water-efficient appliances: Install water-saving appliances such as low-flow toilets, efficient washing machines, and water-saving showerheads to reduce water consumption.

3. Collect rainwater: Set up rain barrels or other collection systems to harvest rainwater for outdoor use, such as watering plants and cleaning purposes.

4. Watering practices: Water plants and lawns during cooler parts of the day to minimize evaporation, and use a drip irrigation system to target the root zone directly.

5. Mindful water use: Encourage family members to be conscious of water usage, such as turning off taps when not in use, reducing shower times, and reusing greywater for non-drinking purposes.

d. Well-labeled diagram of the Hydrological cycle:

(Note: As an AI text-based model, I am unable to draw diagrams directly. However, I can describe the key components of the hydrological cycle.)

The hydrological cycle, also known as the water cycle, describes the continuous movement of water on, above, and below the Earth's surface. It involves various processes like evaporation, condensation, precipitation, and runoff. A well-labeled diagram would typically show the following components:

1. Sun: Represents the energy source driving the hydrological cycle by providing heat for evaporation.

2. Evaporation: Water from oceans, lakes, rivers, and soil surfaces evaporates due to solar energy, turning into water vapor.

3. Transpiration: Plants release water vapor through small pores (stomata) on their leaves.

4. Condensation: Water vapor in the atmosphere cools and condenses to form clouds.

5. Precipitation: Water droplets in clouds combine and fall back to the Earth's surface as rain, snow, sleet, or hail.

6. Infiltration: Precipitation soaks into the soil and becomes groundwater, recharging aquifers.

7. Surface Runoff: Some precipitation flows over the surface and collects in streams, rivers, and eventually oceans.

8. Groundwater Flow: Underground movement of water through permeable rock layers and aquifers.

9. Sublimation: In some cases, ice and snow may directly transform into water vapor through sublimation.

The hydrological cycle is a continuous and dynamic process, ensuring the availability

  and circulation of water throughout the planet.

Q. 2      What is the scope of Environmental Sciences as a discipline? What are the major environmental concerns of Pakistan?

1. Scope of Environmental Sciences as a Discipline:

Environmental Sciences is a multidisciplinary field that encompasses the study of the natural environment, its processes, and the impact of human activities on ecosystems and natural resources. It involves various branches of science, such as biology, chemistry, geology, physics, ecology, and social sciences, to understand complex environmental issues. The scope of Environmental Sciences is broad and includes the following areas:

a. Environmental Conservation and Management: Studying ways to conserve and manage natural resources, wildlife, and ecosystems to ensure sustainability.

b. Pollution Control and Mitigation: Investigating the sources and impacts of pollution and developing strategies to minimize or mitigate pollution.

c. Climate Change: Analyzing the causes and consequences of global climate change and developing adaptation and mitigation measures.

d. Environmental Policy and Governance: Examining the legal, political, and social frameworks for addressing environmental issues and implementing sustainable practices.

e. Environmental Impact Assessment: Assessing the potential environmental impacts of development projects and proposing mitigation measures.

f. Sustainable Development: Researching and promoting practices that balance economic growth with environmental protection and social equity.

g. Environmental Health: Investigating the link between environmental factors and human health, including the spread of diseases and exposure to pollutants.

h. Conservation Biology: Studying the preservation and restoration of biodiversity and endangered species.

i. Renewable Energy: Exploring alternative and renewable energy sources to reduce dependence on fossil fuels and combat climate change.

j. Environmental Education and Awareness: Educating the public and raising awareness about environmental issues and the importance of conservation.

2. Major Environmental Concerns of Pakistan:

Pakistan faces a range of environmental challenges due to a combination of natural factors and human activities. Some of the major environmental concerns in Pakistan include:

a. Water Scarcity: Pakistan experiences water scarcity, exacerbated by population growth, mismanagement of water resources, and changing climate patterns. This issue impacts agriculture, industry, and access to safe drinking water.

b. Deforestation and Loss of Biodiversity: Rampant deforestation, habitat destruction, and illegal logging have led to a significant loss of biodiversity in Pakistan. Many species are at risk of extinction.

c. Air Pollution: Rapid urbanization and industrialization contribute to air pollution, particularly in major cities like Lahore and Karachi. Vehicle emissions, industrial activities, and burning of solid waste are major sources of air pollutants.

d. Land Degradation and Desertification: Unsustainable agricultural practices, overgrazing, and deforestation have resulted in soil erosion, land degradation, and the expansion of desert areas.

e. Climate Change Vulnerability: Pakistan is vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, including extreme weather events, glacial melting, and changing rainfall patterns, which affect agriculture, water resources, and livelihoods.

f. Solid Waste Management: Inadequate waste management systems lead to the accumulation of solid waste in urban areas, causing pollution and health hazards.

g. Water Pollution: Discharge of untreated industrial and domestic wastewater contaminates rivers and water bodies, affecting both aquatic ecosystems and human health.

h. Energy Crisis: Overreliance on fossil fuels and an inadequate energy mix pose challenges for energy security and contribute to greenhouse gas emissions.

Addressing these environmental concerns requires concerted efforts from government bodies, communities, and individuals, along with the integration of sustainable practices and sound environmental policies. Environmental scientists and professionals play a crucial role in understanding and finding solutions to these pressing issues in Pakistan and globally.

Q. 3      In an ecosystem, organisms extensively interact with each other. Give a detailed account of positive interactions among the organisms.        

Positive interactions among organisms in an ecosystem play a crucial role in maintaining biodiversity, promoting ecological stability, and enhancing overall ecosystem productivity. These interactions involve various mechanisms that benefit one or both participating species. Let's explore some of the key positive interactions in detail:

1. Mutualism:

Mutualism is a type of symbiotic relationship where both species involved benefit from the interaction. These relationships are often characterized by co-evolution, where the traits of each species evolve in response to the other's presence. Some examples of mutualism include:

a. Pollination: Flowers and their pollinators, such as bees, butterflies, and birds, engage in mutualistic relationships. The pollinators obtain nectar or pollen as food, while the flowers benefit from the transfer of pollen, allowing them to reproduce.

b. Nitrogen-fixing Bacteria: Leguminous plants (e.g., peas, beans) form nodules on their roots that house nitrogen-fixing bacteria. The bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen into a usable form for the plant, while the plant provides the bacteria with carbohydrates.

c. Mycorrhizal Associations: Mycorrhizal fungi establish symbiotic relationships with the roots of most plants. The fungi enhance the plant's nutrient and water uptake, while the plant provides the fungi with sugars.

2. Commensalism:

Commensalism is a type of symbiotic relationship where one species benefits from the interaction, while the other species is neither benefited nor harmed. Some examples include:

a. Epiphytes: Epiphytic plants, like certain orchids and ferns, attach themselves to the branches or trunks of trees. They obtain support and access to sunlight, without causing significant harm to the host tree.

b. Cattle Egrets and Livestock: Cattle egrets often follow livestock, such as cattle or buffalo, feeding on insects that are disturbed by the movement of the larger animals. The cattle are not affected by the presence of the birds.

3. Facilitation:

Facilitation is a positive interaction where one species improves the environment for other species, making it more suitable for their survival and growth. Examples include:

a. Nurse Plants: Certain plant species, known as nurse plants, provide shelter and protection to young seedlings, helping them establish and grow in harsh environments.

b. Shade-Tolerance: Shade-tolerant plants benefit from the presence of larger trees, which provide shade and protection from harsh sunlight.

4. Coexistence and Resource Partitioning:

In ecosystems with high species diversity, organisms often coexist by partitioning resources and utilizing them at different times or in different ways, reducing competition and promoting species richness.

a. Birds in Forest Canopy: Different bird species occupy different strata of the forest canopy, allowing them to coexist and reduce direct competition for food and nesting sites.

b. Niche Differentiation: Predatory species, like big cats, may specialize in hunting different prey species, reducing competition for food.

5. Ecosystem Engineering:

Some organisms, known as ecosystem engineers, positively influence their environment by creating or modifying habitats that benefit other species.

a. Beavers: Beavers construct dams that create wetlands, benefiting various plant and animal species by providing new habitats.

b. Coral Reefs: Corals form complex reef structures that support a vast array of marine life, offering shelter and food for numerous species.

6. Altruism and Cooperative Behavior:

Altruism is a form of positive interaction where an organism helps another at a cost to itself. Cooperative behavior also involves individuals working together for mutual benefit.

a. Cooperative Hunting: Certain social predators, like wolves and lions, engage in cooperative hunting, increasing their chances of capturing prey.

b. Social Insects: In ant colonies, different individuals perform specialized tasks for the benefit of the entire colony, such as foraging, defending, and caring for young.

Positive interactions among organisms contribute significantly to ecosystem functioning and resilience. They promote biodiversity by enabling the coexistence of different species and enhancing ecosystem services, such as pollination, nutrient cycling, and pest control. Understanding and conserving these interactions are essential for maintaining healthy ecosystems and ensuring the sustainability of life on Earth.

Q. 4    With the help of a suitable diagram, explain the Structure of Atmosphere?

As an AI language model, I can describe the structure of the atmosphere in detail, but I cannot create diagrams directly. However, I can provide a verbal description of the structure of the atmosphere, which you can use as a guide to create a suitable diagram.

The Earth's atmosphere is a layer of gases that surrounds our planet and is held in place by gravity. It consists of five primary layers, each with distinct characteristics. Starting from the Earth's surface and moving upwards, the layers are:

1. Troposphere: The troposphere is the lowest layer of the atmosphere and extends from the Earth's surface up to an average altitude of about 12 kilometers (7.5 miles) at the poles and about 18 kilometers (11 miles) at the equator. It is the layer where weather phenomena occur, such as clouds, precipitation, and most of the Earth's atmospheric water vapor. The temperature generally decreases with altitude in this layer.

2. Stratosphere: Above the troposphere is the stratosphere, which extends from the top of the troposphere to about 50 kilometers (31 miles) above the Earth's surface. The stratosphere is characterized by a temperature inversion, where the temperature increases with altitude due to the presence of the ozone layer. The ozone layer absorbs harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the Sun, making the stratosphere crucial for protecting life on Earth.

3. Mesosphere: The mesosphere lies above the stratosphere and extends up to about 85 kilometers (53 miles) in altitude. In this layer, temperatures decrease with altitude, reaching extremely low temperatures. The mesosphere is the region where meteors burn up as they enter the Earth's atmosphere, creating "shooting stars."

4. Thermosphere: Above the mesosphere is the thermosphere, which extends up to about 600 kilometers (372 miles) in altitude. The thermosphere is characterized by very high temperatures due to the absorption of solar radiation. However, despite the high temperatures, the air density is extremely low in this layer.

5. Exosphere: The exosphere is the outermost layer of the atmosphere and extends from the top of the thermosphere into space. In this layer, gases become so sparse that they eventually dissipate into space. The exosphere merges with the vacuum of outer space.

The following key features can be included in a diagram representing the structure of the atmosphere:

  Earth's surface as the starting point     Labeling each layer of the atmosphere with its name and approximate altitude range Representation of key weather phenomena, such as clouds and precipitation, in the troposphere Indication of the ozone layer in the stratosphere, protecting from UV radiation Meteors burning up in the mesosphere High temperatures and low air density in the thermosphere Gradual dissipation of gases into space in the exosphere. A well-labeled diagram of the atmosphere will visually depict the layered structure and key features, helping to understand the different characteristics and functions of each layer.     

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AIOU Course Code 1421-1 Solved Assignment Autumn 2022

ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY, ISLAMABAD

Code : 1421

Course : Introduction to Environment

Assignment No. 1

Semester : Autumn 2022

Program : BA

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Q. l      Define the following terms:              

            1.          Lithosphere

Lithosphere is the outer mantle of the solid earth. It consists of minerals occurring in the earth’s crusts and the soil e.g. minerals, organic matter, air and water.

            2.          Fertility of Soil

The fertility of soils is rapidly depleting. The data generated by public and private organizations reflect the general agreement about the deficiency of nitrogen in 100 per cent soils. In case of phosphorus, more than 90 per cent soils are deficient. Potassium deficiency in soils, not a soil fertility problem earlier, is increasing rapidly due to discriminate use of only nitrogenous and phosphate fertilizers.

            3.          Irreversible Damage

In contrast, ecologists view large scale ecological processes such as evolution, adoption and biogeochemical cycle as the most important aspect of nature. This view is termed as ecocentric as it considers ecological processes as whole more important rather than its individual parts. If you kill individual organisms, you deny it a few months or years of life but if you eliminate an entire species or a whole landscape, you have destroyed something that took millions of years to create. Such a destruction that took millions of years to establish is known as irreversible damage.

            4.          Egocentric

The term egocentric is a concept that originated within  Piaget’s  theory of childhood development. Egocentrism refers to someone’s inability to understand that another person’s view or opinion may be different than their own.

            5.          Commensalism

Commensalism defines the co-action in which two or more species are associated and one species at least, derives benefit from the association, while the other associates are neither benefited nor harmed.

            6.          Velamen

Dust is also a source of the nutrients. Roots of epiphytes often store water in a special tissue, called velamen.

            7.          Jet Stream

Jet streams are relatively narrow bands of strong wind in the upper levels of the atmosphere. The winds blow from west to east in jet streams but the flow often shifts to the north and south. Jet streams follow the boundaries between hot and cold air .

            8.          Polar Tundra

ET or polar tundra is a climate where the soil is permanently frozen to depths of hundreds of meters, a condition known as permafrost.

            9.          Cfa

Cfa – humid subtropical: The humid subtropical climate (Cfa) has hot muggy summers and frequent thunderstorms. Winters are mild and precipitation during this season comes from mid-latitude cyclones.

            10.        Soil Water Management

soil water management is to encourage water movement into rather off the soil. If the water is allowed to penetrate, the soil can serve as a ‘reservoir’ for future plant uptake.

Q.2       Differentiate between the following terms:            

                        i.           Soil texture and soil structure

`                        ii.          Natural and Artificial Ecosystem

There are several differences between natural and artificial ecosystems, including sustainability, diversity and purpose. A natural ecosystem has a diverse amount of species and plants, whereas artificial ecosystems are limited. Natural ecosystems are self-sustaining and result from spontaneous natural reaction, while artificial ecosystems require the assistance of humans.

                        iii.         Zooplankton and Phytoplankton

Following are some of the important differences between Phytoplankton and Zooplankton.

                        iv.         Positive and Negative interaction

·          These connections can be beneficial—like mutualism or commensalism—or harmful—like when one species eats another. Other harmful interactions lead to the presence of one species in or on the host, a different organism.

·          Positive interactions are friendly relationships between species that improve at least one species’ development, reproduction, and survival without having an adverse effect.

·          Negative interactions might involve, among other things, stifling the expression of emotions, criticising others, violating their privacy, meddling in their business, or failing to deliver on a promise of assistance.

·          By grinning at your child, you can convey warmth in your relationship and positive attention to your youngster. using compassionate facial expressions and eye contact. embracing your child is one method of demonstrating physical affection.

·          Trust, respect for one another, and active engagement are characteristics of productive working interactions.

                        v.          Mantle and core

Mantle – The portion of the interior beyond the crust is called as the mantle. The mantle is about 2900kms in thickness. Nearly 84% of the earth’s volume and 67% of the earth’s mass is occupied by the mantle.

Core – It is the innermost layer surrounding the earth’s centre. The core constitutes nearly 15% of earth’s volume and 32.5% of earth’s mass. The Core consists of two sub-layers: the inner core and the outer core.

Q.3       What are the three major types of water erosion? How can erosion be controlled?     

Types of Water Erosion

Land depletion caused by water occurs in several stages and is manifested in different ways according to the factors that caused it. Below are the common water erosion types that can affect soil if not prevented promptly.

Splash Erosion

This is the first stage in the erosion process that is caused by rain. Raindrops basically “bombard” the exposed and bare land, moving its particles and destroying the structure of the top layer. Eventually, it causes the  formation of surface crusts, negatively affects soil infiltration ability, and eventually results in runoff formation .

Sheet Erosion

This type of soil degradation by water occurs when the rainfall intensity is greater than the soil infiltration ability and results in  the loss of the finest soil particles that contain nutrients and organic matter . It usually follows after crusting that is caused by the previous stage of soil damage by water. If not prevented timely, one of the most negative effects of sheet erosion will be the formation of rills.

Rill Erosion

Rill erosion follows after, when the water concentrates deeper in the soil and starts forming faster-flowing channels. These channels can be up to 30cm deep and cause  detachment and transportation of soil particles . Rill erosion can eventually evolve into gully erosion. That is when the rills become at least 0.3m deep

Gully Erosion

This is an advanced stage of land damage by water when the surface channels are eroded to the extent when even tillage operations wouldn’t be of any help. Apart from causing huge soil losses and destroying farmland, it also results in  reduction of water quality by increasing the sediment load in streams .

Tunnel Erosion

This is the so-called “hidden” type of land degradation by water that can  cause severe disruption even before any signs are evident to the eye . It begins when large water mass starts moving through the structurally unstable soil. That is why it is usually the biggest threat to sodic soil. The manifestations of tunneling would be a series of tunnels beneath the soil surface.

How can erosion be controlled        

Surface cover

Surface cover is the key to erosion control in grazing lands. It prevents erosion by maintaining the soil so it can absorb rainfall.

A well-managed pasture with good cover will ensure that runoff spreads rather than concentrates. Bore drains, tracks, roads, cattle pads and fences concentrate runoff, so careful planning is required to ensure that property improvements are located where they will not contribute to erosion.

The critical level of cover for pastures in tussock grasslands is about 40% cover and 1000 kilograms per hectare of dry grass. Ideally, this level of cover will exist at the beginning of the summer storm season.

The ideal stocking rate is flexible, and stock numbers should match available feed. Regular monitoring of pastures is necessary to achieve this. Long-term weather forecasting, using predictive tools such as the  Southern Oscillation Index  (SOI), has improved the options available for predicting droughts.

Opportunistic spelling

Opportunistic spelling should also be part of a grazing strategy. A total spell in a good year may be required to allow desirable grasses to recover from past grazing. Grazing pressure can also be managed by locating watering points away from areas vulnerable to erosion.

Fire is useful for controlling woody weeds but it needs to be managed carefully. Regular burning of pastures will further reduce ground cover and promote runoff and erosion.

Q.4       a.          Write a detail note on the Structure of Ecosystem.            

The structure of an ecosystem is basically a description of the species of organisms that are present, including information on their life histories, populations and distribution in space. It is a guide to who’s who in the ecosystem. It also includes descriptive information on the non-living (physical) features of environment, including the amount and distribution of nutrients. An ecosystem typically has two major components:

1. Abiotic or Non-living Components

Abiotic component of the ecosystem comprises three sorts of components:

a Climatic condition and physical factors of the given region includes air, water, soil, temperature, light (i.e., its duration and intensity), moisture (relative humidity), pH, etc.

b Inorganic substances such as water, carbon (C), nitrogen (N), sulfur (S), phosphorus (P) and so on, all of which are involved in cycling of materials in the ecosystem. The amount of these inorganic substances, present at any given time in an ecosystem, is designated as the standing state or standing quality.

c Organic substances such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, humus, etc., present either in the biomass or in the environment.

2. Biotic or Living Components

In an ecosystem, the living organisms are distinguished on the basis of their nutritional relationships, which are discussed as follows: a Autotrophic component: Autotrophic (auto = self; trophic = nourishing) component of ecosystem includes the producers which convert solar energy into chemical energy that becomes locked in complex organic substances such as carbohydrate, lipid, protein, etc. (Recall the concept of photosynthesis given to you in unit no. 1 – Box 1.3) with the help of simple inorganic substances such as water and carbon dioxide.

Autotrophs fall into following two groups:

 Photoautotroph: which contain green photosynthetic pigment chlorophyll to trap the solar or light energy of sun, e.g., trees, grasses, algae, and photosynthetic bacteria and cyanobacteria (blue green algae).

 Chemoautotroph: these use energy generated in oxidation – reduction process, but their significance in the ecosystem as producers is minimal, e.g. microorganisms such as Beggiatoa, sulfur bacteria, etc. (It is important to note that during the study of ecosystem when the term autotrophs or autotrophy is used, generally photoautotrophy is meant).

b Heterotrophic component: In the heterotrophic (hetero = other; trophic = nourishing) organisms predominate the activities of utilization, rearrangement and decomposition of complex organic materials.

Heterotrophic organisms are also called consumers, as they consume the matter built up by the producers (autotrophs). The consumers are of following two main types:

 Macroconsumers: These are also called phagotrophs (phago = to eat) and include mainly animals which consume other organisms or chunks of organic matter. Depending on their food habits, consumers may either be herbivores (plant eaters) or carnivores (flesh eaters).

Herbivores live on living plants and are also known as primary consumers e.g., insects, zooplanktons (protozoa, jelly fish, worms etc.) and higher animals (deer, cattle, elephant, etc.).

Secondary and Tertiary consumers are carnivores or omnivores, e.g., insects such

as dragon flies; spiders and large animals such as tiger, lion, leopard, wolf, etc.

            b.          How have volcanic emission contributed to the formation of atmosphere.

The gases and dust particles thrown into the atmosphere during volcanic eruptions have influences on climate. Most of the particles spewed from volcanoes cool the planet by shading incoming solar radiation. The cooling effect can last for months to years depending on the characteristics of the eruption. Volcanoes have also caused global warming over millions of years during times in Earth’s history when extreme amounts of volcanism occurred, releasing greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.

Even though volcanoes are in specific places on Earth, their effects can be more widely distributed as gases, dust, and ash get into the atmosphere. Because of atmospheric circulation patterns, eruptions in the tropics can have an effect on the climate in both hemispheres while eruptions at mid or high latitudes only have impact the hemisphere they are within.

Below is an overview of materials that make their way from volcanic eruptions into the atmosphere: particles of dust and ash, sulfur dioxide, and greenhouse gases like water vapor and carbon dioxide.

Particles of Dust and Ash 

Volcanic ash or dust released into the atmosphere during an eruption shade sunlight and cause temporary cooling. Larger particles of ash have little effect because they fall out of the air quickly. Small ash particles form a dark cloud in the troposphere that shades and cools the area directly below. Most of these particles fall out of the atmosphere within rain a few hours or days after an eruption. But the smallest particles of dust get into the stratosphere and are able to travel vast distances, often worldwide. These tiny particles are so light that they can stay in the stratosphere for months, blocking sunlight and causing cooling over large areas of the Earth.

Sulfur from Volcanoes

Often, erupting volcanoes emit  sulfur dioxide  into the atmosphere. Sulfur dioxide is much more effective than ash particles at cooling the climate. The sulfur dioxide moves into the stratosphere and combines with water to form sulfuric acid aerosols. The sulfuric acid makes a haze of tiny droplets in the stratosphere that reflects incoming solar radiation, causing cooling of the Earth’s surface. The aerosols can stay in the stratosphere for up to three years, moved around by winds and causing significant cooling worldwide. Eventually, the droplets grow large enough to fall to Earth.

Greenhouse Gases Emitted by Volcanoes

Volcanoes also release large amounts of greenhouse gases such as water vapor and carbon dioxide. The amounts put into the atmosphere from a large eruption doesn’t change the global amounts of these gases very much. However, there have been times during Earth history when intense volcanism has significantly increased the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and caused global warming.

Q.5       Write notes on the following:                       

            1.          Elements of Environment

Environment is constituted by the interacting systems of physical, biological and cultural elements inter-related in various ways, individually as well as collectively. These elements may be explained as under:

1. Physical elements: Physical elements are as space, landforms, water bodies, climate soils, rocks and minerals. They determine the variable character of the human habitat, its opportunities as well as limitations.

2. Biological elements: Biological elements such as plants, animals, microorganisms and human beings constitute the biosphere.

3. Cultural elements: Cultural elements such as economic, social and political elements are essentially manmade features, which make cultural milieu.

            2.          Significance of food chain and food web

Food chains are important because they show the intricate relationships in ecosystems. They can reveal how each organism depends on someone else for survival. Food chains also display what happens when a problem occurs and a producer or consumer is lost. Entire communities can collapse. Food chains can help scientists learn more about ecosystems and how to help them stay balanced.

Food chains are important because they reveal the complex connections that exist throughout ecosystems. Each creature in a food chain is regarded to occupy a distinct niche in an ecosystem. Food chains show how one organism relies on the survival of others.

• The environment is balanced by the food chain.
• Food webs show plants are the foundation.
• The flow of energy and nutrients is explained by food webs.
• The trophic level of organisms is determined by the food chain.

The food web and food chain processes are interesting to study. We frequently just sit down and eat without thinking about where our food comes from or the journey it takes to get to our tables. We hope the information provided was helpful. 

            3.          Soil profile

A soil profile is a vertical section of soil like the diagram above.  It allows you to examine the structure of soil.   A soil profile is divided into layers called horizons.  The main soil horizons are A, B, C and D.

Most important for plant growth, the A and B horizons are the top two layers of the soil.  The A horizon is where there is most soil life and is sometimes called topsoil.  Depending on the soil, the A horizon can be further divided into A1, A2 or Ao (organic).  The B horizon is where clays and materials washed down from the A horizon accumulate.  This is sometimes called subsoil.

The C Horizon consists of weathering rock.

The D horizon is bedrock.  This is rock which has weathered to produce the soil you see above it (unless the soil has been deposited from elsewhere eg floodplains contain soil that has been carried downstream in water and then deposited as the flood recedes).

            4.          Ecology energies

There are several different factors that control the primary productivity of energy and biomass flow. Energy flow is the amount of energy that moves through a food chain. The energy input, or energy that enters the ecosystem, is measured in Joules or calories. Accordingly, the energy flow is also called calorific flow. In the study of energy flow, ecologists try to quantify the importance of different species and feeding relationships.

The largest source of energy for an ecosystem is the sun. Energy that is not used in an ecosystem is eventually lost as heat. Energy and nutrients are passed around through the food chain, when one organism eats another organism. Any energy remaining in a dead organism is consumed by decomposers. Nutrients can be cycled through an ecosystem but energy is simply lost over time.

An example of energy flow in an ecosystem would begin with the autotrophs that take energy from the sun. Herbivores then feed on the autotrophs and change the energy from the plant into energy that they can use. Carnivores subsequently feed on the herbivores and, finally, other carnivores prey on the carnivores.

In each case, energy is passed on from one trophic level to the next trophic level and each time some energy is lost as heat into the environment. This is due to the fact that each organism must use some energy that they received from other organisms in order to survive. The top consumer of a food chain will be the organism that receives the least amount of energy.

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