research paper analysis essay

The Ultimate Guide to Analytical Essay Writing: How to Craft an A-Grade Paper?

25 January, 2021

17 minutes read

Author:  Kate Smith

An analytical essay is often considered the most challenging piece of writing. However, those who have dealt with it at least once are a step closer to calling themselves masters of essay writing. This type of paper requires plenty of analytical skills to carry out an in-depth analysis of the assigned topic. Yet, the main goal of an analytical essay is not only to demonstrate your ability to learn the basics of the theme.

You also need to think critically, analyze facts, express your standpoint, and clearly show a deep understanding of key concepts. In short, your main task as an author is to prove the validity of your views by coming up with strong arguments that do not beg any questions.

The given guide provides a full analytical essay definition, as well as specifies its features and structural aspects. The following information will help you properly start your paper, choose a relevant topic, and come up with compelling conclusions. 

What is an Analytical Essay?

An analytical essay is a piece of writing aimed to provide a thorough analysis of a definite phenomenon using persuasive arguments and supporting assertions. Analysis in the analytical essay writing process stands for a method of research that allows one to study specific features of an object. Analytical papers also have to do with analysis of a specific problem; that is consideration of the problem itself and identification of its key patterns. The subject matter of analysis can be a well-known or little-studied scientific phenomenon, artistic work, historical event, social problem, etc.

The content of an analytical essay will totally depend on the object that has been chosen for analysis. Thus, when shedding light on any kind of scientific work, an analytical essay can be devoted to the analysis of research credibility, its relevance, or the adequacy of conclusions. When considering a work of art, an essay writer can focus on the analysis of the author’s artistic techniques or issues raised in the book. For this reason, it is essential to accurately determine the topic and subject matter of your future analytical essay.

Steps to Take Before Writing

The preparational stage of analytical essay writing cannot be omitted. It lays the basis for the A-grade paper and should be carefully completed. If you don’t know how to start an analytical essay, read a few handy tips that will ensure a solid foundation for your paper.  

Define a subject matter

You first need to clearly understand the issue you will base your essay on. Since analytical essays imply an in-depth analysis of a specific problem, you need to define its core. Try to split the analysis into several components and provide arguments taken either from a book, a research, a scientific work, or a movie (depending on the subject matter of your analysis), and support your views comprehensively.

Decide on the content of your analytical essay

If you are a student who was given an analytical essay topic, read the task several times before you are 100% sure that you clearly understand the requirements as to the analytical essay format. In case you were lucky to choose the topic of the analytical paper by yourself, make sure the theme you will be dealing with is familiar or at least seems interesting to you. 

Remember that different subject matters require a different approach to their analysis. If you examine some literature work, you can prove your opinion based on the deeds of a certain or several characters. But if you have been assigned the task to elaborate on some historic events, analyze their main causes, driving forces that have affected their course, and their global consequences.  

Take care of the proper start

Don’t forget to start your analytical essay with a thesis statement. It is a sentence or a couple of sentences that aim to summarize the key statements of your paper. A thesis statement should provide readers with a preliminary idea of what your essay is all about.  

Find extra reasoning

Make sure your thesis is supported by compelling arguments. To find enough evidence, you should carry out a thorough analysis of the assigned topic. List the crucial points of your research and ponder over the ways they can be used to prove your final opinion. 

Elaborate the outline

A sound outline elaborated at the preparation stage will help you ensure a proper analytical essay structure and make the overall writing process easier. As a rule, an analytical essay consists of an introduction, three body paragraphs, and a conclusion. Your outline plan should include the key arguments you want to discuss in each paragraph. 

Analytical Essay Thesis

A thesis statement represents the central idea of your paper and must serve as strong proof of your standpoint. While elaborating your thesis statement, it is crucial to include it at the end of the first paragraph and thus set a direction for the overall paper. 

Analytical Essay Outline

An outline is not a required element of analytical essays writing and should not be included in the text, but it can greatly facilitate the whole process of paper writing.

The analytical essay structure looks as follows:

Introduction

In the introduction of an analytical essay, you will need to identify your paper’s subject matter. Mention the purpose of your work and specify its scope of research. Don’t forget to include a thesis to let readers know what your work is about.

Body Section

As has already been mentioned, the body section covers three or more main paragraphs, each being supported with arguments and details. Besides, you need to provide a small conclusion to each statement to make your essay sound professional and persuasive. 

At this stage, you need to summarize the points elucidated in your paper and make sure there is a smooth and logical transition from the body section to the concluding part of the text. If you don’t know how to conclude an analytical essay, try to restate the thesis statement without copying it word for word.  

Analytical Essay Examples

Writing an analytical essay may seem to be a thorny way. If you are still not sure how to properly craft one, try to find some examples that will help you go in the right direction. Below, there are some great examples of analytical essays. Take a look at their structure and try to write something similar based on your views and ideas:

https://drive.google.com/file/d/1JeR4i4RIZIj448W3KVFyHP-eS3QPN7gW/view

https://stlcc.edu/docs/student-support/academic-support/college-writing-center/rhetorical-analysis-sample-essay.pdf

https://www.germanna.eduhttp://handmadewriting.com/wp-content/uploads/tutoring/handouts/Literary-Analysis-Sample-Paper.pdf

30 Analytical Essay Topics

If you were allowed to choose the theme for your paper by yourself, check on the following analytical essay topics. Each of them can bring you the highest score:

General topics

• The influence of social networks on the life of teens
• Are salaries of football players too high?
• Wearing uniforms in schools should be banned
• A person in society: the problems of loneliness and privacy
• Sociology of corporate relationships
• Does the observation of space need more investments?
• Should the voting age in the UK be decreased?
• Reasons why capital punishment should be brought back in the UK
• A world with no rules: a new human era or a road to the global collapse?
• Life without technologies: will modern people survive?
• Should scientists test drugs on animals to fight cancer?
• The problem of keeping the balance between career and family life
• The importance of listening to your body 
• Problems caused by the lack of communication
• Food addiction and the problems it causes
• Problems of vaccination in the XXI century
• Does evil really rule the world?
• How does body size affect life quality?
• Pros and cons of video games 
• The role of a family model in the life and career of a person

Analytical Essay Topics on Literature

• “Robinson Crusoe”: fantasy vs reality
• Observation of the artistic uniqueness in the comedy by W. Shakespeare “A Midsummer Night’s Dream” 
• Observe the social problems in the novel by John Steinbeck “The Grapes of Wrath”
• Convulsions and death of the “little man” in the networks of impersonal, alienated forces in the novel “The Metamorphosis”
• Observation of the problems of a man on a plagued land in the novel “The Plague”
• Revolt of the protagonist in the novel by J. Salinger “The Catcher in the Rye”
• Observation of friendship and love in the fate of humanity in the XX century
• The triumph of immorality in the novel by F. Sagan “Hello Sadness”
• Observation of the personality of an American student in the novel by J. Salinger “The Catcher in the Rye”
• Eternal tragedies of humanity in the tragedy by W. Shakespeare “The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark”

How to Write a Well-Structured Analytical Essay With a Solid Argument

Writing an analytical essay with a clear structure might be challenging unless you are thoroughly prepared. We decided to help you out and create a detailed guide listing the main things to consider when creating an analytical essay outline. You need to explain your main idea in a concise way to bring your point across. As analytical writing has high requirements, it pays off to find an analytical essay example and analyze how this text was written. It will allow you to understand the analytical essay format better and learn how to provide substantive analysis on various topics. Read on to learn how to write a top-level analytical paper and submit it on time.

Main Tips for Writing an Analytical Essay

An analytical essay should provide a comprehensive analysis of a chosen topic. What makes an analysis essay different from other assignments is that it includes a personal opinion of an author. This is why analytical writing should be persuasive.

Below, we have rounded up the key tips you need to follow when producing an analytical essay outline and the main body of your text. Read on to learn more about the analytical essay format and create a text that will fully meet the requirements.

Select an Analytical Essay Topic

Before creating an analytical essay outline, make sure to pick a topic that you are interested in. It should be provocative enough to engage your readers. A widely-debated topic will help you write an analytical essay that grabs the attention of a wide audience.

Consider your goals and conduct thorough research to see if you have enough sources to support the main thesis of your analysis essay.

Come Up With a Strong Analytical Thesis Statement

When writing an analytical essay, start by formulating a thesis statement that includes the topic and the main goal of your text. It will help you create an analytical essay outline and show your readers what you will discuss in your analysis essay.

Add it to the last paragraph of your analytical essay introduction. Due to this, your analytical essay outline will look better structured. Look at any analytical essay example to see how you can introduce your subject. In most cases, one sentence will suffice to state your analysis essay’s goal. However, a complex analytical essay outline might require you to use two sentences for a thesis statement.

Write an Analytical Essay Body with a Clear Structure

Your analytical essay outline should include 3-4 paragraphs. However, a literary analysis essay usually consists of 5 paragraphs. When it comes to analytical writing, it is important to cover a different point in each section of the main body of an analysis paper.

After writing an analytical essay, check whether each paragraph contains an introduction and the main point. Besides, it should contain evidence. An expertly written analytical essay outline will help you reach out to your target audience more effectively.

Conduct Research Before Writing an Analytical Essay Outline

While this step is preparatory, it is a must for those who want to write a well-grounded analytical paper.

• First, select the best ideas for your essay
• Then, emphasize the problems with works written by other researchers
• Finally, write your analytical essay outline to demonstrate what approach you want to take

Examine the context and find examples to illustrate the scope of the issue. You may draw parallels to emphasize your point and make your topic more relatable.

Analyze the Implications of the Evidence

After listing your pieces of evidence and demonstrating how it is related to your thesis, show why it is important. You need to explore it deeply and use it to support your argument. It will make your analytical essay outline well-grounded facts.

Write an Analytical Essay Conclusion

Whether you write a literary analysis essay or other types of assignments, there is no need to add any new data at the end of your analysis paper. Instead, summarize the arguments you mentioned in your analytical essay outline. The conclusion of your analysis essay should be short and clear. Here, you need to demonstrate that you have achieved your goals.

Analytical Essay Writing Tips

If you want to get the highest grade for your analytical essay, you need to know a little bit more than just the basics of paper writing. Read these handy tips to write a perfect essay you will be proud of:

• Double-check your paper for spelling and grammar mistakes. In case your essay contains too many errors, neither an in-depth analysis nor the elaborate writing style will make it look any better. Situations when essays of great value in terms of research and a message they convey are poorly assessed because of the abundance of mistakes are not rare. Make sure you have enough time to proofread your paper before submission. Also, you may consider asking somebody to take a fresh look at your essay and check it for you.
• Reading your analytical essay out loud helps you discover all types of errors or weak phrases. This method might seem a bit uncomfortable, but it has proved to be very effective for many students. Note that silent reading of your paper isn’t even half as helpful as reading it aloud. 
• Another great idea to check on the rhythm and flow of your paper is to ask someone to read it for you. While listening to the text, you could perceive it from another perspective and discover even more inconsistencies and mistakes.  
• Double-check the facts you use in your analytical essay. The names of people, books, research, publications, as well as dates of historical events are too important to be misspelled. Things like these show your professionalism and the way you treat your readers.

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How to Write an Analysis Essay: The Ultimate Study Guide

Have an analytical essay to write? We get it. We’ve been there. Fortunately, we are here for you, with some insights into writing a successful analytical paper. Keep reading this article.

Analytical Essay Definition

How to write an analytical essay: step by step, analysis essay outline, analytical essay topic.

An analytical essay is a writing assignment. Your goal here is to introduce and discuss a claim as well as to deliver a detailed review of a given topic.

You can write analysis essays on topics from different fields. These include such topics as politics, economics, art, philosophy, music, literature, etc. Analytical assignments are a substantial part of any academic work. That is why university and college students often have to compose such papers. An outstanding analytical essay intends to explain and contextualize any topic—both the author and the reader benefit from it. In order to get a clearer picture of what this type of work should look like, check out some examples in our free essays collection.

Types of Analytical Essay

There are different types of analytical essays. It is important to find out what kind of essay you will write to use the correct structure.

📌 Cause and effect analytical essay. Also known as reason and result essay, this type of work discusses the purpose of something, which then enables us to analyze it while studying its effect on other things. 📌 Comparison and contrast analysis. This essay type examines two subjects to highlight their subtle similarities or differences through contrasting, comparison, or both processes at once. 📌 Classification. This type provides classification of things with common similarities into groups or categories to better learn their nature and carry out the analysis. 📌 Process essay. Such works talk about the way of doing something in order to give some sort of guidance or directions to readers. 📌 Definition. These essays comprise research to define an idea, concept, or term and provide evidence to support it. They also contain explanation through examples.

We use all these types of analytical essays while writing different kinds of analyses. The most common variants of analysis are literary analysis, painting analysis, and analysis of speech.

Find their detailed descriptions down below!

What is a Literary Analysis

While writing a literary analysis essay, you don’t always have to study a work of literature in its entirety. Sometimes you need to describe only a particular character or one aspect of the work. When studying various literary work elements, you are likely to understand the whole piece better. This process makes literary analysis one of the most exciting types of papers.

There are two main ways of composing the work – from the style perspective and from the literature piece elements perspective.

If you want to concentrate on the style , you can consider following criteria:

• Structure and organization
• Point of view
• Word choice
• Figurative language

In case of choosing to look into the elements of the work, you need to describe these aspects:

It is also possible to analyze all these elements considering different analytical essays: cause and effect, comparison and contrast, classification, process, and definition papers.

It would be a mistake to think that an analysis of literary work is just a summary of a piece of writing. On the contrary, it is rather a debate about the work that conveys a writer’s interpretation of the work.

How to Write Painting Analysis

Analyzing a painting is never easy. If you aren’t sure where to start, remember that you don’t need to be a painter or an expert in the field. Start your writing by answering some of these questions:

🤔 When was the painting made? 🤔 How big/small is it? 🤔 What kind of painting is it? It could be a portrait, a landscape, or still life. 🤔 How does the artist use colors and shapes? 🤔 What is your idea of the mood of the picture? 🤔 Is there a story behind the image? 🤔 Do you know who the artist is? 🤔 Did the artist use any symbols in the painting? 🤔 How would you describe the brushwork? Is the paint thick or thin?

Some more tips on how to analyze a work of art :

• “Description of a painting” does not mean “analysis of a painting,” so do not dive into too much detail. Going beyond stating the obvious, a student can demonstrate a more profound understanding of the piece of art.
• Try to avoid such judgmental expressions as “I like this” or “I don’t like this.” Remember to support your opinion with evidence or justification.
• Talk about several visual elements. Make sure you discuss different visual aspects of the artwork. Do not limit your analysis to talking only about colors or patterns. Try to show the painting from different perspectives.

Speech Analysis: Overview

While writing a speech analysis, you need to answer two questions. The first question you need to discuss here is WHAT the speaker says. Analyze their speech according to the standard procedure of text analysis, conversation analysis, and dialogue analysis.

The second important question is HOW the speaker expresses the ideas. Sometimes you need to analyze it to read between the lines and get the speaker’s view better. Important messages in speeches are often sent through appearance and behavior.

When analyzing a speech, try to consider the following questions :

🔎 Who is giving a speech? 🔎 What does the speaker look like? 🔎 How are they dressed? 🔎 What is the speaker’s behavior? 🔎 Does the speaker use gestures? 🔎 What is their voice like?

Some more tips on how to analyze a speech:

• A good piece of advice is to analyze the speaker and the audience they are talking to. You can describe their background and education, the atmosphere of the meeting, the general mood of the audience.
• It is also possible to talk about the meeting itself. Maybe it is a conference or a TV show, a workshop or a big plenary. All these details are crucial because they influence the speaker directly.

Writing an analytical essay can be tricky. You need to consider many aspects if you want your work to sound competent. We’ve prepared a list of 5 key steps that will help you create the best analytical essay possible.

5 Key Steps to a Perfect Analytical Essay

1. pick a good topic.

Before talking about any topic, it is helpful to study it from the ground up. When you become a real expert on the subject, you realize that analysis is relatively simple.

Check websites of trustworthy institutions to see if they have works on similar issues, or just google published papers on related topics. They can help you structure your work better.

They can also give you inspiration about the ideas you might discuss in your work.

2. Produce an analytical thesis statement

A thesis statement is the foundation of your work. It can be expressed in one sentence and supported by the most important arguments.

A working thesis statement gives the readers a general idea of the structure of your paper. It also provides them with the central point of your work and the main arguments supporting the idea. Aside from that, it declares a position about the subject that needs discussing and proving.

Here is an example of a good thesis statement:

“Worldwide nature preserving measures should concentrate on saving endangered species. It would allow many rare kinds of animals to live and breed in a safe environment.”

3. Do your research

Before writing an essay, it is vital to study the topic thoroughly. Do not skip this step, as it is essential to demonstrate that you have learned the topic and are ready to present your results, supported by arguments. So, get ready! Read relevant studies, do experiments, collect statistics – everything counts!

4. Set a realistic goal

When choosing a goal for your research, stay realistic. Try to make your goal as precise as possible. In this case, it will be easy for you to achieve your aim and to demonstrate your results at their best. It is also easier to find arguments for and against your thesis statement if your goal is precise and narrow.

5. Create an analysis essay outline

Any written assignment needs thorough planning, and analytical essays need it too. Before you write, make a well-structured outline of your work, including every paragraph’s essential points.

An analysis essay consists of an introduction, several main body paragraphs, and a conclusion. Let’s investigate this part in more detail.

There are many ways to structure an analytical assignment. Which format is best depending on the type of essay and the main goals of the writing task? We have prepared three different kinds of outlines for you.

The first type of structure is perfect when you need to state the central position in the text and defend it. Concentrate on the position you take, but don’t forget to mention alternative perspectives as well. In this type of work, you do not need to explain why the alternative ways are wrong. Show the readers that they exist.

The second type is good for when you not only want to defend your position. You also aim to explain why the other perspectives are wrong. In this case, you need to think carefully about arguments for your position. You will also need arguments against the different opinions.

And the third type is a perfect fit if you aim to demonstrate a wide range of several issues.For each of them, you have the central position and defending arguments. This type of essay tends to be the longest, as it covers several issues. It also includes alternative positions on all the problems. The thing is – there is no need to prove the alternative ideas wrong. You should only defend your main statement.

Analytical Essay Introduction: Examples

The purpose of the introduction of your essay is to make the readers focus. To keep the attention, you need to include a hook in the introduction . The hook can look like a rhetorical or provocative question, a quotation, or a bold statement.

A good intro also mentions the issue you will talk about. Besides, it states the position you are taking and background information on the topic. It is usually situated at the end of the introductory paragraph.

Some examples of good introductions:

✅ “The symbolism in JD Salinger’s Franny and Zooey” keeps the feeling of melancholia and uncertainty throughout the entire novel.” ✅ “Although there are many reasons for the 2nd World War, it is nationalism that formed hatred and provoked the War’s start.” ✅ “All animals are equal, but some animals are more equal.” Animal Farm is full of ironic and provocative phrases, which invite the reader to continue exploring the story. ✅ In Animal Farm, the author uses irony types to show totalitarianism and to manifest its inability to make every member of society equal.

Analysis Essay Body: Paragraph Format + Examples

The main body is a part of an essay with the aim to show readers the main idea development. Here, you need to add some evidence to support your thesis. Usually, there are three paragraphs. It depends on how broad the thesis statement is. Writers typically look for the evidence in different resources. It can be in the form of a summary, a quotation, or a paraphrase.

Here is an example of how to start a body paragraph:

“In the article, the author describes a particular scenario of doing house chores with her husband. She is paving the way for the following discussion of…”

Remember to include topic sentences in each paragraph! The main idea of the paragraph should be there. It also should be connected to your work’s central position. It is crucially important to support every claim in the thesis statement with proof. Try to include arguments supported by research and strong evidence. That is the reason to have a narrow thesis statement. The broader your thesis is – the more paragraphs the main body will contain.

For example:

“At first look, the plot of the story seems direct. It tells a story of… The central question of the story is looking for meaning in life. For instance: “Never have I had such a strong fish nor one who acted so strangely. Perhaps he is too wise to jump…”. This passage shows the readers the simple structure of …”

❓ How to Write an Analysis Essay?

To write an analysis essay, you need to study your topic thoroughly and conduct a research. After that, it is a good idea to think about the structure of your essay. Decide on the position, that you are going to defend. Besides, think about the opposite arguments and the evidence for the support of your central point.

❓ How to Write an Analytical Thesis?

The Thesis Statement is the root of your assignment. It needs to be further discussed and supported by evidence while writing. Before writing the main body and discussing quotes, make sure that your statement is clear and debatable. Do not forget to make your thesis statement persuasive. In this case, the audience will see your perspective and believe what you are saying.

❓ What Are the Characteristics of an Effective Introduction?

The goal of the introduction of your essay is to keep the readers’ focus. To bring this attention to your topic, you need to start with a hook. The hook can be in the form of a rhetorical or provocative question, a quotation, or a bold statement. A good introduction also includes the question you will discuss. Apart from that, it states the position you are taking and background information on the topic. It is usually placed at the end of the introductory paragraph.

❓ Can I Use a Quote in My Conclusion?

It is better to use a quotation in the introduction or the essay body. But if the quote can logically finish your analysis, then use it! Just make sure that your quotation does not include any new ideas or information. The reason is that the aim of the conclusion is to restate your thesis statement and your topic.

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Analytical Essay: Tips, Structure, Examples

Analytical essays could be perfect for you if you enjoy immersing yourself in tasks and excel at thinking creatively. By conducting thorough analysis and employing innovative writing techniques, you can discover new viewpoints and enhance your understanding of the subject.

In this article, our research paper writer will explain what it entails, learn how to structure your paper for top marks, snag some snazzy topic ideas, and glean practical examples. This guide has got all the essentials you need for writing success!

What Is an Analytical Essay

To write an effective analytical essay, it is important to understand its purpose and method. In basic terms, it requires using textual evidence to logically support the author's arguments rather than relying on emotions or personal anecdotes. ‍ Compared to persuasive essays that advocate for one specific viewpoint, a quality analytical essay example should delve into all aspects of the subject. This involves examining different perspectives, dissecting arguments, and assessing evidence thoughtfully. ‍ Ultimately, you will have to express your viewpoint after conducting your analysis. This requires combining your research and determining if you agree with the conclusions made or have a different interpretation.

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How to Structure an Analytical Essay

Now it's time to ace the process of crafting an excellent paper. To make writing easier, organize your thoughts and structure your arguments clearly. An analytical essay needs the introduction, body, and conclusion of an outline, which acts as a guide from start to finish. Here's the simple breakdown of an analytical essay outline:

‍Introduction‍

• Background information
• Thesis statement

Body paragraph 1‍

• Topic sentence
• Supporting evidence
• Transition to the body paragraph to‍

Body paragraph 2‍

• Transition to body paragraph 3

Body paragraph 3

• Transition to conclusion
• Summary of major points
• Restate the thesis
• Key takeaways

Introduction: To begin your essay successfully (see our analytical essay example), captivate the reader's interest from the very start and clearly outline the topic. A good beginning should give some background information, outline the essay's purpose, and suggest the main arguments that will be made. Grab the reader's attention with an engaging and pertinent opening sentence, such as a surprising fact, a funny story, or a challenging question. After that, introduce your thesis statement, which summarizes your main point in the essay.

Body Paragraphs: In an analysis essay, each paragraph begins with a topic sentence that helps guide the reader. The paragraph then provides evidence to support the thesis, concentrating on a single issue. By summarizing the main point at the end of each paragraph, the essay flows smoothly from one idea to the next, maintaining clarity and coherence in the argument.

Conclusion: The final paragraph of an analytical essay usually adheres to a specific structure:

• Reiterating the main argument
• Outlining the main ideas discussed in the essay
• Providing thoughts on the overall significance of the analysis

It is crucial to include your perspective on the topic's relevance and how your analysis adds to the understanding of it. This approach can strongly impact the reader's perception of the essay.

Meanwhile, you might also be interested in how to write a reflection paper , so check out the article for more information!

How to Write an Analytical Essay

Once you understand the structure, there are some steps you can take to make writing an analytical essay easier. Preparing beforehand can simplify the process and improve the overall flow and structure of your essay. Here are some tips from our experts. Meanwhile, you can also request from our experts - write my essay for me . And we'll take care of it right away.

• Think Ahead : Before writing, a good analytical essay writer should spend some time thinking about the topic. Make a list of ideas or themes related to it. This helps you find interesting angles for your essay.
• Create a Thesis Statement : Develop a clear and concise thesis statement that outlines the main argument of your essay. This will guide you in how to write an analytical essay introduction and keep your writing focused.
• Visualize Information : Use graphs or charts to organize your thoughts visually. This makes your research easier to understand. For example, you can compare ideas with a chart.
• Consider Different Views : Address opposing viewpoints in your essay. This shows you've thought about different perspectives and strengthens your argument.
• Use Original Sources : Include interviews, presentations, or original documents in your research. They give a unique insight into your topic. For instance, old letters can offer personal views on historical events.
• Analyze Cause and Effect : Explore the cause-and-effect relationships within your topic. Analyze how different factors contribute to certain outcomes or phenomena.

Analytical Essay Topics

Choosing the right one among lots of analytical essay topic ideas is crucial when tackling your essay. Here's a guide to help you pick wisely:

• Find a topic that piques your interest. It's easier to dive into analysis when you're passionate about the subject.
• Look for topics that catch the reader's eye. Think about what would make someone stop and want to read more.
• Avoid topics that are too broad. Focus on something specific that you can thoroughly analyze within the scope of your essay.
• Ensure there's enough quality research available to support your analysis. You'll need evidence to back up your points.
• Your topic should raise questions worth exploring. Aim for something that sparks curiosity and has significance.

Now, here's a mix of engaging topics from our dissertation services to consider:

• Analyzing the Impact of Blue Light from Screens on Sleep Quality
• Exploring the Environmental Effects of Microplastics in Ocean Ecosystems
• Understanding the Benefits of Deep Breathing Exercises for Anxiety Relief
• Analyzing the Influence of Instagram Filters on Body Image Perception
• Exploring the Health Risks of Artificial Sweeteners in Diet Soda
• Understanding the Psychological Effects of High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
• Analyzing the Environmental Impact of Fast Food Packaging Waste
• Exploring the Effects of Social Media Validation on Self-Esteem
• Understanding the Benefits of Indoor Plants for Air Quality Improvement
• Analyzing the Relationship Between Sugar Consumption and Dental Health
• Exploring the Psychological Effects of Online Shopping Addiction
• Understanding the Environmental Impact of Fast Fashion Textile Dyes
• Analyzing the Effects of Smartphone Notifications on Focus and Productivity
• Exploring the Benefits of Outdoor Exercise for Vitamin D Production
• Understanding the Relationship Between Noise Pollution and Cardiovascular Health
• Analyzing the Psychological Effects of Colorful Food Presentation on Appetite
• Exploring the Impact of Petting Therapy Dogs on Stress Reduction
• Understanding the Benefits of Classical Music for Concentration While Studying
• Analyzing the Effects of Lavender Aromatherapy on Sleep Quality
• Exploring the Health Risks of Prolonged Sitting and Sedentary Lifestyles

Analytical Essay Examples

Here is our analytical writing sample to see theory in action. Notice how analytical thinking applies to real-world situations, improving your understanding of concepts. By studying these examples, you'll learn to analyze complex issues, build strong arguments, and sharpen your critical thinking skills.

Final Thoughts

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Do you need to write an analytical essay for school? What sets this kind of essay apart from other types, and what must you include when you write your own analytical essay? In this guide, we break down the process of writing an analytical essay by explaining the key factors your essay needs to have, providing you with an outline to help you structure your essay, and analyzing a complete analytical essay example so you can see what a finished essay looks like.

What Is an Analytical Essay?

Before you begin writing an analytical essay, you must know what this type of essay is and what it includes. Analytical essays analyze something, often (but not always) a piece of writing or a film.

An analytical essay is more than just a synopsis of the issue though; in this type of essay you need to go beyond surface-level analysis and look at what the key arguments/points of this issue are and why. If you’re writing an analytical essay about a piece of writing, you’ll look into how the text was written and why the author chose to write it that way. Instead of summarizing, an analytical essay typically takes a narrower focus and looks at areas such as major themes in the work, how the author constructed and supported their argument, how the essay used literary devices to enhance its messages, etc.

While you certainly want people to agree with what you’ve written, unlike with persuasive and argumentative essays, your main purpose when writing an analytical essay isn’t to try to convert readers to your side of the issue. Therefore, you won’t be using strong persuasive language like you would in those essay types. Rather, your goal is to have enough analysis and examples that the strength of your argument is clear to readers.

Besides typical essay components like an introduction and conclusion, a good analytical essay will include:

• A thesis that states your main argument
• Analysis that relates back to your thesis and supports it
• Examples to support your analysis and allow a more in-depth look at the issue

In the rest of this article, we’ll explain how to include each of these in your analytical essay.

How to Structure Your Analytical Essay

Analytical essays are structured similarly to many other essays you’ve written, with an introduction (including a thesis), several body paragraphs, and a conclusion. Below is an outline you can follow when structuring your essay, and in the next section we go into more detail on how to write an analytical essay.

Introduction

Your introduction will begin with some sort of attention-grabbing sentence to get your audience interested, then you’ll give a few sentences setting up the topic so that readers have some context, and you’ll end with your thesis statement. Your introduction will include:

• Brief background information explaining the issue/text
• Your thesis

Body Paragraphs

Your analytical essay will typically have three or four body paragraphs, each covering a different point of analysis. Begin each body paragraph with a sentence that sets up the main point you’ll be discussing. Then you’ll give some analysis on that point, backing it up with evidence to support your claim. Continue analyzing and giving evidence for your analysis until you’re out of strong points for the topic. At the end of each body paragraph, you may choose to have a transition sentence that sets up what the next paragraph will be about, but this isn’t required. Body paragraphs will include:

• Introductory sentence explaining what you’ll cover in the paragraph (sort of like a mini-thesis)
• Analysis point
• Evidence (either passages from the text or data/facts) that supports the analysis
• (Repeat analysis and evidence until you run out of examples)

You won’t be making any new points in your conclusion; at this point you’re just reiterating key points you’ve already made and wrapping things up. Begin by rephrasing your thesis and summarizing the main points you made in the essay. Someone who reads just your conclusion should be able to come away with a basic idea of what your essay was about and how it was structured. After this, you may choose to make some final concluding thoughts, potentially by connecting your essay topic to larger issues to show why it’s important. A conclusion will include:

• Paraphrase of thesis
• Summary of key points of analysis
• Final concluding thought(s)

5 Steps for Writing an Analytical Essay

Follow these five tips to break down writing an analytical essay into manageable steps. By the end, you’ll have a fully-crafted analytical essay with both in-depth analysis and enough evidence to support your argument. All of these steps use the completed analytical essay in the next section as an example.

#1: Pick a Topic

You may have already had a topic assigned to you, and if that’s the case, you can skip this step. However, if you haven’t, or if the topic you’ve been assigned is broad enough that you still need to narrow it down, then you’ll need to decide on a topic for yourself. Choosing the right topic can mean the difference between an analytical essay that’s easy to research (and gets you a good grade) and one that takes hours just to find a few decent points to analyze

Before you decide on an analytical essay topic, do a bit of research to make sure you have enough examples to support your analysis. If you choose a topic that’s too narrow, you’ll struggle to find enough to write about.

For example, say your teacher assigns you to write an analytical essay about the theme in John Steinbeck’s The Grapes of Wrath of exposing injustices against migrants. For it to be an analytical essay, you can’t just recount the injustices characters in the book faced; that’s only a summary and doesn’t include analysis. You need to choose a topic that allows you to analyze the theme. One of the best ways to explore a theme is to analyze how the author made his/her argument. One example here is that Steinbeck used literary devices in the intercalary chapters (short chapters that didn’t relate to the plot or contain the main characters of the book) to show what life was like for migrants as a whole during the Dust Bowl.

You could write about how Steinbeck used literary devices throughout the whole book, but, in the essay below, I chose to just focus on the intercalary chapters since they gave me enough examples. Having a narrower focus will nearly always result in a tighter and more convincing essay (and can make compiling examples less overwhelming).

#2: Write a Thesis Statement

Your thesis statement is the most important sentence of your essay; a reader should be able to read just your thesis and understand what the entire essay is about and what you’ll be analyzing. When you begin writing, remember that each sentence in your analytical essay should relate back to your thesis

In the analytical essay example below, the thesis is the final sentence of the first paragraph (the traditional spot for it). The thesis is: “In The Grapes of Wrath’s intercalary chapters, John Steinbeck employs a variety of literary devices and stylistic choices to better expose the injustices committed against migrants in the 1930s.” So what will this essay analyze? How Steinbeck used literary devices in the intercalary chapters to show how rough migrants could have it. Crystal clear.

#3: Do Research to Find Your Main Points

This is where you determine the bulk of your analysis--the information that makes your essay an analytical essay. My preferred method is to list every idea that I can think of, then research each of those and use the three or four strongest ones for your essay. Weaker points may be those that don’t relate back to the thesis, that you don’t have much analysis to discuss, or that you can’t find good examples for. A good rule of thumb is to have one body paragraph per main point

This essay has four main points, each of which analyzes a different literary device Steinbeck uses to better illustrate how difficult life was for migrants during the Dust Bowl. The four literary devices and their impact on the book are:

• Lack of individual names in intercalary chapters to illustrate the scope of the problem
• Parallels to the Bible to induce sympathy for the migrants
• Non-showy, often grammatically-incorrect language so the migrants are more realistic and relatable to readers
• Nature-related metaphors to affect the mood of the writing and reflect the plight of the migrants

#4: Find Excerpts or Evidence to Support Your Analysis

Now that you have your main points, you need to back them up. If you’re writing a paper about a text or film, use passages/clips from it as your main source of evidence. If you’re writing about something else, your evidence can come from a variety of sources, such as surveys, experiments, quotes from knowledgeable sources etc. Any evidence that would work for a regular research paper works here.

In this example, I quoted multiple passages from The Grapes of Wrath  in each paragraph to support my argument. You should be able to back up every claim you make with evidence in order to have a strong essay.

#5: Put It All Together

Now it's time to begin writing your essay, if you haven’t already. Create an introductory paragraph that ends with the thesis, make a body paragraph for each of your main points, including both analysis and evidence to back up your claims, and wrap it all up with a conclusion that recaps your thesis and main points and potentially explains the big picture importance of the topic.

Analytical Essay Example + Analysis

So that you can see for yourself what a completed analytical essay looks like, here’s an essay I wrote back in my high school days. It’s followed by analysis of how I structured my essay, what its strengths are, and how it could be improved.

One way Steinbeck illustrates the connections all migrant people possessed and the struggles they faced is by refraining from using specific titles and names in his intercalary chapters. While The Grapes of Wrath focuses on the Joad family, the intercalary chapters show that all migrants share the same struggles and triumphs as the Joads. No individual names are used in these chapters; instead the people are referred to as part of a group. Steinbeck writes, “Frantic men pounded on the doors of the doctors; and the doctors were busy.  And sad men left word at country stores for the coroner to send a car,” (555). By using generic terms, Steinbeck shows how the migrants are all linked because they have gone through the same experiences. The grievances committed against one family were committed against thousands of other families; the abuse extends far beyond what the Joads experienced. The Grapes of Wrath frequently refers to the importance of coming together; how, when people connect with others their power and influence multiplies immensely. Throughout the novel, the goal of the migrants, the key to their triumph, has been to unite. While their plans are repeatedly frustrated by the government and police, Steinbeck’s intercalary chapters provide a way for the migrants to relate to one another because they have encountered the same experiences. Hundreds of thousands of migrants fled to the promised land of California, but Steinbeck was aware that numbers alone were impersonal and lacked the passion he desired to spread. Steinbeck created the intercalary chapters to show the massive numbers of people suffering, and he created the Joad family to evoke compassion from readers.  Because readers come to sympathize with the Joads, they become more sensitive to the struggles of migrants in general. However, John Steinbeck frequently made clear that the Joads were not an isolated incident; they were not unique. Their struggles and triumphs were part of something greater. Refraining from specific names in his intercalary chapters allows Steinbeck to show the vastness of the atrocities committed against migrants.

Steinbeck also creates significant parallels to the Bible in his intercalary chapters in order to enhance his writing and characters. By using simple sentences and stylized writing, Steinbeck evokes Biblical passages. The migrants despair, “No work till spring. No work,” (556).  Short, direct sentences help to better convey the desperateness of the migrants’ situation. Throughout his novel, John Steinbeck makes connections to the Bible through his characters and storyline. Jim Casy’s allusions to Christ and the cycle of drought and flooding are clear biblical references.  By choosing to relate The Grapes of Wrath to the Bible, Steinbeck’s characters become greater than themselves. Starving migrants become more than destitute vagrants; they are now the chosen people escaping to the promised land. When a forgotten man dies alone and unnoticed, it becomes a tragedy. Steinbeck writes, “If [the migrants] were shot at, they did not run, but splashed sullenly away; and if they were hit, they sank tiredly in the mud,” (556). Injustices committed against the migrants become greater because they are seen as children of God through Steinbeck’s choice of language. Referencing the Bible strengthens Steinbeck’s novel and purpose: to create understanding for the dispossessed.  It is easy for people to feel disdain for shabby vagabonds, but connecting them to such a fundamental aspect of Christianity induces sympathy from readers who might have otherwise disregarded the migrants as so many other people did.

The simple, uneducated dialogue Steinbeck employs also helps to create a more honest and meaningful representation of the migrants, and it makes the migrants more relatable to readers. Steinbeck chooses to accurately represent the language of the migrants in order to more clearly illustrate their lives and make them seem more like real paper than just characters in a book. The migrants lament, “They ain’t gonna be no kinda work for three months,” (555). There are multiple grammatical errors in that single sentence, but it vividly conveys the despair the migrants felt better than a technically perfect sentence would. The Grapes of Wrath is intended to show the severe difficulties facing the migrants so Steinbeck employs a clear, pragmatic style of writing.  Steinbeck shows the harsh, truthful realities of the migrants’ lives and he would be hypocritical if he chose to give the migrants a more refined voice and not portray them with all their shortcomings. The depiction of the migrants as imperfect through their language also makes them easier to relate to. Steinbeck’s primary audience was the middle class, the less affluent of society. Repeatedly in The Grapes of Wrath , the wealthy make it obvious that they scorn the plight of the migrants. The wealthy, not bad luck or natural disasters, were the prominent cause of the suffering of migrant families such as the Joads. Thus, Steinbeck turns to the less prosperous for support in his novel. When referring to the superior living conditions barnyard animals have, the migrants remark, “Them’s horses-we’re men,” (556).  The perfect simplicity of this quote expresses the absurdness of the migrants’ situation better than any flowery expression could.

In The Grapes of Wrath , John Steinbeck uses metaphors, particularly about nature, in order to illustrate the mood and the overall plight of migrants. Throughout most of the book, the land is described as dusty, barren, and dead. Towards the end, however; floods come and the landscape begins to change. At the end of chapter twenty-nine, Steinbeck describes a hill after the floods saying, “Tiny points of grass came through the earth, and in a few days the hills were pale green with the beginning year,” (556). This description offers a stark contrast from the earlier passages which were filled with despair and destruction. Steinbeck’s tone from the beginning of the chapter changes drastically. Early in the chapter, Steinbeck had used heavy imagery in order to convey the destruction caused by the rain, “The streams and the little rivers edged up to the bank sides and worked at willows and tree roots, bent the willows deep in the current, cut out the roots of cottonwoods and brought down the trees,” (553). However, at the end of the chapter the rain has caused new life to grow in California. The new grass becomes a metaphor representing hope. When the migrants are at a loss over how they will survive the winter, the grass offers reassurance. The story of the migrants in the intercalary chapters parallels that of the Joads. At the end of the novel, the family is breaking apart and has been forced to flee their home. However, both the book and final intercalary chapter end on a hopeful note after so much suffering has occurred. The grass metaphor strengthens Steinbeck’s message because it offers a tangible example of hope. Through his language Steinbeck’s themes become apparent at the end of the novel. Steinbeck affirms that persistence, even when problems appear insurmountable, leads to success. These metaphors help to strengthen Steinbeck’s themes in The Grapes of Wrath because they provide a more memorable way to recall important messages.

John Steinbeck’s language choices help to intensify his writing in his intercalary chapters and allow him to more clearly show how difficult life for migrants could be. Refraining from using specific names and terms allows Steinbeck to show that many thousands of migrants suffered through the same wrongs. Imitating the style of the Bible strengthens Steinbeck’s characters and connects them to the Bible, perhaps the most famous book in history. When Steinbeck writes in the imperfect dialogue of the migrants, he creates a more accurate portrayal and makes the migrants easier to relate to for a less affluent audience. Metaphors, particularly relating to nature, strengthen the themes in The Grapes of Wrath by enhancing the mood Steinbeck wants readers to feel at different points in the book. Overall, the intercalary chapters that Steinbeck includes improve his novel by making it more memorable and reinforcing the themes Steinbeck embraces throughout the novel. Exemplary stylistic devices further persuade readers of John Steinbeck’s personal beliefs. Steinbeck wrote The Grapes of Wrath to bring to light cruelties against migrants, and by using literary devices effectively, he continuously reminds readers of his purpose. Steinbeck’s impressive language choices in his intercalary chapters advance the entire novel and help to create a classic work of literature that people still are able to relate to today. 

This essay sticks pretty closely to the standard analytical essay outline. It starts with an introduction, where I chose to use a quote to start off the essay. (This became my favorite way to start essays in high school because, if I wasn’t sure what to say, I could outsource the work and find a quote that related to what I’d be writing about.) The quote in this essay doesn’t relate to the themes I’m discussing quite as much as it could, but it’s still a slightly different way to start an essay and can intrigue readers. I then give a bit of background on The Grapes of Wrath and its themes before ending the intro paragraph with my thesis: that Steinbeck used literary devices in intercalary chapters to show how rough migrants had it.

Each of my four body paragraphs is formatted in roughly the same way: an intro sentence that explains what I’ll be discussing, analysis of that main point, and at least two quotes from the book as evidence.

My conclusion restates my thesis, summarizes each of four points I discussed in my body paragraphs, and ends the essay by briefly discussing how Steinbeck’s writing helped introduce a world of readers to the injustices migrants experienced during the dust bowl.

What does this analytical essay example do well? For starters, it contains everything that a strong analytical essay should, and it makes that easy to find. The thesis clearly lays out what the essay will be about, the first sentence of each of the body paragraph introduces the topic it’ll cover, and the conclusion neatly recaps all the main points. Within each of the body paragraphs, there’s analysis along with multiple excerpts from the book in order to add legitimacy to my points.

Additionally, the essay does a good job of taking an in-depth look at the issue introduced in the thesis. Four ways Steinbeck used literary devices are discussed, and for each of the examples are given and analysis is provided so readers can understand why Steinbeck included those devices and how they helped shaped how readers viewed migrants and their plight.

Where could this essay be improved? I believe the weakest body paragraph is the third one, the one that discusses how Steinbeck used plain, grammatically incorrect language to both accurately depict the migrants and make them more relatable to readers. The paragraph tries to touch on both of those reasons and ends up being somewhat unfocused as a result. It would have been better for it to focus on just one of those reasons (likely how it made the migrants more relatable) in order to be clearer and more effective. It’s a good example of how adding more ideas to an essay often doesn’t make it better if they don’t work with the rest of what you’re writing. This essay also could explain the excerpts that are included more and how they relate to the points being made. Sometimes they’re just dropped in the essay with the expectation that the readers will make the connection between the example and the analysis. This is perhaps especially true in the second body paragraph, the one that discusses similarities to Biblical passages. Additional analysis of the quotes would have strengthened it.

Summary: How to Write an Analytical Essay

What is an analytical essay? A critical analytical essay analyzes a topic, often a text or film. The analysis paper uses evidence to support the argument, such as excerpts from the piece of writing. All analytical papers include a thesis, analysis of the topic, and evidence to support that analysis.

When developing an analytical essay outline and writing your essay, follow these five steps:

Reading analytical essay examples can also give you a better sense of how to structure your essay and what to include in it.

What's Next?

Learning about different writing styles in school? There are four main writing styles, and it's important to understand each of them. Learn about them in our guide to writing styles , complete with examples.

Writing a research paper for school but not sure what to write about? Our guide to research paper topics has over 100 topics in ten categories so you can be sure to find the perfect topic for you.

Literary devices can both be used to enhance your writing and communication. Check out this list of 31 literary devices to learn more !

Christine graduated from Michigan State University with degrees in Environmental Biology and Geography and received her Master's from Duke University. In high school she scored in the 99th percentile on the SAT and was named a National Merit Finalist. She has taught English and biology in several countries.

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• How to write a research paper

Last updated

11 January 2024

Reviewed by

With proper planning, knowledge, and framework, completing a research paper can be a fulfilling and exciting experience. 

Though it might initially sound slightly intimidating, this guide will help you embrace the challenge. 

By documenting your findings, you can inspire others and make a difference in your field. Here's how you can make your research paper unique and comprehensive.

• What is a research paper?

Research papers allow you to demonstrate your knowledge and understanding of a particular topic. These papers are usually lengthier and more detailed than typical essays, requiring deeper insight into the chosen topic.

To write a research paper, you must first choose a topic that interests you and is relevant to the field of study. Once you’ve selected your topic, gathering as many relevant resources as possible, including books, scholarly articles, credible websites, and other academic materials, is essential. You must then read and analyze these sources, summarizing their key points and identifying gaps in the current research.

You can formulate your ideas and opinions once you thoroughly understand the existing research. To get there might involve conducting original research, gathering data, or analyzing existing data sets. It could also involve presenting an original argument or interpretation of the existing research.

Writing a successful research paper involves presenting your findings clearly and engagingly, which might involve using charts, graphs, or other visual aids to present your data and using concise language to explain your findings. You must also ensure your paper adheres to relevant academic formatting guidelines, including proper citations and references.

Overall, writing a research paper requires a significant amount of time, effort, and attention to detail. However, it is also an enriching experience that allows you to delve deeply into a subject that interests you and contribute to the existing body of knowledge in your chosen field.

• How long should a research paper be?

Research papers are deep dives into a topic. Therefore, they tend to be longer pieces of work than essays or opinion pieces. 

However, a suitable length depends on the complexity of the topic and your level of expertise. For instance, are you a first-year college student or an experienced professional? 

Also, remember that the best research papers provide valuable information for the benefit of others. Therefore, the quality of information matters most, not necessarily the length. Being concise is valuable.

Following these best practice steps will help keep your process simple and productive:

1. Gaining a deep understanding of any expectations

Before diving into your intended topic or beginning the research phase, take some time to orient yourself. Suppose there’s a specific topic assigned to you. In that case, it’s essential to deeply understand the question and organize your planning and approach in response. Pay attention to the key requirements and ensure you align your writing accordingly. 

This preparation step entails

Deeply understanding the task or assignment

Being clear about the expected format and length

Familiarizing yourself with the citation and referencing requirements 

Understanding any defined limits for your research contribution

Where applicable, speaking to your professor or research supervisor for further clarification

2. Choose your research topic

Select a research topic that aligns with both your interests and available resources. Ideally, focus on a field where you possess significant experience and analytical skills. In crafting your research paper, it's crucial to go beyond summarizing existing data and contribute fresh insights to the chosen area.

Consider narrowing your focus to a specific aspect of the topic. For example, if exploring the link between technology and mental health, delve into how social media use during the pandemic impacts the well-being of college students. Conducting interviews and surveys with students could provide firsthand data and unique perspectives, adding substantial value to the existing knowledge.

When finalizing your topic, adhere to legal and ethical norms in the relevant area (this ensures the integrity of your research, protects participants' rights, upholds intellectual property standards, and ensures transparency and accountability). Following these principles not only maintains the credibility of your work but also builds trust within your academic or professional community.

For instance, in writing about medical research, consider legal and ethical norms, including patient confidentiality laws and informed consent requirements. Similarly, if analyzing user data on social media platforms, be mindful of data privacy regulations, ensuring compliance with laws governing personal information collection and use. Aligning with legal and ethical standards not only avoids potential issues but also underscores the responsible conduct of your research.

3. Gather preliminary research

Once you’ve landed on your topic, it’s time to explore it further. You’ll want to discover more about available resources and existing research relevant to your assignment at this stage. 

This exploratory phase is vital as you may discover issues with your original idea or realize you have insufficient resources to explore the topic effectively. This key bit of groundwork allows you to redirect your research topic in a different, more feasible, or more relevant direction if necessary. 

Spending ample time at this stage ensures you gather everything you need, learn as much as you can about the topic, and discover gaps where the topic has yet to be sufficiently covered, offering an opportunity to research it further. 

4. Define your research question

To produce a well-structured and focused paper, it is imperative to formulate a clear and precise research question that will guide your work. Your research question must be informed by the existing literature and tailored to the scope and objectives of your project. By refining your focus, you can produce a thoughtful and engaging paper that effectively communicates your ideas to your readers.

5. Write a thesis statement

A thesis statement is a one-to-two-sentence summary of your research paper's main argument or direction. It serves as an overall guide to summarize the overall intent of the research paper for you and anyone wanting to know more about the research.

A strong thesis statement is:

Concise and clear: Explain your case in simple sentences (avoid covering multiple ideas). It might help to think of this section as an elevator pitch.

Specific: Ensure that there is no ambiguity in your statement and that your summary covers the points argued in the paper.

Debatable: A thesis statement puts forward a specific argument––it is not merely a statement but a debatable point that can be analyzed and discussed.

Here are three thesis statement examples from different disciplines:

Psychology thesis example: "We're studying adults aged 25-40 to see if taking short breaks for mindfulness can help with stress. Our goal is to find practical ways to manage anxiety better."

Environmental science thesis example: "This research paper looks into how having more city parks might make the air cleaner and keep people healthier. I want to find out if more green spaces means breathing fewer carcinogens in big cities."

UX research thesis example: "This study focuses on improving mobile banking for older adults using ethnographic research, eye-tracking analysis, and interactive prototyping. We investigate the usefulness of eye-tracking analysis with older individuals, aiming to spark debate and offer fresh perspectives on UX design and digital inclusivity for the aging population."

6. Conduct in-depth research

A research paper doesn’t just include research that you’ve uncovered from other papers and studies but your fresh insights, too. You will seek to become an expert on your topic––understanding the nuances in the current leading theories. You will analyze existing research and add your thinking and discoveries.  It's crucial to conduct well-designed research that is rigorous, robust, and based on reliable sources. Suppose a research paper lacks evidence or is biased. In that case, it won't benefit the academic community or the general public. Therefore, examining the topic thoroughly and furthering its understanding through high-quality research is essential. That usually means conducting new research. Depending on the area under investigation, you may conduct surveys, interviews, diary studies, or observational research to uncover new insights or bolster current claims.

7. Determine supporting evidence

Not every piece of research you’ve discovered will be relevant to your research paper. It’s important to categorize the most meaningful evidence to include alongside your discoveries. It's important to include evidence that doesn't support your claims to avoid exclusion bias and ensure a fair research paper.

8. Write a research paper outline

Before diving in and writing the whole paper, start with an outline. It will help you to see if more research is needed, and it will provide a framework by which to write a more compelling paper. Your supervisor may even request an outline to approve before beginning to write the first draft of the full paper. An outline will include your topic, thesis statement, key headings, short summaries of the research, and your arguments.

9. Write your first draft

Once you feel confident about your outline and sources, it’s time to write your first draft. While penning a long piece of content can be intimidating, if you’ve laid the groundwork, you will have a structure to help you move steadily through each section. To keep up motivation and inspiration, it’s often best to keep the pace quick. Stopping for long periods can interrupt your flow and make jumping back in harder than writing when things are fresh in your mind.

10. Cite your sources correctly

It's always a good practice to give credit where it's due, and the same goes for citing any works that have influenced your paper. Building your arguments on credible references adds value and authenticity to your research. In the formatting guidelines section, you’ll find an overview of different citation styles (MLA, CMOS, or APA), which will help you meet any publishing or academic requirements and strengthen your paper's credibility. It is essential to follow the guidelines provided by your school or the publication you are submitting to ensure the accuracy and relevance of your citations.

11. Ensure your work is original

It is crucial to ensure the originality of your paper, as plagiarism can lead to serious consequences. To avoid plagiarism, you should use proper paraphrasing and quoting techniques. Paraphrasing is rewriting a text in your own words while maintaining the original meaning. Quoting involves directly citing the source. Giving credit to the original author or source is essential whenever you borrow their ideas or words. You can also use plagiarism detection tools such as Scribbr or Grammarly to check the originality of your paper. These tools compare your draft writing to a vast database of online sources. If you find any accidental plagiarism, you should correct it immediately by rephrasing or citing the source.

12. Revise, edit, and proofread

One of the essential qualities of excellent writers is their ability to understand the importance of editing and proofreading. Even though it's tempting to call it a day once you've finished your writing, editing your work can significantly improve its quality. It's natural to overlook the weaker areas when you've just finished writing a paper. Therefore, it's best to take a break of a day or two, or even up to a week, to refresh your mind. This way, you can return to your work with a new perspective. After some breathing room, you can spot any inconsistencies, spelling and grammar errors, typos, or missing citations and correct them. 

• The best research paper format 

The format of your research paper should align with the requirements set forth by your college, school, or target publication. 

There is no one “best” format, per se. Depending on the stated requirements, you may need to include the following elements:

Title page: The title page of a research paper typically includes the title, author's name, and institutional affiliation and may include additional information such as a course name or instructor's name. 

Table of contents: Include a table of contents to make it easy for readers to find specific sections of your paper.

Abstract: The abstract is a summary of the purpose of the paper.

Methods : In this section, describe the research methods used. This may include collecting data, conducting interviews, or doing field research.

Results: Summarize the conclusions you drew from your research in this section.

Discussion: In this section, discuss the implications of your research. Be sure to mention any significant limitations to your approach and suggest areas for further research.

Tables, charts, and illustrations: Use tables, charts, and illustrations to help convey your research findings and make them easier to understand.

Works cited or reference page: Include a works cited or reference page to give credit to the sources that you used to conduct your research.

Bibliography: Provide a list of all the sources you consulted while conducting your research.

Dedication and acknowledgments : Optionally, you may include a dedication and acknowledgments section to thank individuals who helped you with your research.

• General style and formatting guidelines

Formatting your research paper means you can submit it to your college, journal, or other publications in compliance with their criteria.

Research papers tend to follow the American Psychological Association (APA), Modern Language Association (MLA), or Chicago Manual of Style (CMOS) guidelines.

Here’s how each style guide is typically used:

Chicago Manual of Style (CMOS):

CMOS is a versatile style guide used for various types of writing. It's known for its flexibility and use in the humanities. CMOS provides guidelines for citations, formatting, and overall writing style. It allows for both footnotes and in-text citations, giving writers options based on their preferences or publication requirements.

American Psychological Association (APA):

APA is common in the social sciences. It’s hailed for its clarity and emphasis on precision. It has specific rules for citing sources, creating references, and formatting papers. APA style uses in-text citations with an accompanying reference list. It's designed to convey information efficiently and is widely used in academic and scientific writing.

Modern Language Association (MLA):

MLA is widely used in the humanities, especially literature and language studies. It emphasizes the author-page format for in-text citations and provides guidelines for creating a "Works Cited" page. MLA is known for its focus on the author's name and the literary works cited. It’s frequently used in disciplines that prioritize literary analysis and critical thinking.

To confirm you're using the latest style guide, check the official website or publisher's site for updates, consult academic resources, and verify the guide's publication date. Online platforms and educational resources may also provide summaries and alerts about any revisions or additions to the style guide.

Citing sources

When working on your research paper, it's important to cite the sources you used properly. Your citation style will guide you through this process. Generally, there are three parts to citing sources in your research paper: 

First, provide a brief citation in the body of your essay. This is also known as a parenthetical or in-text citation. 

Second, include a full citation in the Reference list at the end of your paper. Different types of citations include in-text citations, footnotes, and reference lists. 

In-text citations include the author's surname and the date of the citation. 

Footnotes appear at the bottom of each page of your research paper. They may also be summarized within a reference list at the end of the paper. 

A reference list includes all of the research used within the paper at the end of the document. It should include the author, date, paper title, and publisher listed in the order that aligns with your citation style.

10 research paper writing tips:

Following some best practices is essential to writing a research paper that contributes to your field of study and creates a positive impact.

These tactics will help you structure your argument effectively and ensure your work benefits others:

Clear and precise language:  Ensure your language is unambiguous. Use academic language appropriately, but keep it simple. Also, provide clear takeaways for your audience.

Effective idea separation:  Organize the vast amount of information and sources in your paper with paragraphs and titles. Create easily digestible sections for your readers to navigate through.

Compelling intro:  Craft an engaging introduction that captures your reader's interest. Hook your audience and motivate them to continue reading.

Thorough revision and editing:  Take the time to review and edit your paper comprehensively. Use tools like Grammarly to detect and correct small, overlooked errors.

Thesis precision:  Develop a clear and concise thesis statement that guides your paper. Ensure that your thesis aligns with your research's overall purpose and contribution.

Logical flow of ideas:  Maintain a logical progression throughout the paper. Use transitions effectively to connect different sections and maintain coherence.

Critical evaluation of sources:  Evaluate and critically assess the relevance and reliability of your sources. Ensure that your research is based on credible and up-to-date information.

Thematic consistency:  Maintain a consistent theme throughout the paper. Ensure that all sections contribute cohesively to the overall argument.

Relevant supporting evidence:  Provide concise and relevant evidence to support your arguments. Avoid unnecessary details that may distract from the main points.

Embrace counterarguments:  Acknowledge and address opposing views to strengthen your position. Show that you have considered alternative arguments in your field.

7 research tips 

If you want your paper to not only be well-written but also contribute to the progress of human knowledge, consider these tips to take your paper to the next level:

Selecting the appropriate topic: The topic you select should align with your area of expertise, comply with the requirements of your project, and have sufficient resources for a comprehensive investigation.

Use academic databases: Academic databases such as PubMed, Google Scholar, and JSTOR offer a wealth of research papers that can help you discover everything you need to know about your chosen topic.

Critically evaluate sources: It is important not to accept research findings at face value. Instead, it is crucial to critically analyze the information to avoid jumping to conclusions or overlooking important details. A well-written research paper requires a critical analysis with thorough reasoning to support claims.

Diversify your sources: Expand your research horizons by exploring a variety of sources beyond the standard databases. Utilize books, conference proceedings, and interviews to gather diverse perspectives and enrich your understanding of the topic.

Take detailed notes: Detailed note-taking is crucial during research and can help you form the outline and body of your paper.

Stay up on trends: Keep abreast of the latest developments in your field by regularly checking for recent publications. Subscribe to newsletters, follow relevant journals, and attend conferences to stay informed about emerging trends and advancements. 

Engage in peer review: Seek feedback from peers or mentors to ensure the rigor and validity of your research. Peer review helps identify potential weaknesses in your methodology and strengthens the overall credibility of your findings.

• The real-world impact of research papers

Writing a research paper is more than an academic or business exercise. The experience provides an opportunity to explore a subject in-depth, broaden one's understanding, and arrive at meaningful conclusions. With careful planning, dedication, and hard work, writing a research paper can be a fulfilling and enriching experience contributing to advancing knowledge.

How do I publish my research paper? 

Many academics wish to publish their research papers. While challenging, your paper might get traction if it covers new and well-written information. To publish your research paper, find a target publication, thoroughly read their guidelines, format your paper accordingly, and send it to them per their instructions. You may need to include a cover letter, too. After submission, your paper may be peer-reviewed by experts to assess its legitimacy, quality, originality, and methodology. Following review, you will be informed by the publication whether they have accepted or rejected your paper. 

What is a good opening sentence for a research paper? 

Beginning your research paper with a compelling introduction can ensure readers are interested in going further. A relevant quote, a compelling statistic, or a bold argument can start the paper and hook your reader. Remember, though, that the most important aspect of a research paper is the quality of the information––not necessarily your ability to storytell, so ensure anything you write aligns with your goals.

Research paper vs. a research proposal—what’s the difference?

While some may confuse research papers and proposals, they are different documents. 

A research proposal comes before a research paper. It is a detailed document that outlines an intended area of exploration. It includes the research topic, methodology, timeline, sources, and potential conclusions. Research proposals are often required when seeking approval to conduct research. 

A research paper is a summary of research findings. A research paper follows a structured format to present those findings and construct an argument or conclusion.

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Research Analysis Paper: How to Analyze a Research Article [2024]

Do you need to write a research analysis paper but have no idea how to do that? Then you’re in the right place.

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While completing this type of assignment, your key aim is to critically analyze a research article. An article from a serious scientific journal would be a good choice. You can analyze and interpret either quantitative or qualitative research.

Below, you’ll find a how-to guide on research analysis paper writing prepared by our experts. It contains outlining and formatting tips, topics, and examples of research articles analysis.

• Scan the Paper
• Examine the Content
• Check the Format
• Critique & Evaluate
• ✅ Key Questions

🔗 References

🔎 how to analyze a research article.

This analysis will be beneficial for you since it develops your critical thinking and research skills. So, let us present the main steps that should be undertaken to read and evaluate the paper correctly.

Now, let’s figure out what an analysis paper should include. There are several essential elements the reader should identify:

• logical reasons for conducting the study;
• the description of the methodology applied in the research;
• concise and clear report of the findings;
• a logical conclusion based on the results.

You can use free paper samples for college students before you work with your own writing to get a feel of how the analyzing process goes.

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Step 1: Scan the Paper

First, briefly look through the found paper and evaluate whether it’s appropriate for your research. Scanning helps you to start the content analysis and get the general idea of the study.

To scan the paper effectively, follow these simple steps:

• Get familiar with the title, abstract , and introduction . Carefully read these parts and make sure you got the author’s point.
• Read the headings of each section and sub-section. But don’t spend time to get familiar with the content.
• Look through the conclusions. Check the overall one and the last sentence of each section.
• Scan the references. Have you read any of these sources before? Highlight them and decide whether they are appropriate for your research or not.

Have you completed these steps of your research paper’s critical analysis? Now, you should be able to answer these questions:

• What kind of a paper is it (qualitative research, quantitative research, a case study, etc.)?
• What is the research paper topic? How is it connected to your subject of study?
• Do you feel like the findings and the conclusions are valid?
• How can the source contribute to your study?
• Is the paper clear and well-written?

After completing this step, you should have a clear image of the text’s general idea. Also, here you can decide whether the given paper is worth further examination.

Step 2: Examine the Content

The next step leads to a deeper understanding of the topic. Here, again, you can try the following course of action to take the maximum benefit from the evaluation of the source.

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• Find the author’s thesis. A thesis statement is usually the last sentence of the introduction (or several sentences). It is an essential part of the paper since it reflects the author’s main point. Make sure you determined the thesis statement and understood it.
• Consider the author’s arguments. How does the author support his position? What are the key arguments they present in their research paper? Are they logical? Evaluate whether the points are clear and concise enough for any reader to get. Do they support the author’s thesis?
• Check the evidence. Try to find all the proof provided by the writer. A successful research paper should have valid evidence for every argument. These can be statistics, diagrams, facts taken from documentaries or books, experiments hold by researchers, etc.
• Determine the limits of the study. An author is supposed to set limits to avoid making their research too broad. Find out what are the variables the writer relied on while determining the exact field of study. Keep them in mind when you decide whether the paper accomplished its goals within limits.
• Establish the author’s perspective. What position does the author take? What methods are applied to prove the correctness of the writer’s point? Does it match with your opinion? Why/ why not?

Sometimes, even after the second step of evaluation, the writer’s perspective is not evident. What to do in this case? There are three scenarios:

• Stop investigating the paper and hope that you will not need it for your research.
• Read some background information on the given topic. Then, reread the paper. This might help you to comprehend the general idea.
• Don’t give up and move on to the next step of the evaluation.

Step 3: Check the Format and Presentation

At this stage, analyze the research paper format and the general presentation of the arguments and facts. Start with the evaluation of the sentence levels. In the research paper, there should be a hierarchy of sentences. To trace the research paper structure, take a look at the tips:

• First-level sentences. They include only general statements and present the ideas that will be explored further in the paper.
• Middle-level sentences. These sentences summarize, give a narrower idea, and present specific arguments.
• Deep-level sentences. They contain specific facts and evidence that correspond to the arguments stated in middle-level sentences.

Your research paper analysis should also include format evaluation. This task might be challenging unless you have the formatting style manual open in front of your eyes.

Figure out what citation style the author applied and check whether all the requirements are met. Here is a mini checklist you have to follow:

• in-text citations
• reference list
• font style and size, spacing
• abstract (if needed)
• appendix (if needed)

Step 4: Critique & Evaluate

This step requires attention to every detail in the paper. Identify each of the author’s assumptions and question them. Do you agree with the author’s evidence? How would you support the arguments? What are your opinions regarding the author’s ideas?

Get an originally-written paper according to your instructions!

For starters:

Try to re-implement the entire paper from your perspective and see how your version differs from the initial work. This trick will help you to determine the strong and weak sides of the work.

Then, move on to criticism. An effective way to evaluate a research paper consists of asking the right questions and assessing the crucial aspects, like:

• The author’s objective and whether it was reached. Did you get the author’s main idea? Did the writer reach their aim and explain the arguments in great detail? Remember that even if the reader is not majoring in the study field, they should understand the objective. Is there something that remained unclear for you? In your opinion, what is the cause of your inability to comprehend the material?
• The role in the broader context. Make sure the author’s arguments and evidence sound adequately in the larger context. Do the writer’s ideas contradict social norms. If so, why? Also, check the sources the author uses for their research. Make sure they are reliable and not outdated.
• Grammar and organization. A professional research paper should not contain any mistakes. Make sure the text is flawless regarding grammar and structure. The ideas have to follow the logical flow; the tone should be academic; the paper should include transitions, summaries should be on point (which is easier to achieve with the help of a paper summarizer ) and so on.
• What the reader learns. The primary aim of an author is to deliver useful information to the reader. Did you, as a reader, find some new insights? Were they relevant and valuable? Consider whether you’ve read something similar before and how the data fit within limits set by the author.

✅ Research Analysis Paper: Key Questions

As you can see, the task requires a lot of time and effort. That is why we’ve prepared a list of questions you should ask while analyzing a research paper. Use them as a ground for critical reading and evaluation.

Research Article Analysis Topics

• Research article analysis: Using Evidence-Based Practice to Prevent Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia .
• Critical analysis of Seligman’s research article on post-traumatic stress disorder.
• Analyze the article on the role of interprofessional communication in healthcare.
• Examine the articles on the controversy of stem cell research.
• Write a critical analysis of a research article on abortion .
• Discuss a research article on nursing and proactive care program.
• Analyze a quantitative research article on the efficiency of methods used in nursing education .
• Critical analysis of the research article on the role of environmental biology.
• Analysis of the articles about primary quantitative and qualitative research .
• Evaluate Goeders and Guerin’s research on the connection between stress and drug use.
• Study Angela F. Clark’s research article on the efficacy of a nursing education program.
• Analyze the research article by Park, Nisch, and Baptiste examining the connection between immigrants’ mental health and the length of stay in the United States.
• Discuss the scholarly articles researching the connection between obesity and depression.
• Analysis of nursing research article on level of education .
• Write a critical analysis of the scholarly article The Effect of Nurse Staffing on Patient Safety Outcomes .
• Examine a recent research article on spinal cord injuries.
• Analyze Ronald F. Wright’s research article examining the specifics of jury selection.
• Study the article by McConnell et al. on the impact of domestic animals on human well-being.
• Critical evaluation and analysis of the article on ethics and informed consent in research.
• Analysis of a research article on preventing hospital falls .
• Write an analysis of the research article studying the challenges of implementing research findings into practice in nursing.
• Examine the article on the thrombosis process by Bruce Furie and Barbara C. Furie.
• Analyze Mendenhall and Doherty’s research on a new diabetes management approach.
• Qualitative research article critique.
• Critical analysis of a research article on the effectiveness of drug round tabards .
• Discuss quantitative research about the barriers to electronic commerce implementation.
• Study the article Health Information Source Use by Jessica Gall Myrick and Michael Hendryx.
• Analyze a research article by Lengyel et al. That studies the amount of sugar in school breakfast .
• Write a critical analysis of the research studying the quality of pain management .
• Examine the research article The Mental Health of Indigenous Peoples in Canada by Sarah E Nelson and Kathi Wilson.
• Analysis of the article Development of a Proactive Care Program .
• Study the article on nursing REST: Break Through to Resilience by Rajamohan et al.
• Critically analyze the research article Quality Management in Healthcare: The Pivotal Desideratum .
• Examine and interpret the academic article In Defense of the Randomized Controlled Trial by Rosen et al.
• Write an analysis of a research article Cardiovascular Changes Resulting from Sexual Activity by Bispo, De Lima Lopes, and De Barros.
• Study the topicality and consistency of Dillner’s article Obstetrician Suspended After Research Inquiry .
• Critical analysis of research article on nosocomial pneumonia .
• Discuss the methods used by Johanna Brenner in her research on intersections and class relations.
• Analyze the research article by Ansari et al. examining the connection between type 2 diabetes and environmental factors.
• Analysis of research article Nurses’ Perceptions of Research Utilization in a Corporate Health Care System .
• Examine the importance of the research Effectiveness of Hand Hygiene Interventions in Reducing Illness Absence .
• Analyze and interpret the article on the toolkit for postgraduate research supervisors by E. Blass & S. Bertone.
• Discuss the utility and credibility of K. Than’s article A Brief History of Twin Studies .
• Write a critical analysis of the article researching the current US gun policy and its effect on the rates of gun violence cases.
• Analysis of articles on evidence-based prevention of surgical site infections.
• Examine the research article Nurses’ Knowledge about Palliative Care by Etafa et al.
• Analyze the research conducted by Sandelowski et al. on the stigmatization of HIV-positive women .
• Discuss the theoretical framework and methodology of a research article on psychological studies .
• Analysis of a research article about sports and creatine .
• Study the presentation of research findings in the scholarly article Leadership Characteristics and Digital Transformation .

Congrats! Now you know how to write a research paper analysis. You are welcome to check out our writing tips available on the website and save a ton of time on your academic papers. Share the link with your peers who may need our advice as well.

• An Introduction to Critical Analysis of Publications in Experimental Biomedical Science, the Research Paper in Basic Medical Sciences: K. Rangachari, modified by D.J. Crankshaw, McMaster University Honours Biology & Pharmacology Program
• Critical Analysis Template: Keiran Rankin and Sara Wolfe, the Writing Centre, Thompson Rivers University
• How to Read a Paper: S. Keshav, David R. Cheriton, School of Computer Science, the University of Waterloo
• How to Read a Research Paper: School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University
• Reading Research Effectively, Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper: Research Guides at the University of Southern California
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I would be grateful if you kindly upload a sample of research papers analysis in order to make the points mentioned tangible.

Dear Mustafa, There might be one available on our free essays page – you are welcome to check it out and find out more about the available sample papers that we have! Have a great day!

P.S. Link to the free essays database

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Analytical Essay Guide

Analytical Essay Outline

Analytical Essay Outline - An Easy Guide

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Analytical Essay Guide with Examples & Tips

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15 Analytical Essay Samples to Learn From - Tips Included

Are you feeling lost when it comes to writing an analytical essay and don't know how to structure the data? 

Many students find it challenging to craft well-structured, insightful analysis essays. The process can seem daunting, from dissecting a text or concept to effectively organizing your thoughts. 

Don't worry; we've got your back! 

In our blog, we've put together some easy-to-follow templates and examples that will help you make a perfect analytical essay outline. No more staring at a blank page! With our tips and examples, you'll have a clear roadmap for your essay. 

So, let's dive in!

• 1. Analytical Essay Overview
• 2. How To Write An Analytical Essay Outline?
• 3. Analytical Essay Format
• 4. Analytical Essay Example
• 5. Tips to Structure an Analytical Essay

Analytical Essay Overview

An analytical essay is a type of academic writing that examines a topic, idea, or piece of literature in-depth. It involves breaking down the subject into its components, analyzing them, and presenting a well-structured argument or interpretation. 

The goal of an analytical essay is to explore the "how" and "why" of the subject rather than just describing it. Unlike an argumentative essay , an analytical does not include persuasion of the writer’s claim. It often requires evidence, critical thinking, and careful evaluation to support your thesis and provide insights. 

This essay type is commonly assigned in literature, history, and other academic disciplines to assess your ability to think critically and articulate your ideas clearly.

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How To Write An Analytical Essay Outline?

Like every other academic writing, an analytical essay requires an organized structure for its content to be readable and understandable. In order to shape all the raw information, an outline is drafted.

An analytical essay outline is similar to the traditional  essay outline  of five paragraphs. According to this five-paragraph format, the essay is divided into the following sections:

• Introduction
• Body Paragraph 1
• Body Paragraph 2
• Body paragraph 3
• Conclusion 

The researched information about the specific topic needs to be organized. This is to make sure that the content is clear and effective for the readers. 

Read on to get a better idea of each section.

Analytical Essay Introduction

The importance and significance of the introduction of an essay can not be denied. An analytical essay introduction is the first section of the essay. In this part, the topic and author are introduced to the readers. 

The purpose of writing an  essay introduction  is to attract the readers to the topic. Also, motivate them to read the essay. The introduction lays the whole groundwork for your essay. So the more substantial the introduction, the more effective the paper is going to be.

The analytical essay introduction is based on two main elements:

• Thesis statement 

Just as the name suggests, a writer uses a hook statement to “hook” the audience to read further. A hook statement is an opening sentence of the introductory paragraph. It is a very important sentence as it grabs the reader’s attention towards the topic and the essay. 

A hook can be a sentence of any type. It can be humorous as well as factual. Depending on the essay topic, a writer can choose any form of an opening sentence. However, it goes with the theme and the topic of the essay. 

For example,

Looking for more hook statements? Read our “ hook examples ” blog and get hundreds of hook examples to get inspired!

Thesis Statement

Following the hook comes the most critical element of an essay - the thesis statement. A thesis statement is the writer’s stance or argument on the chosen work. This is where the writer states and highlights the main argument of the essay topic. 

The thesis statement can be written by keeping in mind the original text’s goal and the writer’s analysis. 

When using a 5 paragraph format, a writer must provide a short supporting statement with the thesis statement. It is to show that the writer is going to back up the thesis. 

Analytical Essay Body Paragraphs

The body paragraphs of an essay support your claim by providing shreds of evidence. All the gathered and relevant information that justifies the argument is presented in this section.

The body section of an analytical essay should be divided into different paragraphs. The writer should discuss each point in a specific paragraph. It will make your essay logical and readable for the audience.

All of the paragraphs in the body section have four components to be covered:

• Topic Sentence -  A  topic sentence  is an opening sentence of a paragraph. This sentence is the claim or the important point that proves the thesis statement. Begin each of your paragraphs with a topic sentence. 
• Supporting Material -  The supporting material will back the claim and will provide detailed, researched information for your thesis statement. After writing a topic sentence, give evidence to prove it correct.
• Connection -  In order to tie your claim and evidence together, use a piece to follow the evidence. When using a quote or a phrase, make sure that you have stated its purpose or importance first.
• Transition -  After you have proved your claim, it is time to move on to the next paragraph or the claim. All the paragraphs in your essay must be connected and maintain a logical flow.

Each paragraph should be transitioned to make logical content. This transition will act as a bridge and will connect the previous paragraph with the next paragraph.

Analytical Essay Conclusion

The  essay conclusion  is the last section where all the discussion comes to an end. Here the writer restates the thesis statement and provides a short summary of the major points in the content. It will prove that the main argument is justified using the evidence for the readers.

For example, 

Analytical Essay Format

When it comes to formatting your analytical essay, adhering to specific guidelines is essential to ensure a professional presentation and clarity for your readers. Here are some key formatting guidelines to follow:

• Page Setup: Use standard letter-sized (8.5" x 11") paper with 1-inch margins on all sides.
• Font: Select a legible font, such as Times New Roman or Arial, and maintain consistency throughout the document.
• Font Size: Use a 12-point font size for the main text to ensure readability.
• Spacing: Double-space the entire essay, including the title, headings, and references.
• Title Page: Include a title page with the essay title, your name, course, instructor's name, and date. This information is typically centered and formatted according to your institution's guidelines.

By adhering to these formatting guidelines, you'll present your work professionally, making it easier for readers to engage with your analysis.

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Analytical Essay Example

An analytical essay is a little different than other types of essay . Therefore, to write a good analytical essay, students require essay examples to know what to produce and how to produce it. 

We have gathered some free analytical essay outline samples for you to take assistance for your next assignment. 

Analytical Essay Structure Sample

Critical Analytical Essay Outline Template

Literary Analytical Essay Outline

Macbeth Analytical Essay

Analytical Essay Outline Worksheet

Need more analytical essay samples? Check out our “ analytical essay examples ” blog and get more ideas!

Tips to Structure an Analytical Essay

Here are some essential tips to help you create a well-organized and effective analytical essay:

• Choose a Clear Analytical Essay Topic: Select a specific topic or idea to analyze. Make sure it's something you can dissect and discuss thoroughly. If you are looking for ideas read our blog on analytical essay topics to get inspiration.
• Begin with an Analytical Essay Outline: Start with a clear outline to organize your thoughts. Use an analytical essay outline example or sample as a template.
• Introduction with a Strong Thesis: Your introduction should introduce the topic and contain a strong thesis statement that lays out your argument.
• Body Paragraphs for Evidence: Dedicate individual paragraphs to supporting evidence and arguments. Use the analytical essay structure to create a logical flow.
• Cite Sources Properly: If you're using references, ensure you follow the analytical essay format and cite sources correctly.
• Analyze and Interpret: Dive deep into your analysis, providing insights and interpretations.
• Conclusion with Restated Thesis: Summarize your main points and restate the thesis in the conclusion.
• Edit and Proofread: Review and edit your essay for clarity and coherence.

By following these tips and employing an analytical argument essay outline, you'll structure your essay for maximum impact.

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Research Paper Analysis: How to Analyze a Research Article + Example

Why might you need to analyze research? First of all, when you analyze a research article, you begin to understand your assigned reading better. It is also the first step toward learning how to write your own research articles and literature reviews. However, if you have never written a research paper before, it may be difficult for you to analyze one. After all, you may not know what criteria to use to evaluate it. But don’t panic! We will help you figure it out!

In this article, our team has explained how to analyze research papers quickly and effectively. At the end, you will also find a research analysis paper example to see how everything works in practice.

• 🔤 Research Analysis Definition

📊 How to Analyze a Research Article

✍️ how to write a research analysis.

• 📝 Analysis Example
• 🔎 More Examples

🔗 References

🔤 research paper analysis: what is it.

A research paper analysis is an academic writing assignment in which you analyze a scholarly article’s methodology, data, and findings. In essence, “to analyze” means to break something down into components and assess each of them individually and in relation to each other. The goal of an analysis is to gain a deeper understanding of a subject. So, when you analyze a research article, you dissect it into elements like data sources , research methods, and results and evaluate how they contribute to the study’s strengths and weaknesses.

📋 Research Analysis Format

A research analysis paper has a pretty straightforward structure. Check it out below!

Research articles usually include the following sections: introduction, methods, results, and discussion. In the following paragraphs, we will discuss how to analyze a scientific article with a focus on each of its parts.

How to Analyze a Research Paper: Purpose

The purpose of the study is usually outlined in the introductory section of the article. Analyzing the research paper’s objectives is critical to establish the context for the rest of your analysis.

When analyzing the research aim, you should evaluate whether it was justified for the researchers to conduct the study. In other words, you should assess whether their research question was significant and whether it arose from existing literature on the topic.

Here are some questions that may help you analyze a research paper’s purpose:

• Why was the research carried out?
• What gaps does it try to fill, or what controversies to settle?
• How does the study contribute to its field?
• Do you agree with the author’s justification for approaching this particular question in this way?

How to Analyze a Paper: Methods

When analyzing the methodology section , you should indicate the study’s research design (qualitative, quantitative, or mixed) and methods used (for example, experiment, case study, correlational research, survey, etc.). After that, you should assess whether these methods suit the research purpose. In other words, do the chosen methods allow scholars to answer their research questions within the scope of their study?

For example, if scholars wanted to study US students’ average satisfaction with their higher education experience, they could conduct a quantitative survey . However, if they wanted to gain an in-depth understanding of the factors influencing US students’ satisfaction with higher education, qualitative interviews would be more appropriate.

When analyzing methods, you should also look at the research sample . Did the scholars use randomization to select study participants? Was the sample big enough for the results to be generalizable to a larger population?

You can also answer the following questions in your methodology analysis:

• Is the methodology valid? In other words, did the researchers use methods that accurately measure the variables of interest?
• Is the research methodology reliable? A research method is reliable if it can produce stable and consistent results under the same circumstances.
• Is the study biased in any way?
• What are the limitations of the chosen methodology?

How to Analyze Research Articles’ Results

You should start the analysis of the article results by carefully reading the tables, figures, and text. Check whether the findings correspond to the initial research purpose. See whether the results answered the author’s research questions or supported the hypotheses stated in the introduction.

To analyze the results section effectively, answer the following questions:

• What are the major findings of the study?
• Did the author present the results clearly and unambiguously?
• Are the findings statistically significant ?
• Does the author provide sufficient information on the validity and reliability of the results?
• Have you noticed any trends or patterns in the data that the author did not mention?

How to Analyze Research: Discussion

Finally, you should analyze the authors’ interpretation of results and its connection with research objectives. Examine what conclusions the authors drew from their study and whether these conclusions answer the original question.

You should also pay attention to how the authors used findings to support their conclusions. For example, you can reflect on why their findings support that particular inference and not another one. Moreover, more than one conclusion can sometimes be made based on the same set of results. If that’s the case with your article, you should analyze whether the authors addressed other interpretations of their findings .

Here are some useful questions you can use to analyze the discussion section:

• What findings did the authors use to support their conclusions?
• How do the researchers’ conclusions compare to other studies’ findings?
• How does this study contribute to its field?
• What future research directions do the authors suggest?
• What additional insights can you share regarding this article? For example, do you agree with the results? What other questions could the researchers have answered?

Now, you know how to analyze an article that presents research findings. However, it’s just a part of the work you have to do to complete your paper. So, it’s time to learn how to write research analysis! Check out the steps below!

1. Introduce the Article

As with most academic assignments, you should start your research article analysis with an introduction. Here’s what it should include:

• The article’s publication details . Specify the title of the scholarly work you are analyzing, its authors, and publication date. Remember to enclose the article’s title in quotation marks and write it in title case .
• The article’s main point . State what the paper is about. What did the authors study, and what was their major finding?
• Your thesis statement . End your introduction with a strong claim summarizing your evaluation of the article. Consider briefly outlining the research paper’s strengths, weaknesses, and significance in your thesis.

Keep your introduction brief. Save the word count for the “meat” of your paper — that is, for the analysis.

2. Summarize the Article

Now, you should write a brief and focused summary of the scientific article. It should be shorter than your analysis section and contain all the relevant details about the research paper.

Here’s what you should include in your summary:

• The research purpose . Briefly explain why the research was done. Identify the authors’ purpose and research questions or hypotheses .
• Methods and results . Summarize what happened in the study. State only facts, without the authors’ interpretations of them. Avoid using too many numbers and details; instead, include only the information that will help readers understand what happened.
• The authors’ conclusions . Outline what conclusions the researchers made from their study. In other words, describe how the authors explained the meaning of their findings.

If you need help summarizing an article, you can use our free summary generator .

3. Write Your Research Analysis

The analysis of the study is the most crucial part of this assignment type. Its key goal is to evaluate the article critically and demonstrate your understanding of it.

We’ve already covered how to analyze a research article in the section above. Here’s a quick recap:

• Analyze whether the study’s purpose is significant and relevant.
• Examine whether the chosen methodology allows for answering the research questions.
• Evaluate how the authors presented the results.
• Assess whether the authors’ conclusions are grounded in findings and answer the original research questions.

Although you should analyze the article critically, it doesn’t mean you only should criticize it. If the authors did a good job designing and conducting their study, be sure to explain why you think their work is well done. Also, it is a great idea to provide examples from the article to support your analysis.

4. Conclude Your Analysis of Research Paper

A conclusion is your chance to reflect on the study’s relevance and importance. Explain how the analyzed paper can contribute to the existing knowledge or lead to future research. Also, you need to summarize your thoughts on the article as a whole. Avoid making value judgments — saying that the paper is “good” or “bad.” Instead, use more descriptive words and phrases such as “This paper effectively showed…”

Need help writing a compelling conclusion? Try our free essay conclusion generator !

5. Revise and Proofread

Last but not least, you should carefully proofread your paper to find any punctuation, grammar, and spelling mistakes. Start by reading your work out loud to ensure that your sentences fit together and sound cohesive. Also, it can be helpful to ask your professor or peer to read your work and highlight possible weaknesses or typos.

📝 Research Paper Analysis Example

We have prepared an analysis of a research paper example to show how everything works in practice.

No Homework Policy: Research Article Analysis Example

This paper aims to analyze the research article entitled “No Assignment: A Boon or a Bane?” by Cordova, Pagtulon-an, and Tan (2019). This study examined the effects of having and not having assignments on weekends on high school students’ performance and transmuted mean scores. This article effectively shows the value of homework for students, but larger studies are needed to support its findings.

Cordova et al. (2019) conducted a descriptive quantitative study using a sample of 115 Grade 11 students of the Central Mindanao University Laboratory High School in the Philippines. The sample was divided into two groups: the first received homework on weekends, while the second didn’t. The researchers compared students’ performance records made by teachers and found that students who received assignments performed better than their counterparts without homework.

The purpose of this study is highly relevant and justified as this research was conducted in response to the debates about the “No Homework Policy” in the Philippines. Although the descriptive research design used by the authors allows to answer the research question, the study could benefit from an experimental design. This way, the authors would have firm control over variables. Additionally, the study’s sample size was not large enough for the findings to be generalized to a larger population.

The study results are presented clearly, logically, and comprehensively and correspond to the research objectives. The researchers found that students’ mean grades decreased in the group without homework and increased in the group with homework. Based on these findings, the authors concluded that homework positively affected students’ performance. This conclusion is logical and grounded in data.

This research effectively showed the importance of homework for students’ performance. Yet, since the sample size was relatively small, larger studies are needed to ensure the authors’ conclusions can be generalized to a larger population.

🔎 More Research Analysis Paper Examples

Do you want another research analysis example? Check out the best analysis research paper samples below:

• Gracious Leadership Principles for Nurses: Article Analysis
• Effective Mental Health Interventions: Analysis of an Article
• Nursing Turnover: Article Analysis
• Nursing Practice Issue: Qualitative Research Article Analysis
• Quantitative Article Critique in Nursing
• LIVE Program: Quantitative Article Critique
• Evidence-Based Practice Beliefs and Implementation: Article Critique
• “Differential Effectiveness of Placebo Treatments”: Research Paper Analysis
• “Family-Based Childhood Obesity Prevention Interventions”: Analysis Research Paper Example
• “Childhood Obesity Risk in Overweight Mothers”: Article Analysis
• “Fostering Early Breast Cancer Detection” Article Analysis
• Lesson Planning for Diversity: Analysis of an Article
• Journal Article Review: Correlates of Physical Violence at School
• Space and the Atom: Article Analysis
• “Democracy and Collective Identity in the EU and the USA”: Article Analysis
• China’s Hegemonic Prospects: Article Review
• Article Analysis: Fear of Missing Out
• Article Analysis: “Perceptions of ADHD Among Diagnosed Children and Their Parents”
• Codependence, Narcissism, and Childhood Trauma: Analysis of the Article
• Relationship Between Work Intensity, Workaholism, Burnout, and MSC: Article Review

We hope that our article on research paper analysis has been helpful. If you liked it, please share this article with your friends!

• Analyzing Research Articles: A Guide for Readers and Writers | Sam Mathews
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How to Write a Research Paper

Undergrads often write research papers each semester, causing stress. Yet, it’s simpler than believing if you know how to write a research paper . Divide the task, get tips, a plan, and tools for an outstanding paper. Simplify research, writing, topic choice, and illustration use!

A research paper is an academic document that involves deep, independent research to offer analysis, interpretation, and argument. Unlike academic essays, research papers are lengthier and more detailed, aiming to evaluate your writing and scholarly research abilities. To write one, you must showcase expertise in your subject, interact with diverse sources, and provide a unique perspective to the discussion. 

Research papers are a foundational element of contemporary science and the most efficient means of disseminating knowledge throughout a broad network. Nonetheless, individuals usually encounter research papers during their education; they are frequently employed in college courses to assess a student’s grasp of a specific field or their aptitude for research. 

Given their significance, research papers adopt a research paper format – a formal, unadorned style that eliminates any subjective influence from the writing. Scientists present their discoveries straightforwardly, accompanied by relevant supporting proof, enabling other researchers to integrate the paper into their investigations.

This guide leads you through every steps to write a research paper , from grasping your task to refining your ultimate draft and will teach you how to write a research paper.

Understanding The Research Paper

A research paper is a meticulously structured document that showcases the outcomes of an inquiry, exploration, or scrutiny undertaken on a specific subject. It embodies a formal piece of academic prose that adds novel information, perspectives, or interpretations to a particular domain of study. Typically authored by scholars, researchers, scientists, or students as part of their academic or professional pursuits, these papers adhere to a well-defined format. This research paper format encompasses an introduction, literature review, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion. 

The introduction provides context and outlines the study’s significance, while the literature review encapsulates existing research and situates the study within the broader academic discourse. The methodology section elucidates the research process, encompassing data collection and analysis techniques. Findings are presented in the results section, often complemented by graphical and statistical representations. Interpretation of findings, implications, and connection to existing knowledge transpire in the discussion section. 

Ultimately, the conclusion encapsulates pivotal discoveries and their wider import.

Research papers wield immense significance in advancing knowledge across diverse disciplines, enabling researchers to disseminate findings, theories, and revelations to a broader audience. Before publication in academic journals or presentations at conferences, these papers undergo a stringent peer review process conducted by domain experts, ensuring their integrity, precision, and worth.

Academic and non-academic research papers diverge across several dimensions. Academic papers are crafted for scholarly circles to expand domain knowledge and theories. They maintain a formal, objective tone and heavily rely on peer-reviewed sources for credibility. In contrast, non-academic papers, employing a more flexible writing style, target a broader audience or specific practical goals. These papers might incorporate persuasive language, anecdotes, and various sources beyond academia. While academic papers rigorously adhere to structured formats and established citation styles, non-academic papers prioritize practicality, adapting their structure and citation methods to suit the intended readership.

The purpose of a research paper revolves around offering fresh insights, knowledge, or interpretations within a specific field. This formal document serves as a conduit for scholars, researchers, scientists, and students to communicate their investigative findings and actively contribute to the ongoing academic discourse.

Research Paper Writing Process – How To Write a Good Research Paper

Selecting a suitable research topic .

Your initial task is to thoroughly review the assignment and carefully absorb the writing prompt’s details. Pay particular attention to technical specifications like length, formatting prerequisites (such as single- vs. double-spacing, indentation, etc.), and the required citation style. Also, pay attention to specifics, including an abstract or a cover page.

Once you’ve a clear understanding of the assignment, the subsequent steps to write a research paper are aligned with the conventional writing process. However, remember that research papers have rules, adding some extra considerations to the process.

When given some assignment freedom, the crucial task of choosing a topic rests on you. Despite its apparent simplicity, this choice sets the foundation for your entire research paper, shaping its direction. The primary factor in picking a research paper topic is ensuring it has enough material to support it. Your chosen topic should provide ample data and complexity for a thorough discussion. However, it’s important to avoid overly broad subjects and focus on specific ones that cover all relevant information without gaps. Yet, approach topic selection more slowly; choosing something that genuinely interests you is still valuable. Aim for a topic that meets both criteria—delivering substantial content while maintaining engagement.

Conducting Thorough Research 

Commence by delving into your research early to refine your topic and shape your thesis statement. Swift engagement with available research aids in dispelling misconceptions and unveils optimal paths and strategies to gather more material. Typically, research sources can be located either online or within libraries. When navigating online sources, exercise caution and opt for reputable outlets such as scientific journals or academic papers. Specific search engines, outlined below in the Tools and Resources section, exclusively enable exploring accredited sources and academic databases.

While pursuing information, it’s essential to differentiate between primary and secondary sources. Primary sources entail firsthand accounts, encompassing published articles or autobiographies, while secondary sources, such as critical reviews or secondary biographies, are more distanced. Skimming sources instead of reading each part proves more efficient during the research phase. If a source shows promise, set it aside for more in-depth reading later. Doing so prevents you from investing excessive time in sources that won’t contribute substantively to your work. You should present a literature review detailing your references and submit them for validation in certain instances. 

Organizing And Structuring The Research Paper

According to the research paper format , an outline for a research paper is a catalogue of essential topics, arguments, and evidence you intend to incorporate. These elements are divided into sections with headings, offering a preliminary overview of the paper’s structure before commencing the writing process. Formulating a structural outline can significantly enhance writing efficiency, warranting an investment of time to establish one.

Start by generating a list encompassing crucial categories and subtopics—a preliminary outline. Reflect on the amassed information while gathering supporting evidence, pondering the most effective means of segregation and categorization.

Once a discussion list is compiled, deliberate on the optimal information presentation sequence and identify related subtopics that should be placed adjacent. Consider if any subtopic loses coherence when presented out of order. Adopting a chronological arrangement can be suitable if the information follows a straightforward trajectory.

Given the potential complexity of research papers, consider breaking down the outline into paragraphs. This aids in maintaining organization when dealing with copious information and provides better control over the paper’s progression. Rectifying structural issues during the outline phase is preferable to addressing them after writing.

Remember to incorporate supporting evidence within the outline. Since there’s likely a substantial amount to include, outlining helps prevent overlooking crucial elements.

Writing The Introduction

According to the research paper format , the introduction of a research paper must address three fundamental inquiries: What, why, and how? Upon completing the introduction, the reader should clearly understand the paper’s subject matter, its relevance, and the approach you’ll use to construct your arguments.

What? Offer precise details regarding the paper’s topic, provide context, and elucidate essential terminology or concepts.

Why? This constitutes the most crucial yet challenging aspect of the introduction. Endeavour to furnish concise responses to the subsequent queries: What novel information or insights do you present? Which significant matters does your essay assist in defining or resolving?

How? To provide the reader with a preview of the paper’s forthcoming content, the introduction should incorporate a “guide” outlining the upcoming discussions. This entails briefly outlining the paper’s principal components in chronological sequence.

Developing The Main Body 

One of the primary challenges that many writers grapple with is effectively organizing the wealth of information they wish to present in their papers. This is precisely why an outline can be an invaluable tool. However, it’s essential to recognize that while an outline provides a roadmap, the writing process allows flexibility in determining the order in which information and arguments are introduced.

Maintaining cohesiveness throughout the paper involves anchoring your writing to the thesis statement and topic sentences. Here’s how to ensure a well-structured paper:

• Alignment with Thesis Statement: Regularly assess whether your topic sentences correspond with the central thesis statement. This ensures that your arguments remain on track and directly contribute to the overarching message you intend to convey.
• Consistency and Logical Flow: Review your topic sentences concerning one another. Do they follow a logical order that guides the reader through a coherent narrative? Ensuring a seamless flow from one topic to another helps maintain engagement and comprehension.
• Supporting Sentence Alignment: Each sentence within a paragraph should align with the topic sentence of that paragraph. This alignment reinforces the central idea, preventing tangential or disjointed discussions.

Additionally, identify paragraphs that cover similar content. While some overlap might be inevitable, it’s essential to approach shared topics from different angles, offering fresh insights and perspectives. Creating these nuanced differences helps present a well-rounded exploration of the subject matter.

An often-overlooked aspect of effective organization is the art of crafting smooth transitions. Transitions between sentences, paragraphs, and larger sections are the glue that holds your paper together. They guide the reader through the progression of ideas, enhancing clarity and creating a seamless reading experience.

Ultimately, while the struggle to organize information is accurate, employing these strategies not only aids in addressing the challenge but also contributes to the overall quality and impact of your writing.

Crafting A Strong Conclusion 

The purpose of the research paper’s conclusion is to guide your reader out of the realm of the paper’s argument, leaving them with a sense of closure.

Trace the paper’s trajectory, underscoring how all the elements converge to validate your thesis statement. Impart a sense of completion by ensuring the reader comprehends the resolution of the issues introduced in the paper’s introduction.

In addition, you can explore the broader implications of your argument, outline your paper’s contributions to future students studying the subject, and propose questions that your argument raises—ones that might not be addressed in the paper itself. However, it’s important to avoid:

• Introducing new arguments or crucial information that wasn’t covered earlier.
• Extending the conclusion unnecessarily.
• Employing common phrases that signal the decision (e.g., “In conclusion”).

By adhering to these guidelines, your conclusion can serve as a fitting and impactful conclusion to your research paper, leaving a lasting impression on your readers.

Refining The Research Paper

• Editing And Proofreading 

Eliminate unnecessary verbiage and extraneous content. In tandem with the comprehensive structure of your paper, focus on individual words, ensuring your language is robust. Verify the utilization of active voice rather than passive voice, and confirm that your word selection is precise and tangible.

The passive voice, exemplified by phrases like “I opened the door,” tends to convey hesitation and verbosity. In contrast, the active voice, as in “I opened the door,” imparts strength and brevity.

Each word employed in your paper should serve a distinct purpose. Strive to eschew the inclusion of surplus words solely to occupy space or exhibit sophistication.

For instance, the statement “The author uses pathos to appeal to readers’ emotions” is superior to the alternative “The author utilizes pathos to appeal to the emotional core of those who read the passage.”

Engage in thorough proofreading to rectify spelling, grammatical, and formatting inconsistencies. Once you’ve refined the structure and content of your paper, address any typographical and grammatical inaccuracies. Taking a break from your paper before proofreading can offer a new perspective.

Enhance error detection by reading your essay aloud. This not only aids in identifying mistakes but also assists in evaluating the flow. If you encounter sections that seem awkward during this reading, consider making necessary adjustments to enhance the overall coherence.

• Formatting And Referencing 

Citations are pivotal in distinguishing research papers from informal nonfiction pieces like personal essays. They serve the dual purpose of substantiating your data and establishing a connection between your research paper and the broader scientific community. Given their significance, citations are subject to precise formatting regulations; however, the challenge lies in the existence of multiple sets of rules.

It’s crucial to consult the assignment’s instructions to determine the required formatting style. Generally, academic research papers adhere to either of two formatting styles for source citations:

• MLA (Modern Language Association)
• APA (American Psychological Association)

Moreover, aside from MLA and APA styles, occasional demands might call for adherence to CMOS (The Chicago Manual of Style), AMA (American Medical Association), and IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) formats.

Initially, citations might appear intricate due to their numerous regulations and specific details. However, once you become adept at them, citing sources accurately becomes almost second nature. It’s important to note that each formatting style provides detailed guidelines for citing various sources, including photographs, websites, speeches, and YouTube videos.

Tips For Writing An Effective Research Paper 

By following these research paper writing tips , you’ll be well-equipped to create a well-structured, well-researched, and impactful research paper:

• Select a Clear and Manageable Topic: Choose a topic that is specific and focused enough to be thoroughly explored within the scope of your paper.
• Conduct In-Depth Research: Gather information from reputable sources such as academic journals, books, and credible websites. Take thorough notes to keep track of your sources.
• Create a Strong Thesis Statement: Craft a clear and concise thesis statement that outlines the main argument or purpose of your paper.
• Develop a Well-Structured Outline: Organize your ideas into a logical order by creating an outline that outlines the main sections and their supporting points.
• Compose a Captivating Introduction: Hook the reader with an engaging introduction that provides background information and introduces the thesis statement.
• Provide Clear and Relevant Evidence: Support your arguments with reliable and relevant evidence, such as statistics, examples, and expert opinions.
• Maintain Consistent Tone and Style: Keep a consistent tone and writing style throughout the paper, adhering to the formatting guidelines of your chosen citation style.
• Craft Coherent Paragraphs: Each paragraph should focus on a single idea or point, and transitions should smoothly guide the reader from one idea to the next.
• Use Active Voice: Write in the active voice to make your writing more direct and engaging.
• Revise and Edit Thoroughly: Proofread your paper for grammatical errors, spelling mistakes, and sentence structure. Revise for clarity and coherence.
• Seek Peer Feedback: Have a peer or instructor review your paper for feedback and suggestions.
• Cite Sources Properly: Accurately cite all sources using the required citation style (e.g., MLA, APA) to avoid plagiarism and give credit to original authors.
• Be Concise and Avoid Redundancy: Strive for clarity by eliminating unnecessary words and redundancies.
• Conclude Effectively: Summarize your main points and restate your thesis in the conclusion. Provide a sense of closure without introducing new ideas.
• Stay Organized: Keep track of your sources, notes, and drafts to ensure a structured and organized approach to the writing process.
• Proofread with Fresh Eyes: Take a break before final proofreading to review your paper with a fresh perspective, helping you catch any overlooked errors.
• Edit for Clarity: Ensure that your ideas are conveyed clearly and that your arguments are easy to follow.
• Ask for Feedback: Don’t hesitate to ask for feedback from peers, instructors, or writing centers to improve your paper further.

In conclusion, we’ve explored the essential steps to write a research paper . From selecting a focused topic to mastering the intricacies of citations, we’ve navigated through the key elements of this process.

It’s vital to recognize that adhering to the research paper writing tips is not merely a suggestion, but a roadmap to success. Each stage contributes to the overall quality and impact of your paper. By meticulously following these steps, you ensure a robust foundation for your research, bolster your arguments, and present your findings with clarity and conviction.

As you embark on your own research paper journey, I urge you to put into practice the techniques and insights shared in this guide. Don’t shy away from investing time in organization, thorough research, and precise writing. Embrace the challenge, for it’s through this process that your ideas take shape and your voice is heard within the academic discourse.

Remember, every exceptional research paper begins with a single step. And with each step you take, your ability to articulate complex ideas and contribute to your field of study grows. So, go ahead – apply these tips, refine your skills, and witness your research papers evolve into compelling narratives that inspire, inform, and captivate.

In the grand tapestry of academia, your research paper becomes a thread of insight, woven into the larger narrative of human knowledge. By embracing the writing process and nurturing your unique perspective, you become an integral part of this ever-expanding tapestry.

Happy writing, and may your research papers shine brightly, leaving a lasting mark on both your readers and the world of scholarship.

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• How to write a rhetorical analysis | Key concepts & examples

How to Write a Rhetorical Analysis | Key Concepts & Examples

Published on August 28, 2020 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on July 23, 2023.

A rhetorical analysis is a type of essay  that looks at a text in terms of rhetoric. This means it is less concerned with what the author is saying than with how they say it: their goals, techniques, and appeals to the audience.

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Table of contents

Key concepts in rhetoric, analyzing the text, introducing your rhetorical analysis, the body: doing the analysis, concluding a rhetorical analysis, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about rhetorical analysis.

Rhetoric, the art of effective speaking and writing, is a subject that trains you to look at texts, arguments and speeches in terms of how they are designed to persuade the audience. This section introduces a few of the key concepts of this field.

Appeals: Logos, ethos, pathos

Appeals are how the author convinces their audience. Three central appeals are discussed in rhetoric, established by the philosopher Aristotle and sometimes called the rhetorical triangle: logos, ethos, and pathos.

Logos , or the logical appeal, refers to the use of reasoned argument to persuade. This is the dominant approach in academic writing , where arguments are built up using reasoning and evidence.

Ethos , or the ethical appeal, involves the author presenting themselves as an authority on their subject. For example, someone making a moral argument might highlight their own morally admirable behavior; someone speaking about a technical subject might present themselves as an expert by mentioning their qualifications.

Pathos , or the pathetic appeal, evokes the audience’s emotions. This might involve speaking in a passionate way, employing vivid imagery, or trying to provoke anger, sympathy, or any other emotional response in the audience.

These three appeals are all treated as integral parts of rhetoric, and a given author may combine all three of them to convince their audience.

Text and context

In rhetoric, a text is not necessarily a piece of writing (though it may be this). A text is whatever piece of communication you are analyzing. This could be, for example, a speech, an advertisement, or a satirical image.

In these cases, your analysis would focus on more than just language—you might look at visual or sonic elements of the text too.

The context is everything surrounding the text: Who is the author (or speaker, designer, etc.)? Who is their (intended or actual) audience? When and where was the text produced, and for what purpose?

Looking at the context can help to inform your rhetorical analysis. For example, Martin Luther King, Jr.’s “I Have a Dream” speech has universal power, but the context of the civil rights movement is an important part of understanding why.

Claims, supports, and warrants

A piece of rhetoric is always making some sort of argument, whether it’s a very clearly defined and logical one (e.g. in a philosophy essay) or one that the reader has to infer (e.g. in a satirical article). These arguments are built up with claims, supports, and warrants.

A claim is the fact or idea the author wants to convince the reader of. An argument might center on a single claim, or be built up out of many. Claims are usually explicitly stated, but they may also just be implied in some kinds of text.

The author uses supports to back up each claim they make. These might range from hard evidence to emotional appeals—anything that is used to convince the reader to accept a claim.

The warrant is the logic or assumption that connects a support with a claim. Outside of quite formal argumentation, the warrant is often unstated—the author assumes their audience will understand the connection without it. But that doesn’t mean you can’t still explore the implicit warrant in these cases.

For example, look at the following statement:

We can see a claim and a support here, but the warrant is implicit. Here, the warrant is the assumption that more likeable candidates would have inspired greater turnout. We might be more or less convinced by the argument depending on whether we think this is a fair assumption.

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Rhetorical analysis isn’t a matter of choosing concepts in advance and applying them to a text. Instead, it starts with looking at the text in detail and asking the appropriate questions about how it works:

• What is the author’s purpose?
• Do they focus closely on their key claims, or do they discuss various topics?
• What tone do they take—angry or sympathetic? Personal or authoritative? Formal or informal?
• Who seems to be the intended audience? Is this audience likely to be successfully reached and convinced?
• What kinds of evidence are presented?

By asking these questions, you’ll discover the various rhetorical devices the text uses. Don’t feel that you have to cram in every rhetorical term you know—focus on those that are most important to the text.

The following sections show how to write the different parts of a rhetorical analysis.

Like all essays, a rhetorical analysis begins with an introduction . The introduction tells readers what text you’ll be discussing, provides relevant background information, and presents your thesis statement .

Hover over different parts of the example below to see how an introduction works.

Martin Luther King, Jr.’s “I Have a Dream” speech is widely regarded as one of the most important pieces of oratory in American history. Delivered in 1963 to thousands of civil rights activists outside the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C., the speech has come to symbolize the spirit of the civil rights movement and even to function as a major part of the American national myth. This rhetorical analysis argues that King’s assumption of the prophetic voice, amplified by the historic size of his audience, creates a powerful sense of ethos that has retained its inspirational power over the years.

The body of your rhetorical analysis is where you’ll tackle the text directly. It’s often divided into three paragraphs, although it may be more in a longer essay.

Each paragraph should focus on a different element of the text, and they should all contribute to your overall argument for your thesis statement.

Hover over the example to explore how a typical body paragraph is constructed.

King’s speech is infused with prophetic language throughout. Even before the famous “dream” part of the speech, King’s language consistently strikes a prophetic tone. He refers to the Lincoln Memorial as a “hallowed spot” and speaks of rising “from the dark and desolate valley of segregation” to “make justice a reality for all of God’s children.” The assumption of this prophetic voice constitutes the text’s strongest ethical appeal; after linking himself with political figures like Lincoln and the Founding Fathers, King’s ethos adopts a distinctly religious tone, recalling Biblical prophets and preachers of change from across history. This adds significant force to his words; standing before an audience of hundreds of thousands, he states not just what the future should be, but what it will be: “The whirlwinds of revolt will continue to shake the foundations of our nation until the bright day of justice emerges.” This warning is almost apocalyptic in tone, though it concludes with the positive image of the “bright day of justice.” The power of King’s rhetoric thus stems not only from the pathos of his vision of a brighter future, but from the ethos of the prophetic voice he adopts in expressing this vision.

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The conclusion of a rhetorical analysis wraps up the essay by restating the main argument and showing how it has been developed by your analysis. It may also try to link the text, and your analysis of it, with broader concerns.

Explore the example below to get a sense of the conclusion.

It is clear from this analysis that the effectiveness of King’s rhetoric stems less from the pathetic appeal of his utopian “dream” than it does from the ethos he carefully constructs to give force to his statements. By framing contemporary upheavals as part of a prophecy whose fulfillment will result in the better future he imagines, King ensures not only the effectiveness of his words in the moment but their continuing resonance today. Even if we have not yet achieved King’s dream, we cannot deny the role his words played in setting us on the path toward it.

If you want to know more about AI tools , college essays , or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

• Ad hominem fallacy
• Post hoc fallacy
• Appeal to authority fallacy
• False cause fallacy
• Sunk cost fallacy

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The goal of a rhetorical analysis is to explain the effect a piece of writing or oratory has on its audience, how successful it is, and the devices and appeals it uses to achieve its goals.

Unlike a standard argumentative essay , it’s less about taking a position on the arguments presented, and more about exploring how they are constructed.

The term “text” in a rhetorical analysis essay refers to whatever object you’re analyzing. It’s frequently a piece of writing or a speech, but it doesn’t have to be. For example, you could also treat an advertisement or political cartoon as a text.

Logos appeals to the audience’s reason, building up logical arguments . Ethos appeals to the speaker’s status or authority, making the audience more likely to trust them. Pathos appeals to the emotions, trying to make the audience feel angry or sympathetic, for example.

Collectively, these three appeals are sometimes called the rhetorical triangle . They are central to rhetorical analysis , though a piece of rhetoric might not necessarily use all of them.

In rhetorical analysis , a claim is something the author wants the audience to believe. A support is the evidence or appeal they use to convince the reader to believe the claim. A warrant is the (often implicit) assumption that links the support with the claim.

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8.5 Writing Process: Creating an Analytical Report

Learning outcomes.

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Identify the elements of the rhetorical situation for your report.
• Find and focus a topic to write about.
• Gather and analyze information from appropriate sources.
• Distinguish among different kinds of evidence.
• Draft a thesis and create an organizational plan.
• Compose a report that develops ideas and integrates evidence from sources.
• Give and act on productive feedback to works in progress.

You might think that writing comes easily to experienced writers—that they draft stories and college papers all at once, sitting down at the computer and having sentences flow from their fingers like water from a faucet. In reality, most writers engage in a recursive process, pushing forward, stepping back, and repeating steps multiple times as their ideas develop and change. In broad strokes, the steps most writers go through are these:

• Planning and Organization . You will have an easier time drafting if you devote time at the beginning to consider the rhetorical situation for your report, understand your assignment, gather ideas and information, draft a thesis statement, and create an organizational plan.
• Drafting . When you have an idea of what you want to say and the order in which you want to say it, you’re ready to draft. As much as possible, keep going until you have a complete first draft of your report, resisting the urge to go back and rewrite. Save that for after you have completed a first draft.
• Review . Now is the time to get feedback from others, whether from your instructor, your classmates, a tutor in the writing center, your roommate, someone in your family, or someone else you trust to read your writing critically and give you honest feedback.
• Revising . With feedback on your draft, you are ready to revise. You may need to return to an earlier step and make large-scale revisions that involve planning, organizing, and rewriting, or you may need to work mostly on ensuring that your sentences are clear and correct.

Considering the Rhetorical Situation

Like other kinds of writing projects, a report starts with assessing the rhetorical situation —the circumstance in which a writer communicates with an audience of readers about a subject. As the writer of a report, you make choices based on the purpose of your writing, the audience who will read it, the genre of the report, and the expectations of the community and culture in which you are working. A graphic organizer like Table 8.1 can help you begin.

Summary of Assignment

Write an analytical report on a topic that interests you and that you want to know more about. The topic can be contemporary or historical, but it must be one that you can analyze and support with evidence from sources.

The following questions can help you think about a topic suitable for analysis:

• Why or how did ________ happen?
• What are the results or effects of ________?
• Is ________ a problem? If so, why?
• What are examples of ________ or reasons for ________?
• How does ________ compare to or contrast with other issues, concerns, or things?

Consult and cite three to five reliable sources. The sources do not have to be scholarly for this assignment, but they must be credible, trustworthy, and unbiased. Possible sources include academic journals, newspapers, magazines, reputable websites, government publications or agency websites, and visual sources such as TED Talks. You may also use the results of an experiment or survey, and you may want to conduct interviews.

Consider whether visuals and media will enhance your report. Can you present data you collect visually? Would a map, photograph, chart, or other graphic provide interesting and relevant support? Would video or audio allow you to present evidence that you would otherwise need to describe in words?

Another Lens. To gain another analytic view on the topic of your report, consider different people affected by it. Say, for example, that you have decided to report on recent high school graduates and the effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on the final months of their senior year. If you are a recent high school graduate, you might naturally gravitate toward writing about yourself and your peers. But you might also consider the adults in the lives of recent high school graduates—for example, teachers, parents, or grandparents—and how they view the same period. Or you might consider the same topic from the perspective of a college admissions department looking at their incoming freshman class.

Quick Launch: Finding and Focusing a Topic

Coming up with a topic for a report can be daunting because you can report on nearly anything. The topic can easily get too broad, trapping you in the realm of generalizations. The trick is to find a topic that interests you and focus on an angle you can analyze in order to say something significant about it. You can use a graphic organizer to generate ideas, or you can use a concept map similar to the one featured in Writing Process: Thinking Critically About a “Text.”

Asking the Journalist’s Questions

One way to generate ideas about a topic is to ask the five W (and one H) questions, also called the journalist’s questions : Who? What? When? Where? Why? How? Try answering the following questions to explore a topic:

Who was or is involved in ________?

What happened/is happening with ________? What were/are the results of ________?

When did ________ happen? Is ________ happening now?

Where did ________ happen, or where is ________ happening?

Why did ________ happen, or why is ________ happening now?

How did ________ happen?

For example, imagine that you have decided to write your analytical report on the effect of the COVID-19 shutdown on high-school students by interviewing students on your college campus. Your questions and answers might look something like those in Table 8.2 :

Asking Focused Questions

Another way to find a topic is to ask focused questions about it. For example, you might ask the following questions about the effect of the 2020 pandemic shutdown on recent high school graduates:

• How did the shutdown change students’ feelings about their senior year?
• How did the shutdown affect their decisions about post-graduation plans, such as work or going to college?
• How did the shutdown affect their academic performance in high school or in college?
• How did/do they feel about continuing their education?
• How did the shutdown affect their social relationships?

Any of these questions might be developed into a thesis for an analytical report. Table 8.3 shows more examples of broad topics and focusing questions.

Gathering Information

Because they are based on information and evidence, most analytical reports require you to do at least some research. Depending on your assignment, you may be able to find reliable information online, or you may need to do primary research by conducting an experiment, a survey, or interviews. For example, if you live among students in their late teens and early twenties, consider what they can tell you about their lives that you might be able to analyze. Returning to or graduating from high school, starting college, or returning to college in the midst of a global pandemic has provided them, for better or worse, with educational and social experiences that are shared widely by people their age and very different from the experiences older adults had at the same age.

Some report assignments will require you to do formal research, an activity that involves finding sources and evaluating them for reliability, reading them carefully, taking notes, and citing all words you quote and ideas you borrow. See Research Process: Accessing and Recording Information and Annotated Bibliography: Gathering, Evaluating, and Documenting Sources for detailed instruction on conducting research.

Whether you conduct in-depth research or not, keep track of the ideas that come to you and the information you learn. You can write or dictate notes using an app on your phone or computer, or you can jot notes in a journal if you prefer pen and paper. Then, when you are ready to begin organizing your report, you will have a record of your thoughts and information. Always track the sources of information you gather, whether from printed or digital material or from a person you interviewed, so that you can return to the sources if you need more information. And always credit the sources in your report.

Kinds of Evidence

Depending on your assignment and the topic of your report, certain kinds of evidence may be more effective than others. Other kinds of evidence may even be required. As a general rule, choose evidence that is rooted in verifiable facts and experience. In addition, select the evidence that best supports the topic and your approach to the topic, be sure the evidence meets your instructor’s requirements, and cite any evidence you use that comes from a source. The following list contains different kinds of frequently used evidence and an example of each.

Definition : An explanation of a key word, idea, or concept.

The U.S. Census Bureau refers to a “young adult” as a person between 18 and 34 years old.

Example : An illustration of an idea or concept.

The college experience in the fall of 2020 was starkly different from that of previous years. Students who lived in residence halls were assigned to small pods. On-campus dining services were limited. Classes were small and physically distanced or conducted online. Parties were banned.

Expert opinion : A statement by a professional in the field whose opinion is respected.

According to Louise Aronson, MD, geriatrician and author of Elderhood , people over the age of 65 are the happiest of any age group, reporting “less stress, depression, worry, and anger, and more enjoyment, happiness, and satisfaction” (255).

Fact : Information that can be proven correct or accurate.

According to data collected by the NCAA, the academic success of Division I college athletes between 2015 and 2019 was consistently high (Hosick).

Interview : An in-person, phone, or remote conversation that involves an interviewer posing questions to another person or people.

During our interview, I asked Betty about living without a cell phone during the pandemic. She said that before the pandemic, she hadn’t needed a cell phone in her daily activities, but she soon realized that she, and people like her, were increasingly at a disadvantage.

Quotation : The exact words of an author or a speaker.

In response to whether she thought she needed a cell phone, Betty said, “I got along just fine without a cell phone when I could go everywhere in person. The shift to needing a phone came suddenly, and I don’t have extra money in my budget to get one.”

Statistics : A numerical fact or item of data.

The Pew Research Center reported that approximately 25 percent of Hispanic Americans and 17 percent of Black Americans relied on smartphones for online access, compared with 12 percent of White people.

Survey : A structured interview in which respondents (the people who answer the survey questions) are all asked the same questions, either in person or through print or electronic means, and their answers tabulated and interpreted. Surveys discover attitudes, beliefs, or habits of the general public or segments of the population.

A survey of 3,000 mobile phone users in October 2020 showed that 54 percent of respondents used their phones for messaging, while 40 percent used their phones for calls (Steele).

• Visuals : Graphs, figures, tables, photographs and other images, diagrams, charts, maps, videos, and audio recordings, among others.

Thesis and Organization

Drafting a thesis.

When you have a grasp of your topic, move on to the next phase: drafting a thesis. The thesis is the central idea that you will explore and support in your report; all paragraphs in your report should relate to it. In an essay-style analytical report, you will likely express this main idea in a thesis statement of one or two sentences toward the end of the introduction.

For example, if you found that the academic performance of student athletes was higher than that of non-athletes, you might write the following thesis statement:

student sample text Although a common stereotype is that college athletes barely pass their classes, an analysis of athletes’ academic performance indicates that athletes drop fewer classes, earn higher grades, and are more likely to be on track to graduate in four years when compared with their non-athlete peers. end student sample text

The thesis statement often previews the organization of your writing. For example, in his report on the U.S. response to the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, Trevor Garcia wrote the following thesis statement, which detailed the central idea of his report:

student sample text An examination of the U.S. response shows that a reduction of experts in key positions and programs, inaction that led to equipment shortages, and inconsistent policies were three major causes of the spread of the virus and the resulting deaths. end student sample text

After you draft a thesis statement, ask these questions, and examine your thesis as you answer them. Revise your draft as needed.

• Is it interesting? A thesis for a report should answer a question that is worth asking and piques curiosity.
• Is it precise and specific? If you are interested in reducing pollution in a nearby lake, explain how to stop the zebra mussel infestation or reduce the frequent algae blooms.
• Is it manageable? Try to split the difference between having too much information and not having enough.

Organizing Your Ideas

As a next step, organize the points you want to make in your report and the evidence to support them. Use an outline, a diagram, or another organizational tool, such as Table 8.4 .

Drafting an Analytical Report

With a tentative thesis, an organization plan, and evidence, you are ready to begin drafting. For this assignment, you will report information, analyze it, and draw conclusions about the cause of something, the effect of something, or the similarities and differences between two different things.

Introduction

Some students write the introduction first; others save it for last. Whenever you choose to write the introduction, use it to draw readers into your report. Make the topic of your report clear, and be concise and sincere. End the introduction with your thesis statement. Depending on your topic and the type of report, you can write an effective introduction in several ways. Opening a report with an overview is a tried-and-true strategy, as shown in the following example on the U.S. response to COVID-19 by Trevor Garcia. Notice how he opens the introduction with statistics and a comparison and follows it with a question that leads to the thesis statement (underlined).

student sample text With more than 83 million cases and 1.8 million deaths at the end of 2020, COVID-19 has turned the world upside down. By the end of 2020, the United States led the world in the number of cases, at more than 20 million infections and nearly 350,000 deaths. In comparison, the second-highest number of cases was in India, which at the end of 2020 had less than half the number of COVID-19 cases despite having a population four times greater than the U.S. (“COVID-19 Coronavirus Pandemic,” 2021). How did the United States come to have the world’s worst record in this pandemic? underline An examination of the U.S. response shows that a reduction of experts in key positions and programs, inaction that led to equipment shortages, and inconsistent policies were three major causes of the spread of the virus and the resulting deaths end underline . end student sample text

For a less formal report, you might want to open with a question, quotation, or brief story. The following example opens with an anecdote that leads to the thesis statement (underlined).

student sample text Betty stood outside the salon, wondering how to get in. It was June of 2020, and the door was locked. A sign posted on the door provided a phone number for her to call to be let in, but at 81, Betty had lived her life without a cell phone. Betty’s day-to-day life had been hard during the pandemic, but she had planned for this haircut and was looking forward to it; she had a mask on and hand sanitizer in her car. Now she couldn’t get in the door, and she was discouraged. In that moment, Betty realized how much Americans’ dependence on cell phones had grown in the months since the pandemic began. underline Betty and thousands of other senior citizens who could not afford cell phones or did not have the technological skills and support they needed were being left behind in a society that was increasingly reliant on technology end underline . end student sample text

Body Paragraphs: Point, Evidence, Analysis

Use the body paragraphs of your report to present evidence that supports your thesis. A reliable pattern to keep in mind for developing the body paragraphs of a report is point , evidence , and analysis :

• The point is the central idea of the paragraph, usually given in a topic sentence stated in your own words at or toward the beginning of the paragraph. Each topic sentence should relate to the thesis.
• The evidence you provide develops the paragraph and supports the point made in the topic sentence. Include details, examples, quotations, paraphrases, and summaries from sources if you conducted formal research. Synthesize the evidence you include by showing in your sentences the connections between sources.
• The analysis comes at the end of the paragraph. In your own words, draw a conclusion about the evidence you have provided and how it relates to the topic sentence.

The paragraph below illustrates the point, evidence, and analysis pattern. Drawn from a report about concussions among football players, the paragraph opens with a topic sentence about the NCAA and NFL and their responses to studies about concussions. The paragraph is developed with evidence from three sources. It concludes with a statement about helmets and players’ safety.

student sample text The NCAA and NFL have taken steps forward and backward to respond to studies about the danger of concussions among players. Responding to the deaths of athletes, documented brain damage, lawsuits, and public outcry (Buckley et al., 2017), the NCAA instituted protocols to reduce potentially dangerous hits during football games and to diagnose traumatic head injuries more quickly and effectively. Still, it has allowed players to wear more than one style of helmet during a season, raising the risk of injury because of imperfect fit. At the professional level, the NFL developed a helmet-rating system in 2011 in an effort to reduce concussions, but it continued to allow players to wear helmets with a wide range of safety ratings. The NFL’s decision created an opportunity for researchers to look at the relationship between helmet safety ratings and concussions. Cocello et al. (2016) reported that players who wore helmets with a lower safety rating had more concussions than players who wore helmets with a higher safety rating, and they concluded that safer helmets are a key factor in reducing concussions. end student sample text

Developing Paragraph Content

In the body paragraphs of your report, you will likely use examples, draw comparisons, show contrasts, or analyze causes and effects to develop your topic.

Paragraphs developed with Example are common in reports. The paragraph below, adapted from a report by student John Zwick on the mental health of soldiers deployed during wartime, draws examples from three sources.

student sample text Throughout the Vietnam War, military leaders claimed that the mental health of soldiers was stable and that men who suffered from combat fatigue, now known as PTSD, were getting the help they needed. For example, the New York Times (1966) quoted military leaders who claimed that mental fatigue among enlisted men had “virtually ceased to be a problem,” occurring at a rate far below that of World War II. Ayres (1969) reported that Brigadier General Spurgeon Neel, chief American medical officer in Vietnam, explained that soldiers experiencing combat fatigue were admitted to the psychiatric ward, sedated for up to 36 hours, and given a counseling session with a doctor who reassured them that the rest was well deserved and that they were ready to return to their units. Although experts outside the military saw profound damage to soldiers’ psyches when they returned home (Halloran, 1970), the military stayed the course, treating acute cases expediently and showing little concern for the cumulative effect of combat stress on individual soldiers. end student sample text

When you analyze causes and effects , you explain the reasons that certain things happened and/or their results. The report by Trevor Garcia on the U.S. response to the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 is an example: his report examines the reasons the United States failed to control the coronavirus. The paragraph below, adapted from another student’s report written for an environmental policy course, explains the effect of white settlers’ views of forest management on New England.

student sample text The early colonists’ European ideas about forest management dramatically changed the New England landscape. White settlers saw the New World as virgin, unused land, even though indigenous people had been drawing on its resources for generations by using fire subtly to improve hunting, employing construction techniques that left ancient trees intact, and farming small, efficient fields that left the surrounding landscape largely unaltered. White settlers’ desire to develop wood-built and wood-burning homesteads surrounded by large farm fields led to forestry practices and techniques that resulted in the removal of old-growth trees. These practices defined the way the forests look today. end student sample text

Compare and contrast paragraphs are useful when you wish to examine similarities and differences. You can use both comparison and contrast in a single paragraph, or you can use one or the other. The paragraph below, adapted from a student report on the rise of populist politicians, compares the rhetorical styles of populist politicians Huey Long and Donald Trump.

student sample text A key similarity among populist politicians is their rejection of carefully crafted sound bites and erudite vocabulary typically associated with candidates for high office. Huey Long and Donald Trump are two examples. When he ran for president, Long captured attention through his wild gesticulations on almost every word, dramatically varying volume, and heavily accented, folksy expressions, such as “The only way to be able to feed the balance of the people is to make that man come back and bring back some of that grub that he ain’t got no business with!” In addition, Long’s down-home persona made him a credible voice to represent the common people against the country’s rich, and his buffoonish style allowed him to express his radical ideas without sounding anti-communist alarm bells. Similarly, Donald Trump chose to speak informally in his campaign appearances, but the persona he projected was that of a fast-talking, domineering salesman. His frequent use of personal anecdotes, rhetorical questions, brief asides, jokes, personal attacks, and false claims made his speeches disjointed, but they gave the feeling of a running conversation between him and his audience. For example, in a 2015 speech, Trump said, “They just built a hotel in Syria. Can you believe this? They built a hotel. When I have to build a hotel, I pay interest. They don’t have to pay interest, because they took the oil that, when we left Iraq, I said we should’ve taken” (“Our Country Needs” 2020). While very different in substance, Long and Trump adopted similar styles that positioned them as the antithesis of typical politicians and their worldviews. end student sample text

The conclusion should draw the threads of your report together and make its significance clear to readers. You may wish to review the introduction, restate the thesis, recommend a course of action, point to the future, or use some combination of these. Whichever way you approach it, the conclusion should not head in a new direction. The following example is the conclusion from a student’s report on the effect of a book about environmental movements in the United States.

student sample text Since its publication in 1949, environmental activists of various movements have found wisdom and inspiration in Aldo Leopold’s A Sand County Almanac . These audiences included Leopold’s conservationist contemporaries, environmentalists of the 1960s and 1970s, and the environmental justice activists who rose in the 1980s and continue to make their voices heard today. These audiences have read the work differently: conservationists looked to the author as a leader, environmentalists applied his wisdom to their movement, and environmental justice advocates have pointed out the flaws in Leopold’s thinking. Even so, like those before them, environmental justice activists recognize the book’s value as a testament to taking the long view and eliminating biases that may cloud an objective assessment of humanity’s interdependent relationship with the environment. end student sample text

Citing Sources

You must cite the sources of information and data included in your report. Citations must appear in both the text and a bibliography at the end of the report.

The sample paragraphs in the previous section include examples of in-text citation using APA documentation style. Trevor Garcia’s report on the U.S. response to COVID-19 in 2020 also uses APA documentation style for citations in the text of the report and the list of references at the end. Your instructor may require another documentation style, such as MLA or Chicago.

Peer Review: Getting Feedback from Readers

You will likely engage in peer review with other students in your class by sharing drafts and providing feedback to help spot strengths and weaknesses in your reports. For peer review within a class, your instructor may provide assignment-specific questions or a form for you to complete as you work together.

If you have a writing center on your campus, it is well worth your time to make an online or in-person appointment with a tutor. You’ll receive valuable feedback and improve your ability to review not only your report but your overall writing.

Another way to receive feedback on your report is to ask a friend or family member to read your draft. Provide a list of questions or a form such as the one in Table 8.5 for them to complete as they read.

Revising: Using Reviewers’ Responses to Revise your Work

When you receive comments from readers, including your instructor, read each comment carefully to understand what is being asked. Try not to get defensive, even though this response is completely natural. Remember that readers are like coaches who want you to succeed. They are looking at your writing from outside your own head, and they can identify strengths and weaknesses that you may not have noticed. Keep track of the strengths and weaknesses your readers point out. Pay special attention to those that more than one reader identifies, and use this information to improve your report and later assignments.

As you analyze each response, be open to suggestions for improvement, and be willing to make significant revisions to improve your writing. Perhaps you need to revise your thesis statement to better reflect the content of your draft. Maybe you need to return to your sources to better understand a point you’re trying to make in order to develop a paragraph more fully. Perhaps you need to rethink the organization, move paragraphs around, and add transition sentences.

Below is an early draft of part of Trevor Garcia’s report with comments from a peer reviewer:

student sample text To truly understand what happened, it’s important first to look back to the years leading up to the pandemic. Epidemiologists and public health officials had long known that a global pandemic was possible. In 2016, the U.S. National Security Council (NSC) published a 69-page document with the intimidating title Playbook for Early Response to High-Consequence Emerging Infectious Disease Threats and Biological Incidents . The document’s two sections address responses to “emerging disease threats that start or are circulating in another country but not yet confirmed within U.S. territorial borders” and to “emerging disease threats within our nation’s borders.” On 13 January 2017, the joint Obama-Trump transition teams performed a pandemic preparedness exercise; however, the playbook was never adopted by the incoming administration. end student sample text

annotated text Peer Review Comment: Do the words in quotation marks need to be a direct quotation? It seems like a paraphrase would work here. end annotated text

annotated text Peer Review Comment: I’m getting lost in the details about the playbook. What’s the Obama-Trump transition team? end annotated text

student sample text In February 2018, the administration began to cut funding for the Prevention and Public Health Fund at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; cuts to other health agencies continued throughout 2018, with funds diverted to unrelated projects such as housing for detained immigrant children. end student sample text

annotated text Peer Review Comment: This paragraph has only one sentence, and it’s more like an example. It needs a topic sentence and more development. end annotated text

student sample text Three months later, Luciana Borio, director of medical and biodefense preparedness at the NSC, spoke at a symposium marking the centennial of the 1918 influenza pandemic. “The threat of pandemic flu is the number one health security concern,” she said. “Are we ready to respond? I fear the answer is no.” end student sample text

annotated text Peer Review Comment: This paragraph is very short and a lot like the previous paragraph in that it’s a single example. It needs a topic sentence. Maybe you can combine them? end annotated text

annotated text Peer Review Comment: Be sure to cite the quotation. end annotated text

Reading these comments and those of others, Trevor decided to combine the three short paragraphs into one paragraph focusing on the fact that the United States knew a pandemic was possible but was unprepared for it. He developed the paragraph, using the short paragraphs as evidence and connecting the sentences and evidence with transitional words and phrases. Finally, he added in-text citations in APA documentation style to credit his sources. The revised paragraph is below:

student sample text Epidemiologists and public health officials in the United States had long known that a global pandemic was possible. In 2016, the National Security Council (NSC) published Playbook for Early Response to High-Consequence Emerging Infectious Disease Threats and Biological Incidents , a 69-page document on responding to diseases spreading within and outside of the United States. On January 13, 2017, the joint transition teams of outgoing president Barack Obama and then president-elect Donald Trump performed a pandemic preparedness exercise based on the playbook; however, it was never adopted by the incoming administration (Goodman & Schulkin, 2020). A year later, in February 2018, the Trump administration began to cut funding for the Prevention and Public Health Fund at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, leaving key positions unfilled. Other individuals who were fired or resigned in 2018 were the homeland security adviser, whose portfolio included global pandemics; the director for medical and biodefense preparedness; and the top official in charge of a pandemic response. None of them were replaced, leaving the White House with no senior person who had experience in public health (Goodman & Schulkin, 2020). Experts voiced concerns, among them Luciana Borio, director of medical and biodefense preparedness at the NSC, who spoke at a symposium marking the centennial of the 1918 influenza pandemic in May 2018: “The threat of pandemic flu is the number one health security concern,” she said. “Are we ready to respond? I fear the answer is no” (Sun, 2018, final para.). end student sample text

A final word on working with reviewers’ comments: as you consider your readers’ suggestions, remember, too, that you remain the author. You are free to disregard suggestions that you think will not improve your writing. If you choose to disregard comments from your instructor, consider submitting a note explaining your reasons with the final draft of your report.

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Elements of a Research Essay

Stephanie Ojeda Ponce

This section is an overview of the elements or parts of a research essay. Scholarly essays are long. There are several different styles of research essays and each have their own structure. For the argument-driven research essay, these are the main elements:

• Purpose or research question
• Your claim or thesis.
• One or more reasons for your thesis.
• Evidence for each reason.
• Others’ objections, counterarguments, or alternative solutions.
• Your acknowledgment of others’ objections, counterarguments, or alternative solutions.
• Your response to others’ objections, counterarguments, or alternative solutions.

The Purpose or Goal

Sometimes your professor will give you the research question, but probably more often you will need to develop your own research topic. Even though you are likely writing an essay for an assignment or as part of a class, you are also developing your own purpose for the research and writing. This part of the essay may not be written down, but it can be helpful to keep in mind a purpose or overall question. That question might even be something you answer through your research, but don’t have

Examples: Purpose and Goal for Research Essays

• How do at least some animals’ bones help control their weight?
• Did the death of his beloved daughter have any effect on the writings of Mark Twain?

Your Claim or Thesis

You write the claim or thesis–it doesn’t come directly from a source. Instead, it is the conclusion you come to in answer to your question after you’ve read/listened to/viewed some sources. So it is a statement, not a question or a hypothesis that you plan to prove or disprove with your research.

After you’ve read/listened to/viewed more sources, you may need to change your thesis. That happens all the time–not because you did anything wrong but because you learned more.

Examples: Claims (or Theses) for Hypothetical Essays or Term Papers

• Bone cells monitor whether more or less weight is pressing down on the skeleton and send biochemical signals to appetite centers in their brains to turn appetite down or up, accordingly.
• Mark Twain wrote more urgently and with less humor during the four years immediately after the death of his daughter.

One or More Reasons

You write what you believe makes your claim or thesis (the answer to your research question) true. That’s your reason or reasons. Each reason is a summary statement of evidence you found in your research. The kinds of evidence considered convincing varies by discipline, so you will be looking at different sources, depending on your discipline. How many reasons you need depends on how complex your thesis and subject matter are, what you found in your sources, and how long your essay or research paper must be. It’s always a good idea to write your reasons in a way that is easy for your audience to understand and be persuaded by.

Examples: Reasons in Hypothetical Essays or Term Papers

• Animals (including humans) have a biological tendency to regain any weight that they lose and lose any weight that they gain, seemingly in an effort to maintain whatever weight they have sustained for some time. Skeletons are logical places where any gains or losses could be noted, and recent studies seem to show that osteocytes (a kind of bone cell) are involved in whether appetites go up or down after weight gain or loss.
• My content analysis and a comparison of publication rates four years before and after Mark Twain’s daughter died indicate that his writing was more urgent and less humorous for four years after. It is reasonable to conclude that her death caused that change.

Evidence for Each Reason

You write this also. This is the evidence you summarized earlier as each reason your thesis is true. You will be directly quoting, paraphrasing, and summarizing your sources to make the case that your answer to your research question is correct, or at least reasonable.

Examples: Evidence for Reasons in Hypothetical Essays or Term Papers

• Report the results of studies about osteocyctes’ possible effect on weight grain or loss.
• Report the results of your comparison of writing content and publication rate before and after Twain’s daughter’s death.

Others’ Objections, Counterarguments, or Alternative Solutions

Do any of your sources not agree with your thesis? You’ll have to bring those up in your research paper. In addition, put yourself in your readers’ shoes. What might they not find logical in your argument? In other words, which reason(s) and corresponding evidence might they find lacking? Did you find clues to what these could be in your sources? Or maybe you can imagine them thinking some aspect of what you think is evidence doesn’t make sense.

Examples: Objections, Counterarguments, or Alternative Solutions in Hypothetical Essays or Term Papers

• Imagine that some readers might think: The hormone leptin is released by fat cells when they are added to animals’ bodies so it is leptin that tells appetite centers to turn down when weight is gained.
• Imagine that some readers might think: Computerized content analysis tools are sort of blunt instruments and shouldn’t be used to do precise work like this.

Your Acknowledgement of Others’ Objections, Counterarguments, or Alternative Solutions

So what will you write to bring up each of those objections, counterarguments, and alternative solutions? Some examples:

• I can imagine skeptics wanting to point out…
• Perhaps some readers would say…
• I think those who come from XYZ would differ with me…

It all depends on what objections, counterarguments, and alternative solutions your audience or your imagination come up with.

Examples: Acknowledgement of Others’ Objections, Counterarguments, or Alternative Solutions in Hypothetical Essays or Term Papers:

• Some readers may point out that the hormone leptin, which is released by fat cells, signals appetite centers to lower the appetite when weight is gained.
• Readers may think that a computerized content analysis tool cannot do justice to the subtleties of text.

Response to Others’ Objections, Counterarguments, or Alternative Solutions

You must write your response to each objection, counterargument, or alternative solution brought up or that you’ve thought of. (You’re likely to have found clues for what to say in your sources.) The reason you have to include this is that you can’t very easily convince your audience until you show them how your claim stacks up against the opinions and reasoning of other people who don’t at the moment agree with you.

Examples: Response to Others’ Objections, Counterarguments, or Alternative Solutions in Hypothetical Essays or Term Papers:

• But leptin must not be the entire system, since many animals do keep on the new weight.
• Unlike other content tools, the XYZ Content Analysis Measure is able to take into account an author’s tone.

Adaptations

This page has been adapted from Where you Get the Components from Choosing & Using Sources: A Guide to Academic Research Copyright © 2015 by Teaching & Learning, Ohio State University Libraries. CC BY 4.0 DEED .

Reading and Writing Research for Undergraduates Copyright © 2023 by Stephanie Ojeda Ponce is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Assignments

• Annotated Bibliography
• Analyzing a Scholarly Journal Article
• Group Presentations
• Dealing with Nervousness
• Using Visual Aids
• Grading Someone Else's Paper
• Types of Structured Group Activities
• Group Project Survival Skills
• Leading a Class Discussion
• Multiple Book Review Essay
• Reviewing Collected Works
• Writing a Case Analysis Paper
• Writing a Case Study
• About Informed Consent
• Writing Field Notes
• Writing a Policy Memo
• Writing a Reflective Paper
• Writing a Research Proposal
• Generative AI and Writing
• Acknowledgments

Definition and Introduction

Journal article analysis assignments require you to summarize and critically assess the quality of an empirical research study published in a scholarly [a.k.a., academic, peer-reviewed] journal. The article may be assigned by the professor, chosen from course readings listed in the syllabus, or you must locate an article on your own, usually with the requirement that you search using a reputable library database, such as, JSTOR or ProQuest . The article chosen is expected to relate to the overall discipline of the course, specific course content, or key concepts discussed in class. In some cases, the purpose of the assignment is to analyze an article that is part of the literature review for a future research project.

Analysis of an article can be assigned to students individually or as part of a small group project. The final product is usually in the form of a short paper [typically 1- 6 double-spaced pages] that addresses key questions the professor uses to guide your analysis or that assesses specific parts of a scholarly research study [e.g., the research problem, methodology, discussion, conclusions or findings]. The analysis paper may be shared on a digital course management platform and/or presented to the class for the purpose of promoting a wider discussion about the topic of the study. Although assigned in any level of undergraduate and graduate coursework in the social and behavioral sciences, professors frequently include this assignment in upper division courses to help students learn how to effectively identify, read, and analyze empirical research within their major.

Franco, Josue. “Introducing the Analysis of Journal Articles.” Prepared for presentation at the American Political Science Association’s 2020 Teaching and Learning Conference, February 7-9, 2020, Albuquerque, New Mexico; Sego, Sandra A. and Anne E. Stuart. "Learning to Read Empirical Articles in General Psychology." Teaching of Psychology 43 (2016): 38-42; Kershaw, Trina C., Jordan P. Lippman, and Jennifer Fugate. "Practice Makes Proficient: Teaching Undergraduate Students to Understand Published Research." Instructional Science 46 (2018): 921-946; Woodward-Kron, Robyn. "Critical Analysis and the Journal Article Review Assignment." Prospect 18 (August 2003): 20-36; MacMillan, Margy and Allison MacKenzie. "Strategies for Integrating Information Literacy and Academic Literacy: Helping Undergraduate Students make the most of Scholarly Articles." Library Management 33 (2012): 525-535.

Benefits of Journal Article Analysis Assignments

Analyzing and synthesizing a scholarly journal article is intended to help students obtain the reading and critical thinking skills needed to develop and write their own research papers. This assignment also supports workplace skills where you could be asked to summarize a report or other type of document and report it, for example, during a staff meeting or for a presentation.

There are two broadly defined ways that analyzing a scholarly journal article supports student learning:

Improve Reading Skills

Conducting research requires an ability to review, evaluate, and synthesize prior research studies. Reading prior research requires an understanding of the academic writing style , the type of epistemological beliefs or practices underpinning the research design, and the specific vocabulary and technical terminology [i.e., jargon] used within a discipline. Reading scholarly articles is important because academic writing is unfamiliar to most students; they have had limited exposure to using peer-reviewed journal articles prior to entering college or students have yet to gain exposure to the specific academic writing style of their disciplinary major. Learning how to read scholarly articles also requires careful and deliberate concentration on how authors use specific language and phrasing to convey their research, the problem it addresses, its relationship to prior research, its significance, its limitations, and how authors connect methods of data gathering to the results so as to develop recommended solutions derived from the overall research process.

Improve Comprehension Skills

In addition to knowing how to read scholarly journals articles, students must learn how to effectively interpret what the scholar(s) are trying to convey. Academic writing can be dense, multi-layered, and non-linear in how information is presented. In addition, scholarly articles contain footnotes or endnotes, references to sources, multiple appendices, and, in some cases, non-textual elements [e.g., graphs, charts] that can break-up the reader’s experience with the narrative flow of the study. Analyzing articles helps students practice comprehending these elements of writing, critiquing the arguments being made, reflecting upon the significance of the research, and how it relates to building new knowledge and understanding or applying new approaches to practice. Comprehending scholarly writing also involves thinking critically about where you fit within the overall dialogue among scholars concerning the research problem, finding possible gaps in the research that require further analysis, or identifying where the author(s) has failed to examine fully any specific elements of the study.

In addition, journal article analysis assignments are used by professors to strengthen discipline-specific information literacy skills, either alone or in relation to other tasks, such as, giving a class presentation or participating in a group project. These benefits can include the ability to:

• Effectively paraphrase text, which leads to a more thorough understanding of the overall study;
• Identify and describe strengths and weaknesses of the study and their implications;
• Relate the article to other course readings and in relation to particular research concepts or ideas discussed during class;
• Think critically about the research and summarize complex ideas contained within;
• Plan, organize, and write an effective inquiry-based paper that investigates a research study, evaluates evidence, expounds on the author’s main ideas, and presents an argument concerning the significance and impact of the research in a clear and concise manner;
• Model the type of source summary and critique you should do for any college-level research paper; and,
• Increase interest and engagement with the research problem of the study as well as with the discipline.

Kershaw, Trina C., Jennifer Fugate, and Aminda J. O'Hare. "Teaching Undergraduates to Understand Published Research through Structured Practice in Identifying Key Research Concepts." Scholarship of Teaching and Learning in Psychology . Advance online publication, 2020; Franco, Josue. “Introducing the Analysis of Journal Articles.” Prepared for presentation at the American Political Science Association’s 2020 Teaching and Learning Conference, February 7-9, 2020, Albuquerque, New Mexico; Sego, Sandra A. and Anne E. Stuart. "Learning to Read Empirical Articles in General Psychology." Teaching of Psychology 43 (2016): 38-42; Woodward-Kron, Robyn. "Critical Analysis and the Journal Article Review Assignment." Prospect 18 (August 2003): 20-36; MacMillan, Margy and Allison MacKenzie. "Strategies for Integrating Information Literacy and Academic Literacy: Helping Undergraduate Students make the most of Scholarly Articles." Library Management 33 (2012): 525-535; Kershaw, Trina C., Jordan P. Lippman, and Jennifer Fugate. "Practice Makes Proficient: Teaching Undergraduate Students to Understand Published Research." Instructional Science 46 (2018): 921-946.

Structure and Organization

A journal article analysis paper should be written in paragraph format and include an instruction to the study, your analysis of the research, and a conclusion that provides an overall assessment of the author's work, along with an explanation of what you believe is the study's overall impact and significance. Unless the purpose of the assignment is to examine foundational studies published many years ago, you should select articles that have been published relatively recently [e.g., within the past few years].

Since the research has been completed, reference to the study in your paper should be written in the past tense, with your analysis stated in the present tense [e.g., “The author portrayed access to health care services in rural areas as primarily a problem of having reliable transportation. However, I believe the author is overgeneralizing this issue because...”].

Introduction Section

The first section of a journal analysis paper should describe the topic of the article and highlight the author’s main points. This includes describing the research problem and theoretical framework, the rationale for the research, the methods of data gathering and analysis, the key findings, and the author’s final conclusions and recommendations. The narrative should focus on the act of describing rather than analyzing. Think of the introduction as a more comprehensive and detailed descriptive abstract of the study.

Possible questions to help guide your writing of the introduction section may include:

• Who are the authors and what credentials do they hold that contributes to the validity of the study?
• What was the research problem being investigated?
• What type of research design was used to investigate the research problem?
• What theoretical idea(s) and/or research questions were used to address the problem?
• What was the source of the data or information used as evidence for analysis?
• What methods were applied to investigate this evidence?
• What were the author's overall conclusions and key findings?

Critical Analysis Section

The second section of a journal analysis paper should describe the strengths and weaknesses of the study and analyze its significance and impact. This section is where you shift the narrative from describing to analyzing. Think critically about the research in relation to other course readings, what has been discussed in class, or based on your own life experiences. If you are struggling to identify any weaknesses, explain why you believe this to be true. However, no study is perfect, regardless of how laudable its design may be. Given this, think about the repercussions of the choices made by the author(s) and how you might have conducted the study differently. Examples can include contemplating the choice of what sources were included or excluded in support of examining the research problem, the choice of the method used to analyze the data, or the choice to highlight specific recommended courses of action and/or implications for practice over others. Another strategy is to place yourself within the research study itself by thinking reflectively about what may be missing if you had been a participant in the study or if the recommended courses of action specifically targeted you or your community.

Possible questions to help guide your writing of the analysis section may include:

Introduction

• Did the author clearly state the problem being investigated?
• What was your reaction to and perspective on the research problem?
• Was the study’s objective clearly stated? Did the author clearly explain why the study was necessary?
• How well did the introduction frame the scope of the study?
• Did the introduction conclude with a clear purpose statement?

Literature Review

• Did the literature review lay a foundation for understanding the significance of the research problem?
• Did the literature review provide enough background information to understand the problem in relation to relevant contexts [e.g., historical, economic, social, cultural, etc.].
• Did literature review effectively place the study within the domain of prior research? Is anything missing?
• Was the literature review organized by conceptual categories or did the author simply list and describe sources?
• Did the author accurately explain how the data or information were collected?
• Was the data used sufficient in supporting the study of the research problem?
• Was there another methodological approach that could have been more illuminating?
• Give your overall evaluation of the methods used in this article. How much trust would you put in generating relevant findings?

Results and Discussion

• Were the results clearly presented?
• Did you feel that the results support the theoretical and interpretive claims of the author? Why?
• What did the author(s) do especially well in describing or analyzing their results?
• Was the author's evaluation of the findings clearly stated?
• How well did the discussion of the results relate to what is already known about the research problem?
• Was the discussion of the results free of repetition and redundancies?
• What interpretations did the authors make that you think are in incomplete, unwarranted, or overstated?
• Did the conclusion effectively capture the main points of study?
• Did the conclusion address the research questions posed? Do they seem reasonable?
• Were the author’s conclusions consistent with the evidence and arguments presented?
• Has the author explained how the research added new knowledge or understanding?

Overall Writing Style

• If the article included tables, figures, or other non-textual elements, did they contribute to understanding the study?
• Were ideas developed and related in a logical sequence?
• Were transitions between sections of the article smooth and easy to follow?

Overall Evaluation Section

The final section of a journal analysis paper should bring your thoughts together into a coherent assessment of the value of the research study . This section is where the narrative flow transitions from analyzing specific elements of the article to critically evaluating the overall study. Explain what you view as the significance of the research in relation to the overall course content and any relevant discussions that occurred during class. Think about how the article contributes to understanding the overall research problem, how it fits within existing literature on the topic, how it relates to the course, and what it means to you as a student researcher. In some cases, your professor will also ask you to describe your experiences writing the journal article analysis paper as part of a reflective learning exercise.

Possible questions to help guide your writing of the conclusion and evaluation section may include:

• Was the structure of the article clear and well organized?
• Was the topic of current or enduring interest to you?
• What were the main weaknesses of the article? [this does not refer to limitations stated by the author, but what you believe are potential flaws]
• Was any of the information in the article unclear or ambiguous?
• What did you learn from the research? If nothing stood out to you, explain why.
• Assess the originality of the research. Did you believe it contributed new understanding of the research problem?
• Were you persuaded by the author’s arguments?
• If the author made any final recommendations, will they be impactful if applied to practice?
• In what ways could future research build off of this study?
• What implications does the study have for daily life?
• Was the use of non-textual elements, footnotes or endnotes, and/or appendices helpful in understanding the research?
• What lingering questions do you have after analyzing the article?

NOTE: Avoid using quotes. One of the main purposes of writing an article analysis paper is to learn how to effectively paraphrase and use your own words to summarize a scholarly research study and to explain what the research means to you. Using and citing a direct quote from the article should only be done to help emphasize a key point or to underscore an important concept or idea.

Business: The Article Analysis . Fred Meijer Center for Writing, Grand Valley State University; Bachiochi, Peter et al. "Using Empirical Article Analysis to Assess Research Methods Courses." Teaching of Psychology 38 (2011): 5-9; Brosowsky, Nicholaus P. et al. “Teaching Undergraduate Students to Read Empirical Articles: An Evaluation and Revision of the QALMRI Method.” PsyArXi Preprints , 2020; Holster, Kristin. “Article Evaluation Assignment”. TRAILS: Teaching Resources and Innovations Library for Sociology . Washington DC: American Sociological Association, 2016; Kershaw, Trina C., Jennifer Fugate, and Aminda J. O'Hare. "Teaching Undergraduates to Understand Published Research through Structured Practice in Identifying Key Research Concepts." Scholarship of Teaching and Learning in Psychology . Advance online publication, 2020; Franco, Josue. “Introducing the Analysis of Journal Articles.” Prepared for presentation at the American Political Science Association’s 2020 Teaching and Learning Conference, February 7-9, 2020, Albuquerque, New Mexico; Reviewer's Guide . SAGE Reviewer Gateway, SAGE Journals; Sego, Sandra A. and Anne E. Stuart. "Learning to Read Empirical Articles in General Psychology." Teaching of Psychology 43 (2016): 38-42; Kershaw, Trina C., Jordan P. Lippman, and Jennifer Fugate. "Practice Makes Proficient: Teaching Undergraduate Students to Understand Published Research." Instructional Science 46 (2018): 921-946; Gyuris, Emma, and Laura Castell. "To Tell Them or Show Them? How to Improve Science Students’ Skills of Critical Reading." International Journal of Innovation in Science and Mathematics Education 21 (2013): 70-80; Woodward-Kron, Robyn. "Critical Analysis and the Journal Article Review Assignment." Prospect 18 (August 2003): 20-36; MacMillan, Margy and Allison MacKenzie. "Strategies for Integrating Information Literacy and Academic Literacy: Helping Undergraduate Students Make the Most of Scholarly Articles." Library Management 33 (2012): 525-535.

Writing Tip

Not All Scholarly Journal Articles Can Be Critically Analyzed

There are a variety of articles published in scholarly journals that do not fit within the guidelines of an article analysis assignment. This is because the work cannot be empirically examined or it does not generate new knowledge in a way which can be critically analyzed.

If you are required to locate a research study on your own, avoid selecting these types of journal articles:

• Theoretical essays which discuss concepts, assumptions, and propositions, but report no empirical research;
• Statistical or methodological papers that may analyze data, but the bulk of the work is devoted to refining a new measurement, statistical technique, or modeling procedure;
• Articles that review, analyze, critique, and synthesize prior research, but do not report any original research;
• Brief essays devoted to research methods and findings;
• Articles written by scholars in popular magazines or industry trade journals;
• Pre-print articles that have been posted online, but may undergo further editing and revision by the journal's editorial staff before final publication; and
• Academic commentary that discusses research trends or emerging concepts and ideas, but does not contain citations to sources.

Journal Analysis Assignment - Myers . Writing@CSU, Colorado State University; Franco, Josue. “Introducing the Analysis of Journal Articles.” Prepared for presentation at the American Political Science Association’s 2020 Teaching and Learning Conference, February 7-9, 2020, Albuquerque, New Mexico; Woodward-Kron, Robyn. "Critical Analysis and the Journal Article Review Assignment." Prospect 18 (August 2003): 20-36.

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Analyzing the Differences: Research Paper vs. Analysis Paper

This article seeks to analyze the differences between two types of writing – research papers and analysis papers. While both require a similar level of thought, each type requires a different approach when it comes to researching and presenting information. Through an examination of the respective characteristics that distinguish these forms of writing from one another, we can gain valuable insight into what factors make for effective written communication in either format. Furthermore, by considering how best to utilize these features within our own work, we can enhance its overall quality and effectiveness in conveying our ideas and messages accurately.

I. Introduction: Exploring the Distinction between a Research Paper and an Analysis Paper

Ii. understanding the purpose of a research paper, iii. defining elements of analysing in an analysis paper, iv. identifying common formats for writing each type of paper.

• V. Assessing Sources Appropriate to Use for each Kind of Assignment
• VI. Examining Strategies Used by Writers When Composing either Type of Document

VII. Conclusion: Analyzing the Key Differences Between A Research and An Analysis Paper

Understanding the Variance in Research and Analysis Papers

It is essential to understand how research papers and analysis papers differ, as many of their features can be easily confused. They are both academic documents used for assessment or scholarly communication, but they present information differently. The most notable distinction between them lies in the presentation of evidence: while a research paper relies on facts gathered from an extensive background search, an analysis paper takes this data further by exploring deeper implications that provide greater insight into the topic at hand.

The first step when writing either type of document is proper organization; structure is key to getting your point across accurately and effectively. When constructing a research paper you must maintain objectivity with clear explanations supported by accurate sources; conversely, an analysis involves interpretation rather than straightforward facts – so strong reasoning skills should take precedence here as well. In addition to providing reliable arguments based upon sound logic throughout your composition, there are other areas where these two forms vary substantially including content length and depth of discussion required around each issue addressed within them respectively.

• Research Paper:
• >May be longer (5-10 pages)

Research Papers vs Analysis Papers

At first glance, the terms research paper and analysis paper may appear interchangeable. However, these two types of writing projects have distinct purposes that must be understood before starting any project. A research paper involves a deep dive into a particular subject to uncover new facts or data while an analysis paper uses those facts and data in order to form an argument.

When conducting research for a research paper, it is important to source information from reliable sources such as academic journals and books written by professionals on the topic at hand. With this knowledge, authors are then able to generate their own original ideas regarding the researched material which can further inform their findings in additional ways than what was originally found through researching existing literature on said topics. This newfound understanding can provide insight into different interpretations of similar material which adds depth and understanding beyond simply recounting someone else’s work; it provides readers with various perspectives based off objective fact-finding methods rather than personal opinion or bias towards one side over another.

In contrast, when writing an analysis essay all of this prior contextual information serves only as evidence that informs your conclusion – not necessarily as primary content within your argument itself; meaning instead you should focus on organizing these pieces of evidence provided alongside relevant examples/data (elements like logos & ethos) with well structured statements designed around persuasively conveying your perspective(s). Additionally depending upon who you’re attempting to reach via said piece you should also seek out counterarguments along with rebuttals so that any audience reading feels both informed and engaged throughout each part of its composition without feeling bias coming through too strongly either way at times too – resulting in effective arguments more akin most closely resembling judicial decisions rather than complex philosophical musings about life!

Exploring the Different Types of Analysis Papers

When writing an analysis paper, it’s important to understand that there are two primary types: research papers and analytical papers. Research papers present information about a specific topic through investigation, while analytical papers focus more on exploring and breaking down a concept or idea into its components in order to explain how they work together. Each type serves different purposes depending upon the scope of the assignment; however, both share some common elements.

The defining elements for analyzing in an analysis paper include gathering relevant data related to the topic at hand, evaluating this data objectively with logical reasoning processes such as deductive thinking methods, researching evidence-based sources for further clarification and validation of points being made within the paper itself. Further understanding can be gained by constructing strong arguments based on supportive evidence that has been collected from reliable source material. Ultimately any conclusions should be drawn from these objective evaluations and supported with thorough research so as not to bias opinion when forming argumentative claims throughout one’s essay.

When writing papers, the formatting and content of each document may vary based on its purpose. To ensure your paper is correctly formatted, it’s important to consider which type you are creating. Here are two popular formats for different types of documents:

• Research Papers:
• Analysis Papers:

In conclusion, there are a number of key differences between research and analysis papers. Research focuses on investigating existing knowledge from primary and secondary sources while analysis centers around interpretation of the collected information to generate new ideas or draw specific conclusions. A research paper involves extensive literature review which helps build an understanding for further investigation into a topic, whereas an analysis paper requires one to delve deeper into data in order to dissect patterns that may exist within it.

When creating either type of document, researchers should be sure they approach the task with the right mindset: when researching ask “what has been said”; when analyzing ask “how does this change what we know?” To truly understand both concepts fully is paramount for successful outcomes – whether it is uncovering trends through statistical methods or writing compelling essays based on evidence found from credible sources.

The analysis of the differences between research papers and analysis papers has been explored in great detail, providing useful insights for readers. From outlining the characteristics of each type to highlighting the appropriate purpose for each paper, this article has provided a comprehensive look at how these two types of writing differ from one another. Furthermore, it is important that students recognize when an assignment calls for a research paper or an analysis paper so they can successfully meet their academic requirements. Ultimately, with all this information now available to them regarding analyzing the differences between research papers and analytical papers, students should be well-equipped to tackle any task ahead of them!

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Types of Research Papers: Overview

A research paper is simply a piece of writing that uses outside sources. There are different types of research papers with varying purposes and expectations for sourcing.

While this guide explains those differences broadly, ask your professor about specific disciplinary conventions.

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Online Vs Traditional Classes: a Comparative Analysis

This essay about the debate between online and traditional classroom learning outlines the pros and cons of each educational approach. It paints a vivid picture of traditional classrooms, highlighting the benefits of real-time interactions and structured learning environments that foster a sense of community and accountability. On the other hand, online learning is praised for its flexibility, accessibility, and the ability to cater to diverse learning styles, making education more inclusive for students worldwide. The essay acknowledges the challenges of online learning, such as the need for self-discipline and the potential for isolation. Ultimately, it suggests that the future of education may lie in hybrid models, which combine the strengths of both traditional and online formats to offer a more personalized and adaptable learning experience. The essence of the discussion is that the choice between online and traditional learning should be based on individual needs, learning styles, and life circumstances, emphasizing the evolving nature of education in meeting the needs of all learners. At PapersOwl too, you can discover numerous free essay illustrations related to Online vs Traditional Classes.

How it works

Let’s dive into a hot topic that’s been buzzing around education circles lately: the showdown between online and traditional in-person classes. It’s not just about where we learn anymore but how we adapt to the changing tides of education in a world that never hits the pause button.

Remember the good old days of rushing to class, the smell of textbooks, and the sound of chalk on the board? That’s the traditional classroom for you. It’s a place where you can’t replace the vibe of real-time debates and the chance to throw questions at your professor without hitting the ‘mute’ button.

There’s something about being physically there, surrounded by classmates, that creates a unique learning pulse. It’s where procrastinators find their rhythm, thanks to the structured schedule and the watchful eyes of instructors.

Then there’s the digital frontier – online classes. Picture learning from your couch in pajamas, with the freedom to hit pause on a lecture to grab a coffee. Online learning is the VIP pass to education without borders, where anyone, anywhere, can jump into courses they’ve dreamed about. It’s a game-changer for those juggling jobs, family, or just life in general, offering a way to learn on your own terms. Plus, it’s a digital native’s playground, with interactive content that can make even the driest subjects come alive.

But let’s be real, online learning isn’t everyone’s cup of tea. It demands a level of self-discipline that can feel like climbing Mount Everest. And sometimes, it can get lonely without the buzz of campus life and face-to-face chats with peers and professors.

The truth is, choosing between online and traditional classes isn’t about picking a side. It’s more about what fits your life, learning style, and goals. And guess what? The education world is getting creative with hybrid models that mix the best of both worlds. Imagine diving into online lectures at your pace during the week and then joining in-person workshops or discussions to tie it all together. It’s like having your cake and eating it too.

In wrapping up, the journey through education is evolving, with a menu of options wider than ever. Whether it’s the classic classroom vibe or the digital realm’s flexibility, the goal remains the same: learning in a way that lights up your brain and fits into your world. As we look ahead, the blend of online and traditional learning points to a future where education is not one-size-fits-all but an exciting palette of possibilities ready to match every learner’s taste.

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A global analysis of habitat fragmentation research in reptiles and amphibians: what have we done so far?

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• Volume 32 , pages 439–468, ( 2023 )

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Habitat change and fragmentation are the primary causes of biodiversity loss worldwide. Recent decades have seen a surge of funding, published papers and citations in the field as these threats to biodiversity continue to rise. However, how research directions and agenda are evolving in this field remains poorly understood. In this study, we examined the current state of research on habitat fragmentation (due to agriculture, logging, fragmentation, urbanisation and roads) pertaining to two of the most threatened vertebrate groups, reptiles and amphibians. We did so by conducting a global scale review of geographical and taxonomical trends on the habitat fragmentation types, associated sampling methods and response variables. Our analyses revealed a number of biases with existing research efforts being focused on three continents (e.g., North America, Europe and Australia) and a surplus of studies measuring species richness and abundance. However, we saw a shift in research agenda towards studies utilising technological advancements including genetic and spatial data analyses. Our findings suggest important associations between sampling methods and prevalent response variables but not with the types of habitat fragmentation. These research agendas are found homogeneously distributed across all continents. Increased research investment with appropriate sampling techniques is crucial in biodiversity hotpots such as the tropics where unprecedented threats to herpetofauna exist.

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Introduction

Habitat loss and fragmentation are the predominant causes underlying widespread biodiversity changes in terrestrial ecosystems (Fahrig 2003 ; Newbold et al. 2015 ). These processes may cause population declines by disrupting processes such as dispersal, gene flow, and survival. Over the past 30 years habitat loss and fragmentation have been suggested to have reduced biodiversity by up to 75% in different biomes around the world (Haddad et al. 2015 ). This is mainly due to the clearing of tropical forests, the expansion of agricultural landscapes, the intensification of farmland production, and the expansion of urban areas (FAO and UNEP 2020 ). The rate of deforestation and corresponding land conversions of natural habitats are happening rapidly and will continue to increase in the future at an accelerated rate, particularly in biodiversity hotspots (Deikumah et al. 2014 ; Habel et al. 2019 ; FAO and UNEP 2020 ).

For this reason, habitat fragmentation has been a central research focus for ecologists and conservationists over the past two decades (Fardila et al. 2017 ). However, habitat fragmentation consists of two different processes: loss of habitat and fragmentation of existing habitat (Fahrig 2003 ). The former simply means the removal of habitat, and latter is the transformation of continuous areas into discontinuous patches of a given habitat. In a radical review, Fahrig ( 2003 ) suggested that fragmentation per se, i.e., the breaking up of habitat after controlling for habitat loss, has a weaker or even no effect on biodiversity compared to habitat loss. She further recommended that the effects of these two components should be measured independently (Fahrig 2017 ). Despite being recognised as two different processes, researchers tend not to distinguish between their effects and commonly lump the combined consequences under a single umbrella term “habitat fragmentation” (Fahrig 2003 , 2017 ; Lindenmayer and Fischer 2007 ; Riva and Fahrig 2022 ). Nonetheless, fragmentation has been widely recognised in the literature and describes changes that occur in landscapes, including the loss of habitat (Hadley and Betts 2016 ). Hence, to avoid imprecise or inconsistent use of terminology and provide a holistic view of the effect of modified landscapes, we suggest the term “habitat fragmentation” to indicate any type of landscape change, both habitat loss and fragmentation throughout the current paper.

One main conundrum is that biodiversity decline does not occur homogeneously everywhere nor among all species (Blowes et al. 2019 ). Moreover, we should expect a global disparity in biodiversity responses to habitat fragmentation across different biomes (Newbold et al. 2020 ; Cordier et al. 2021 ). For example, tropical regions are predicted to have higher negative effects of habitat fragmentation than temperate regions. There are two possible reasons: a) higher intensification of land use change in the tropics (Barlow et al. 2018 ), and b) forest animals in the tropics are less likely to cross open areas (Lindell et al. 2007 ). Furthermore, individual species respond to landscape modification differently; some thrive whereas others decline (Fahrig 2003 ). Habitat specialists with broader habitat tolerance and wide-ranging distributions are most likely to benefit from increase landscape heterogeneity and more open and edge habitat (Hamer and McDonnell 2008 ; Newbold et al. 2014 ; Palmeirim et al. 2017 ). Therefore, appropriate response metrics should be used in measuring the effect of habitat fragmentation on biodiversity depending on the taxa group, biome and scale of study as patterns of richness can sometimes be masked by the abundance of generalist species (Riemann et al. 2015 ; Palmeirim et al. 2017 ).

Previous reviews have identified general patterns and responses of reptile and amphibian populations to habitat modification. They have been largely centred around specific types of habitat fragmentation: land use change (Newbold et al. 2020 ), logging (Sodhi et al. 2004 ), fragmentation per se (Fahrig 2017 ), urbanisation (Hamer and McDonnell 2008 ; McDonald et al. 2013 ), fire (Driscoll et al. 2021 ), and roads (Rytwinski and Fahrig 2012 ). Few reviews have, however, attempted a global synthesis of all types of land use changes and even fewer have addressed biases in geographical regions and taxonomical groups (but see Gardner et al. ( 2007 ) and Cordier et al. ( 2021 )). Gardner et al. ( 2007 ) synthesised the extant literature and focused on 112 papers on the consequences of habitat fragmentation on reptiles and amphibians published between 1945 and 2006. They found substantial biases across geographic regions, biomes, types of data collected as well as sampling design and effort. However, failure to report basic statistics by many studies prevented them from performing meta-analyses on research conclusions. More recently, a review by Cordier et al. ( 2021 ) conducted a meta-analysis based on 94 primary studies on the overall effects of land use changes through time and across the globe. Yet, there has been no comprehensive synthesis on the research patterns and agenda of published literature on habitat fragmentation associated with the recent advances of novel research tools and techniques. Therefore, our review may provide new insights of the evolution and biases in the field over the last decades and provide a basis for future research directions. Knowledge gaps caused by these biases could hamper the development of habitat fragmentation research and the implementation of effective strategies for conservation.

We aim to remedy this by examining research patterns for the two vertebrate classes Amphibia and Reptilia, at a global scale. We chose amphibians and reptiles for several reasons. First, habitat fragmentation research has been dominated by birds and mammals (Fardila et al. 2017 ). Reptiles and amphibians, on the other hand, are under-represented; together, they constitute only 10% of the studies (Fardila et al. 2017 ). Second, high proportions of amphibian and reptile species are threatened globally. To date, more than one third of amphibian (40%) and one in five reptile species (21%) are threatened with extinction (Stuart et al. 2004 ; Cox et al. 2022 ). Amphibians are known to be susceptible to land transformation as a result of their cryptic nature, habitat requirements, and reduced dispersal ability (Green 2003 ; Sodhi et al. 2008 ; Ofori‐Boateng et al. 2013 ; Nowakowski et al. 2017 ). Although poorly studied (with one in five species classified as data deficient) (Böhm et al. 2013 ), reptiles face the same threats as those impacting amphibians (Gibbons et al. 2000 ; Todd et al. 2010 ; Cox et al. 2022 ). Reptiles have small distributional ranges with high endemism compared to other vertebrates and as such are likely vulnerable to habitat fragmentation (Todd et al. 2010 ; Meiri et al. 2018 ). Third, both these groups are poikilotherms whose physiology makes them highly dependent on temperature and precipitation levels. Hence, they are very sensitive to changing thermal landscapes (Nowakowski et al. 2017 ).

Here, we first ask how is the published literature distributed across geographic regions and taxa? Is there a bias in the geographic distribution of species studied compared to known species? It is well known that conservation and research efforts are often concentrated in wealthy and English-speaking countries (Fazey et al. 2005 ), but has this bias improved over the years? Second, how are researchers conducting these studies? We assess whether certain sampling methods and response variables are associated to specific types of habitat fragmentation. Over the past decades new tools and techniques are constantly being discovered or developed. Combinations of methodologies are now shedding new light on biodiversity responses and consequences of habitat fragmentation. In particular, genetic techniques are useful in detecting changes in population structure, identifying isolated genetic clusters, and in estimating dispersal (Smith et al. 2016 ). Similarly, habitat occupancy and modelling can also provide powerful insights into dispersal (Driscoll et al. 2014 ). Remote sensing data are now used in analysing effects of area, edge, and isolation (Ray et al. 2002 ). Finally, how are these associations or research agendas distributed across space? We expect to find geographic structure of emerging agendas across the globe. For instance, we predict genetic studies to be located in North America and Europe but also in East Asian countries such as China and Japan as a result of their advancement in genetics (Forero et al. 2016 ). On the other hand, simple biodiversity response indicators which do not require extensive capacity building and application of advanced technologies are likely more used in developing regions of the world (Barber et al. 2014 ). These findings are valuable to evaluate and update the global status of our research on the effects of habitat fragmentation on herpetofauna and to suggest recommendations for conservation plans.

Materials and methods

Data collection.

We conducted the review according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines (Fig.  1 ) (Moher et al. 2009 ). We conducted a comprehensive and exhaustive search using Web of Science to review published studies reporting the consequences of habitat fragmentation on amphibians and reptiles. We consulted the database in November 2019 by using two general search strings: (1) Habitat fragmentation AND (frog* OR amphib* OR salamander* OR tadpole*) (2) Habitat fragmentation AND (reptil* OR snake* OR lizard* OR turtle* OR crocodile*). This returned a total of 869 records from search (1) and 795 from search (2), with 1421 unique records remaining after duplicates were removed. We did not include “habitat loss” in our search term as it would only introduce unrelated articles focusing on biodiversity and conservation management instead of methodology and mechanistic approaches.

PRISMA flow-diagram of the study selection process

Throughout, we use the term papers to refer to individual journal article records. Out of the 1421 papers, we were unfortunately not able to locate seven papers from Acta Oecologica, Zoology: Analysis of Complex Systems, Israel Journal of Ecology and Evolution, Western North American Naturalist, Natural Areas Journal, Ecology, and the Herpetological Journal. We screened all articles from the title through the full text to determine whether they met our criteria for inclusion. To be included, studies needed to fulfil several criteria. First, papers needed to be peer-reviewed journal articles containing data collected on reptiles and/or amphibians at the species level (224 articles rejected because no species-specific data was available). Reviews and metastudies (n = 102) were excluded from the data analysis as they may represent duplicates as they are mainly based on data sets from other papers, but these form an integral part of our discussion. Furthermore, papers which do not provide data on contemporary time scales such as long-term (> 10, 000 years ago) changes on the paleo-spatial patterns (n = 59) were excluded. Because the effects of fragmentation per se have been measured inconsistently by many authors and have not been differentiated from habitat removal (Fahrig 2003 ), we consider any recent anthropogenic habitat degradation, and modification at patch or/and landscape scales during the Holocene as an effect of habitat fragmentation. Only papers which examined direct or indirect effects of habitat fragmentation were included in our analysis, regardless of the magnitude and direction. Papers which did not mention specific types of habitat fragmentation as the focus of their study (n = 338) were excluded.

Geographical and taxonomical distribution

Using the selected papers, we compiled a taxonomic and geographical database for each paper: (a) GPS or georeferenced location of the study site; (b) the focal group investigated (amphibian and/or reptile); (c) taxonomic groups (order, family, genus).

We listed the overall number of species studied covered by selected papers in each continent and compared them to the total number of currently described species. We obtained total described species of both reptiles and amphibians from the following sources: ReptileDatabase (Uetz et al. 2021 ) and AmphibiaWeb (AmphibiaWeb 2021 ). Then, we calculated the proportions of species covered by the selected papers compared to total number of described species for each continent. We did not update species nomenclature from selected papers as the mismatches from these potentially outdated taxonomies would be insignificant in our analyses.

Categorisation of papers

Each paper is classified into three main types of data collected: forms of habitat fragmentation, sampling methods, and response variables (Online Appendix 1). A paper can be classified into one or multiple categories in each type of data. The types of data and their following categories were:

Forms of habitat fragmentation

We recorded different types of habitat fragmentation from the selection of studies: (1) “Fragmentation” (includes patch isolation, edge and area effects); (2) “Agriculture” (includes any form of commercial and subsistence farming such as monocultures, plantations, and livestock farming); (3) “Logging” (e.g., agroforestry and silviculture); (4) “Mining” (presence of mining activities); (5) “Urbanisation” (includes presence of cities, towns or villages and parks created for recreational purposes); (6) “Road” (includes any vehicle roadway such as railways and highways) and (7) “Other types of habitat fragmentation” (e.g., fire, river dams, ditches, diseases, desertification etc.). Many studies deal with more than one type of habitat fragmentation. However, we made sure the selection for fragmentation forms is mainly based on the focus and wordings in the methodology section.

Sampling methods

We report trends in the design and sampling methods among the compiled studies over the last three decades. Due to the substantial variability in the level of sample design information reported by different studies, we narrowed them down into six general categories representing common sampling methods. Common methods used in estimating herpetofauna diversity (e.g., visual transect surveys, acoustic monitoring and trapping methods) were not included in the analyses due to their omnipresence in the data. The categories are:

(1) “Genetics” studies documented any use of codominant markers (i.e., allozymes and microsatellites), dominant markers [i.e., DNA sequences, random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPDs) and amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLPs)] to analyse genetic variability and gene diversity respectively. (2) “Direct tracking methods” studies measured potential dispersal distances or species movement patterns by means of radio telemetry, mark-recapture methods, or fluorescent powder tracking. (3) “Aerial photographs” studies reported the use of aerial photographs while (4) “GIS/Satellite image” studies described the use of satellite imagery and land cover data (i.e., Landsat) and GIS programs (e.g., QGIS and ArcGIS, etc.) in analysing spatial variables. (5) “Experimental” studies involved predictions tested through empirical studies, regardless if they occur naturally or artificially; in a natural or a captive environment. (6) “Prediction/simulation models” studies made use of techniques such as ecological niche models, habitat suitability (i.e., occurrence and occupancy models) and simulations for probability of survival and population connectivity.

Response variables

To further conceptualise how the effects of habitat fragmentation are measured, we assigned 12 biodiversity or ecological response variables. We recorded the type of data that was used in all selected studies: (1) “Species richness or diversity” which are measures of species richness, evenness or diversity (such as the Shannon–Wiener index) (Colwell 2009 ); (2) “Functional richness or species guilds” describes diversity indices based on functional traits (such as body size, reproductive modes, microhabitat association or taxonomic groups); (3) “Presence/absence” or species occupancy; (4) “Population” includes an estimation of population size or density (only when measured specifically in the paper). It includes genetic variation and divergence within and between populations; (5) “Abundance” or counts of individuals for comparison between habitat fragmentation type or species; (6) “Dispersal” takes into account any displacement or movement and can include indirect measurements of dispersal using genetic techniques; (7) “Breeding sites” which measures available breeding or reproduction sites; (8) “Fitness measure” are records of any physiological, ecological or behavioural changes; (9) “Interspecific interaction” depicts any interaction between species including competition and predation; (10) “Extinction or colonisation rate” counts the number of population extinctions or colonisations within a time period; (11) “Microhabitat preference” includes any direct observation made on an individual’s surrounding environmental features (substrate type, perch height, vegetation type, distance to cover etc.); (12) “Generalist or specialist comparison” involves any comparison made between generalist and specialist species. Generalists are able to thrive in various environments whereas specialists occupy a much narrower niche; (13) “Other response variables” can include road kill mortality counts, infection rate of diseases, injury, or any effect from introduced animals and a variety of other responses.

Data analysis

All statistical analyses were conducted in the open source statistical software package R 4.1.0 (R Core Team 2021 ). To gain a broad insight into our understanding of the complexity of habitat fragmentation we applied a Multiple Correspondence Analysis (MCA) (Roux and Rouanet 2004 ) and Hierarchical Clustering on Principle Components (HCPC) (Ward 1963 ) to investigate potential interactions between forms of habitat fragmentation, sampling methods and response variables. MCA is ideal for investigation of datasets with multiple categorical variables and exploration of unbiased relationships between these variables.

We first separate the dataset into papers concerning amphibians or reptiles. The MCA was performed using the MCA function from FactoMineR package of R version 3.1 (Lê et al. 2008 ). To identify subgroups (cluster) of similar papers within our dataset, we performed cluster analysis on our MCA results using HCPC. The cluster results are then visualised in factor map and dendrogram for easier interpretation using factoextra package. This allows us to identify categorical variables which have the highest effect within each cluster. Statistical analyses were considered significant at α = 0.05, while a p between 0.10 and 0.05 was considered as a tendency. The p-value is less than 5% when one category is significantly linked to other categories. The V tests show whether the category is over-expressed (positive values) or under-expressed (negative values) in the cluster (Lebart et al. 1995 ).

Results from the literature review were also analysed with VOSviewer, freeware for constructing and visualising bibliometric networks ( http://www.vosviewer.com/ ). The program uses clustering techniques to analyse co-authors, co-occurrence of keywords, citations, or co-citations (van Eck and Waltman 2014 ). First, we analyse co-authorships of countries to provide a geographical representation of groups of authors in various countries over the past 30 years. Each circle represents an author’s country and the size represents the collaboration frequency with other countries. The lines between the nodes represent the collaboration networks between the countries while the thickness of the lines indicates the collaboration intensities between them. Lastly, to complement the MCA and HCPC, we used VOSviewer to analyse a clustering solution of categories at an aggregate level. Aggregate clustering is a meta-clustering method to improve the robustness of clustering and does not require a priori information about the number of clusters. In this case, instead of author’s keywords, we used the co-occurrence of categories associated to each selected paper as input to run the software.

We identified a total of 698 papers published between January 1991 and November 2019 reporting consequences of habitat fragmentations corresponding to our selection criteria (Fig.  1 ). The complete list of studies included (hereafter termed “selected papers”) is available in Online Appendix 2. The distribution of these selected papers between focal groups and among continents was non-homogeneous (Fig.  2 ). Selected papers reviewed were predominantly studies which were conducted in North America 310 (44%) and Europe 131 (19%), but also from Oceania 104 (15%), South America 85 (12%), Asia 37 (5%) and Africa 31 (5%). For co-authorships between countries based on VOSviewer, the minimum document number of a country was set as 5 and a total of 21 and 14 countries met the threshold for amphibians and reptiles respectively (Fig.  3 ). For amphibians, countries in the American continent such as United States of America or USA (178 articles), Brazil (38 articles) and Canada (35 articles) have the largest research weight (Fig.  3 a). Authors from the USA have the largest international cooperation network, followed by Brazil. Australia and other European countries such as Germany, France and England also have high collaboration relationships with other countries. In contrast, reptile studies were mainly concentrated around two countries: the USA (139 articles) and Australia (86 articles) (Fig.  3 b). No other country from the rest of the world has more than 20 articles. While both the USA and Australia have the largest collaboration networks, Canada, Spain and Mexico are also highly cooperative with authors from other countries.

Map of study locations for a amphibians and b reptiles with each circle representing the study location of papers included in the review. The colour scale of the continents ranging from 0 – 0.9 indicates the proportions of amphibian and reptile species represented in the reviewed papers when compared to known species in the world (obtained from AmphibiaWeb and ReptileDatabase): a Europe (0.73), Africa (0.23), North America (0.23), South America (0.18), Oceania (0.07) and Asia (0.06) and b Europe (0.27), Oceania (0.18), Africa (0.12), North America (0.11), South America (0.09) and Asia (0.02)

Co-authorship map of countries involved in habitat fragmentation research in a amphibians and b reptiles. The colours represent the continents countries belong to. Each circle represents an author’s country and the size represents the collaboration frequency with other countries. The lines between the nodes represent the collaboration networks between the countries while the thickness of the lines indicates the collaboration intensities between them. Category co-occurrence network maps for c amphibians and d reptiles. The colour represents the different cluster groups each category belongs to. Abbreviations for the categories in forms of habitat change: fragmentation (FGM), agriculture (AGR), Logging (LOG), Mining (MIN), Urbanisation (URB), road (RD), other habitat fragmentation (OHC); sampling methods: genetics (GEN), direct tracking method (DTM), aerial photographs (APT), GIS/ Satellite images (GIS), experimental (EXP), prediction/ simulation models (PSM) and response variables: species richness/ diversity (SPR), functional richness/ species guild (FCR), presence/ absence (PAS), population (POP), abundance (ABD), dispersal (DSP), breeding sites (BRD), fitness measure (FIT), interspecific interaction (INT),extinction/ colonisation rate (ECR), microhabitat preference (MHP), comparison between generalist and specialist (CGS), other response varialbes (ORV) (see also Online Appendix 1). Maps are created in VOSviewer

Overall, over half of all selected papers included only amphibians (376 papers; 54%), whilst 276 papers (39%) included only reptiles and 46 papers (7%) assessed both reptiles and amphibians. In relation to species richness, we identified 1490 amphibian species and 1199 reptile species across all papers; among which 141 taxa were not identified to species level but were still included in our analyses as taxonomic units analogous to species (Online Appendix 2). Among these species, more than half of the studied amphibians were found in South America (537; 38%) and North America (328; 23%), followed by Africa (297; 21%), Asia (137; 10%), Europe (77; 5%), and Oceania (51; 3%). Half of the reptile species studied were from North America (302; 25%) and Africa (278; 23%), with the other half consisting of species from Oceania (276; 23%), South America (200; 17%), Europe (76; 6%), and Asia (67; 6%).

When compared to the known species richness in the world, large portions of European species are studied while species from other continents were severely under-represented (Fig.  2 ). The proportions of amphibian species represented in papers were the highest in Europe (73%), while the proportions are much lower for Africa (23%), North America (23%), South America (18%), Oceania (7%) and Asia (6%) (Fig.  2 a). Among reptiles, Europe represents again the highest proportion of studied species (27%), followed by Oceania (18%), Africa (12%), North America (11%) and South America (8.9%) (Fig.  2 b). In contrast, of all Asian reptile species, only a mere 1.73% were included in the selected papers. The species coverage in our selected papers does not seem optimistic. Amphibians and reptiles each have only six families with more than half of the species covered (including three reptilian families containing one species in total). Meanwhile, 23 and 25 families remain fully neglected for amphibians and reptiles respectively (Figs.  4 – 5 ).

Species coverage for each taxonomic family in selected papers of amphibians. The numbers on each row indicate the total number of species known in its respective family (obtained from AmphibiaWeb 2021 )

Species coverage for each taxonomic family in selected papers of reptiles. The numbers on each row indicate the total number of species known in its respective family (obtained from ReptileDatabase)

Multiple correspondence analysis provided important insights into underlying patterns in our data allowing us to visualise the relationship between forms of habitat fragmentation (Median = 1 [1–4]), sampling methods (Median = 1 [0–5]) and response variables (Median = 2 [1–6]). Percentage of variance (or eigenvalues) from MCA output represents the contribution of each dimension in explaining the observed patterns. The top ten new dimensions identified by MCA explained a total of 61.64% and 61.16% of the total variance for amphibians and reptiles respectively. The two dimensions with the highest variance percentages explained were found in the first (Dim1, 12.55%) and second (Dim2, 9.13%) dimensions in amphibians (Online Appendix 3–4). Genetics (sampling method; 13.73%) and population (response variable; 12.39%) contributed the most to Dim1, together with species richness (response variable;10.41%) and dispersal (response variable; 9.20%). For Dim2, experimental (sampling method; 14.38%) was the dominant variable, the rest was determined by GIS/Satellite images (sampling method; 9.71%), fitness measure (response variable; 9.12%) and urbanisation (form of fragmentation; 8.94%). For reptiles, the two dimensions explaining the most variation were the first (Dim1, 11.34%) and second (Dim2, 8.28%) dimensions (Online Appendix 3–4). The variables contributing the most to Dim1 were species richness (response variable; 15.51%), abundance (response variable; 10.11%), presence/absence (response variable; 6.97%) and genetics (sampling method; 6.39%). On the other hand, Dim2 was determined by interspecific interaction (response variable; 13.49%), genetics (12.79%), experimental methods (sampling method; 11.21%) and fitness measure (response variable; 10.94%). The contribution of each category to the definition of the dimensions is reported in Online Appendix 3. The categories identified in the MCA dimensions are subsequently used for building the distance matrix in the clustering analysis.

The HCPC analysis identified three clusters of variables for amphibians and reptiles (Online Appendix 5–6). The output of the HCPC analysis is reported in Online Appendix 7. V test represent the influence of variables in the cluster composition. In general, three clusters for both amphibians and reptiles appeared to be uniquely similar by definition of categories (Fig.  6 ). For amphibians, cluster 1 was defined by studies on species richness (p < 0.05, V test = 14.30) and presence/absence (p < 0.05, V test = 13.42), while cluster 2 was determined by experimental studies (p < 0.05, V test = 10.95) and fitness measures (p < 0.05, V test = 9.77). Cluster 3 was defined by genetics (p < 0.05, V test = 18.44) and population studies (p < 0.05, V test = 17.73) (Online Appendix 7). Abundance and functional richness were also unique to cluster 1; other response variables and direct tracking methods were important to cluster 2 and dispersal was present in cluster 3 even though these variables are less expressed (Fig.  6 a).

Percentage contribution of the categories contributing to the uniqueness of each cluster in amphibians (Dark green = 1, Bright green = 2, Bright yellow = 3) and reptiles (Dark red = 1, Orange = 2, Dark yellow = 3) based on the Cla/Mod results of HCPC (see Online Appendix 7). Abbreviations for the categories can be found in Fig.  3 and in Online Appendix 1

For reptiles, cluster 1 was represented by species richness (p < 0.05, V test = 14.26), abundance (p < 0.05, V test = 11.22) and presence absence (p < 0.05, V test = 8.55) papers, whereas cluster 2 was determined by papers on fitness measures (p < 0.05, V test = 10.99), direct tracking methods (p < 0.05, V test = 8.64) and interspecific interaction (p < 0.05, V test = 7.86), and cluster 3 was defined by genetics (p < 0.05, V test = 12.79), population (p < 0.05, V test = 9.95) and prediction/simulation models (p < 0.05, V test = 7.68) papers (Online Appendix 7). Although slightly less expressed in the clusters, papers using comparisons between generalist and specialist species and papers on functional richness were also unique to cluster 1; experimental methods and other response variables were heavily present in cluster 2, while dispersal studies were distinct to cluster 3 (Fig.  6 b).

Results from VOSviewer categories of both amphibians and reptiles appear to be similar to each other (Fig.  3 c, d). The clustering of the categories in the co-occurrence network maps confirms what we observed in the HCPC results (Fig.  6 ). In addition to geographical representation of study locations in (1), the corresponding clusters of selected papers are also mapped in Figs.  7 and 8 to investigate the spatial grouping patterns for the three clusters (see Online Appendix 8–9 for geographical representation for each category). We also plotted the temporal trend in Online Appendix 10 and 11. Overall, the three clusters are distributed homogeneously across the globe, but concentrated in the USA, Europe and south eastern Australia. Cluster 1 papers were found to be the most predominant cluster in amphibians (57% papers) across all continents (see Online Appendix 12; Fig.  7 ). When compared to other clusters, studies from this cluster are often conducted in Afrotropics, particularly Madagascar (100% papers), central (Costa Rica (60% papers) and Mexico (92% papers) and south America (80% papers) (Online Appendix 12, Figs.  7 , 8 ). On the other hand, cluster 2 papers appear to be more prevalent for reptile studies compared to amphibian studies, with a higher number of studies conducted across North America (65 to 51) and Australia (22 to 2) (Figs.  7 , 8 ). Lastly, a vast majority of cluster 3 papers were located in North America and Europe (both contributing to 79% of the papers) for amphibians and North America and Australia (both contributing to 84% of the papers) for reptiles (Online Appendix 12, Figs.  7 , 8 ). Publications from this cluster started to gain popularity from 2005 onwards, following similar increasing trends as cluster 2 (Online Appendix 10–11). Overall, except for cluster 1 in South America, most of the clusters in Asia and Africa appear to experience very little or no increase in publications over the years (Online Appendix 10–11).

Map of the individual selected papers belonging to each cluster groups (Dark green = 1, Bright green = 2, Bright yellow = 3) for amphibians, with each circle representing the study location. The colour scale of the continents ranging from 0 to 0.9 indicates the proportions of amphibian species represented in the reviewed papers when compared to known species in the world (obtained from AmphibiaWeb)

Map of the individual selected papers belonging to each cluster groups (Dark red=1, Orange=2, Dark yellow=3) for reptiles, with each circle representing the study location. The colour scale of the continents ranging from 0.0 – 0.9 indicates the proportions of reptile species represented in the reviewed papers when compared to known species in the world (obtained from ReptileDatabase).

Our review found no improvement in the geographical and taxonomic bias in habitat fragmentation studies for both reptiles and amphibians compared to earlier studies (Fardila et al. 2017 ). Yet, our study has made an effective contribution towards identifying major spatial gaps in habitat fragmentation studies over the past three decades (updating reviews such as Cushman 2006 ; Gardner et al. 2007 )). In particular, we found an overall increase in the number of studies measuring species richness and abundance throughout the years while population-level and genetics studies are still lacking in developing countries. Here, we discuss the issues of (1) biogeographical bias, (2) the extent and focus of habitat fragmentation research and (3) the limitations and knowledge gaps in habitat fragmentation research in herpetology and provide recommendations for future research.

Biogeographical bias

Geographic bias in research papers.

Given the research effort in relatively wealthy countries (Holmgren and Schnitzer 2004 ; Fazey et al. 2005 ) it is not surprising that more than half the papers concern North America and Europe, where there is strong prevalence of herpetological research. This pattern is also evident in other taxonomic groups and biological areas including invasion biology (Pyšek et al. 2008 ), biodiversity conservation (Trimble and Aarde 2012 ; Christie et al. 2020 ), and habitat fragmentation (Fardila et al. 2017 ). The USA alone contributed more than a third of the publications in terms of both authors and location of study (Fazey et al. 2005 ; Melles et al. 2019 ). English speaking countries including the USA, the United Kingdom, and Australia have dominated research output over the last 30 years (Melles et al. 2019 ). These patterns were reflected in the collaboration network maps generated by VOSviewer (Fig.  3 ). Similar hotspots found between who does the research (Fig.  3 ) and the study locations (Fig.  2 ) suggest that authors tend not to move much and only to study ecosystems near to where they are based (Meyer et al. 2015 ). One reason for this bias is the distance to field sites accentuated by the costs and time of travelling.

However, the near absence of studies from many parts of the world that are currently under extreme pressures of habitat loss and degradation are of great concern (Habel et al. 2019 ). We feel that the level of threat associated with habitat fragmentation in these continents is not proportional to the level of research attention required. Naturally biodiverse but less economically developed Southeast Asian and sub-Saharan countries will suffer greatest diversity losses in the next century (Newbold et al. 2015 ). If this persists at the current rate, biodiverse areas will likely disappear before new discoveries in those hotspots are made (Moura and Jetz 2021 ). Although conversely our study found that among other developing countries Brazil is currently conducting relatively more in-country amphibian studies and collaboration with other countries. However, how much of this information reaches decision makers and practitioners remains unknown. This is largely due to the lack of intermediary evidence bridges (Kadykalo et al. 2021 ). These intermediaries identify evidence summaries based on research and priorities and distribute them to practitioners, facilitating exchange of knowledge between and among researchers and practitioners (Holderegger et al. 2019 ; Kadykalo et al. 2021 ).

Geographic bias in focal groups

Congruent to results reported in Gardner et al. ( 2007 ), studies on amphibians were more abundant than studies on reptiles. Over the past years, there has been a strong focus on amphibian population declines. This was catalysed by the emergence of chytridiomycosis and global decline of amphibians (Fisher and Garner 2020 ). Amphibians, and predominantly frogs, are the principal focus of herpetological research, with the highest allocation of resources and the highest publication rates (Ferronato 2019 ). Another reason for this bias may be that amphibians serve as valuable indicators of environmental stress and degradation owing to their aquatic and terrestrial lifestyle and permeable skin (Green 2003 ). These attributes make them extremely sensitive to changes in temperature and precipitation as well as pollution (Sodhi et al. 2008 ). Lizards, also susceptible to temperature changes, however, are characterised by a high degree of endemism, restricted geographic ranges, late maturity, a long life-span and are thus very susceptible to population declines (Todd et al. 2010 ; Meiri et al. 2018 ). Certain groups of reptiles, such as worm lizards and blind snakes lead cryptic and solitary lives in contrast to the large breeding aggregations and choruses of, for example, frogs. Such characteristics make them difficult for researchers to study as they require large amount of search effort for little data (Thompson 2013 ).

• Taxonomic bias

We found a heightened geographical bias in the taxonomic coverage of studies. Given the sheer number of selected papers investigated, it is not surprising that the continents of North and South America cover more than half of the amphibian species studied whereas North America and Africa cover almost half of the reptile species studied. This trend broadly mirrors the geographic distribution pattern of the global described species in both these taxa (AmphibiaWeb 2021 ; Uetz et al. 2021 ). While a large proportion of the known European and North American families such as Alytidae and Ambystomatidae have been investigated (Fig.  4 ), species from other continents remain severely under-represented. Yet, the European continent represents only 2% of the described species globally. This high research intensity bias in low biodiverse regions of the world has been noted previously (Fazey et al. 2005 ). In general, reptiles and amphibians have been disproportionately poorly studied in the tropics and in developing areas despite that these areas show among the highest rates of deforestation and a corresponding rise in the number of threatened species (Böhm et al. 2013 ; Deikumah et al. 2014 ). These biodiverse areas largely consist of threatened species having restricted home ranges (Meiri et al. 2018 ). Even though we observed a great fraction of the species investigated in the Afrotropics (Vallan 2002 ; Hillers et al. 2008 ; Ofori‐Boateng et al. 2013 ; Riemann et al. 2015 ; Blumgart et al. 2017 ), especially Madagascar (see Mantellidae and Opluridae in Fig.  4 ), it seems insufficient when considering that an estimated 3.94 million hectares of forest area of the continent was cleared yearly over the last century (FAO and UNEP 2020 ). Further, biodiverse hotspots such as the neotropical regions and Indo-Malayan tropics have the highest chances of new species of amphibians and reptiles being discovered (Moura and Jetz 2021 ).

Being herpetofauna diversity hotspots, countries in South America and Asia are indeed understudied. Although Brazil has a high number of amphibian studies, less than one percent of known reptile species was studied in both continents (Fig.  2 ). A number of factors contribute to this lack of representation. First, there is an overwhelming number of new species being discovered every year in these hotspots (Moura et al. 2018 ; Moura and Jetz 2021 ). Furthermore, newly discovered species tend to belong to more secretive groups such as burrowing snakes, worm lizards and caecilians (Colli et al. 2016 ). Yet, these fossorial organisms are clearly neglected in fragmentation studies (see Fig.  4 – 5 ) with researchers focusing on well-known taxonomic groups (Böhm et al. 2013 ). On a positive note, despite having the country (Australia) with the highest reptile diversity (Uetz et al. 2021 ), Oceania represented a fair coverage of reptile diversity compared to other continents. Since 2001, there has been an increase of fragmentation studies in Australia (e.g., Brown 2001 ; Mac Nally and Brown 2001 ; Hazell et al. 2001 ) and there is a continuing increase in research output (Melles et al. 2019 ), contributing 85 out of 89 reviewed studies in Oceania over the last 30 years.

Extent and focus of research

Our findings showed important associations between methods and response metrics but not different forms of habitat fragmentation. This either suggests that researchers were not favouring any sampling method and response variable for evaluating the effects of certain habitat fragmentation or this pattern may occur due to a relatively even split of papers dealing with different forms or combinations of habitat fragmentation in the clusters. In general, species richness or diversity appears to explain most of the variation in our data ( see Online Appendix 4 ). While species richness remains a popular diversity metric employed in conservation biology (Online Appendix 12; also see Gardner et al. 2007 ), we also found an increasing trend in the use of genetic techniques for habitat fragmentation studies. More specifically in recent years, molecular genetics have become popular and are often studied together with population connectivity to capture species responses to habitat fragmentation ( see Online Appendix 4 ) (Keyghobadi 2007 ). The HCPC approach identified three main clusters of research fields which will be referred to as research agendas from here onwards. Contrary to our expectation, we did not find a global spatial pattern of research agendas, but instead a rather homogeneous distribution of papers, possibly due to the lack of selected studies which are found in developing countries outside USA, Europe and Australia (Figs.  7 , 8 ). This nevertheless indicates that different sampling methods are shared and used between leading herpetological experts from different countries and that there are continuing collaborations between countries, particularly in North America and Europe.

Below, we describe the research agendas and their corresponding categories (Fig.  6 ) that have contributed significantly to the study of habitat fragmentation for the past 30 years: (a) Agenda 1: Measures of direct individual species responses, (b) Agenda 2: Physiological and movement ecology, and (c) Agenda 3: Technology advancement in conservation research.

Agenda 1: Measures of direct individual species responses

We found that the majority of studies around the globe evaluated patterns of assemblage richness, species presence/absence, and abundance (Figs.  7 , 8 ). These simple patterns of richness, diversity and abundance are the most common responses measured because they provide a good indication of species response to habitat fragmentation and are easy to calculate (Colwell 2009 ). Although species richness does not consider abundance or biomass but treats each species as of equal importance to diversity, species evenness weighs each species by its relative abundance (Hill 1972). Further, composite measures like species diversity indices (e.g., Simpson’s 1/D or Shannon’s H) combine both richness and evenness in a single measure (Colwell 2009 ), preventing biases in results. However, directly measuring these species responses might not be ecologically relevant as they fail to account for patterns in species assemblage turnover. In fact, few selected papers (38 out of 697) in our study have attempted to categorise species into meaningful functional groups or guilds, despite that the categorisation of ecological functions such as habitat preference, taxonomic family, reproductive mode, and body size can be easily done (but see Knutson et al. 1999 ; Peltzer et al. 2006 ; Moreira and Maltchik 2014 ). Knutson et al.( 1999 ) was the first in our selected papers to group species with similar life-history characteristics into guilds and to examine their responses to landscape features. They observed negative associations between urban land use and anuran guilds. Analyses of guilds or functional groups can reveal contradictory results (but not always, see Moreira and Maltchik 2014 ). For example, the species richness of anurans in logged areas of West Africa is found to be as high as in primary habitat (Ernst et al. 2006 ). Yet, analyses of functional groups indicated significantly higher diversity in primary forest communities (Ernst et al. 2006 ). Similar differences were also observed for species with varying degrees of niche overlaps, habitat specialists, and for different continents (Ernst et al. 2006 ; Seshadri 2014 ). These results underline that species richness alone is a poor indicator of the functional value of species in the ecosystem as the relationships between functional diversity and species richness are inconsistent and can sometimes be redundant (functional diversity remains constant if assemblages are functionally similar; Riemann et al. 2017 ; Palmeirim et al. 2017 ; Silva et al. 2022 ). The results of some species richness studies may consequently provide misleading inferences regarding consequences of habitat fragmentation and conservation management (Gardner et al. 2007 ).

Although not substantially greater than the agendas 2 and 3, the measure of individual species responses has always been popular across the globe but also increasingly popular in the tropical and subtropical regions (e.g., South America and Africa; Online Appendix 10–11). For example, a research team led by Mark-Oliver Roedel from Germany has conducted numerous studies on Afrotropical amphibian communities (Hillers et al. 2008 ; Ofori‐Boateng et al. 2013 ; Riemann et al. 2017 ). Due to the higher biodiversity and species rarity in these regions compared to temperate areas, it is reasonable to expect a greater level of sampling effort in patterns of species richness, abundance, and guild assemblage to obtain comparisons of diversity with sufficient statistical power across different land use changes (Gardner et al. 2007 ). Access to highly specific expertise and most up to date methods and technology may not be available in these regions, and as such, study designs are limited to multispecies survey addressing simple patterns of diversity and species assemblages (Hetu et al. 2019 ). Unfortunately at the same time, these forest biomes holding the highest richness and abundance of amphibians and reptiles have showed consistent negative responses to land use changes (Cordier et al. 2021 ).

Agenda 2: physiological and movement ecology

We did not observe a strong association between occupancy and dispersal in our study. Perhaps this is because only a few papers investigated dispersal via habitat occupancy compared to the overwhelming proportions of papers examining the presence of species in response to habitat fragmentation in research agenda 1. Similarly, few studies measure dispersal with direct tracking methods, with the majority that discussed dispersal being based on indirect inferences, such as genetic divergence (see Fig.  3 c, d; Driscoll et al. 2014 ). Genetic approaches can be effective in situations where more direct approaches are not possible (Lowe and Allendorf 2010 ). For instance, using microsatellites and mitochondrial DNA, Buckland et al. ( 2014 ) found no migration occurring between isolated subpopulations of a forest day gecko ( Phelsuma guimbeaui ) in a fragmented forest and predicted a dramatic decrease in survival and allelic diversity in the next 50 years if no migration occurs (Buckland et al. 2014 ). In some cases, molecular markers also allow direct dispersal studies by assigning individuals to their parents or population of origin (Manel et al. 2005 ). However, there are limitations on when these techniques can be applied. Assignment tests require appropriate choices of molecular markers and sampling design to permit quantification of indices of dispersal (Broquet and Petit 2009 ; Lowe and Allendorf 2010 ). Parent–offspring analysis is constrained by the uncertainty in assessing whether offspring dispersal is completed at the time of sampling and sample size (Broquet and Petit 2009 ). Genetic tools may thus be best applied in combination with direct approaches because they contain complementary information (Lowe and Allendorf 2010 ; Safner et al. 2011 ; Smith et al. 2016 ).

Traditional approaches in habitat fragmentation research like radiotracking or capture-mark-recapture of animals can be effective in evaluating dispersal and ecological connectivity between populations. For example, based on mark-recapture data over a nine year period, facultative dispersal rates in an endangered amphibian ( Bombina variegata ) were found to be sex biased and relatively low from resulting patch loss (Cayuela et al. 2018 ). In our case, direct tracking methods are more commonly and effectively used in examining the impacts of habitat modification on changes in ecology directly relating to fitness (Fig.  6 ): home ranges (Price-Rees et al. 2013 ), foraging grounds (MacDonald et al. 2012 ) and survival rates (Breininger et al. 2012 ). Yet, such routine movements associated with resource exploitation do not reflect the biological reality and evolutionary consequences of how organisms change as landscape changes (Van Dyck and Baguette 2005 ). Instead, directed behavioural movements affecting dispersal processes (emigration, displacement or immigration) are crucial in determining the functional connectivity between populations in a fragmented landscape (Bonte et al. 2012 ). In one study, spotted salamanders Ambystoma maculatum tracked with fluorescent powder exhibited strong edge mediated behaviour when dispersing across borders between forest and field habitats and can perceive forest habitats from some distance (Pittman and Semlitsch 2013 ). Knowing such behaviour rules can improve predictions of the effects of habitat configuration on survival and dispersal. However, ongoing conversion of natural ecosystems to human modified land cover increases the need to consider various cover types that may be permeable to animal movements. As such, experimental approaches can be effective in examining the effect of matrix type on species movements as seen in our results (Fig.  6 ) (Rothermel and Semlitsch 2002 ; Mazerolle and Desrochers 2005 ). For example, researchers conducted experimental releases of post-metamorphic individuals of forest amphibians into different substrates and mapped the movements of paths and performance (Cline and Hunter Jr 2016 ). They showed that non-forest matrices with lower structural complexity influence the ability of frogs to travel across open cover and to orient themselves towards the forest from distances greater than 40–55 m. Therefore, it is inaccurate to assume matrix permeability to be uniform across all open-matrix types, particularly in amphibians (Cline and Hunter 2014 , 2016 ).

In addition, the ability to move and disperse is highly dependent on the range of external environments and internal physiological limits (Bonte et al. 2012 ), especially in reptiles and amphibians (Nowakowski et al. 2017 ). The study of physiological effects on movement was seen throughout our selected studies (Fig.  6 ). For example, higher temperatures and lower soil moisture in open habitats could increase evaporative water loss in salamanders (Rothermel and Semlitsch 2002 ). Other tests including interaction effects between landscape configuration and physiological constraints (e.g., dehydration rate Rothermel and Semlitsch 2002 ; Watling and Braga 2015 ); body size (Doherty et al. 2019 ) can be useful to better understand fitness and population persistence. We argue here that multidisciplinary projects examining movement physiology, behaviour and environmental constraints in addition to measuring distance moved are needed to progress this field.

Our results indicate a high bias of agenda 2 papers represented among developed countries, with a strong focus on reptiles compared to amphibians (Price-Rees et al. 2013 ; Doherty et al. 2019 ) (Online Appendix 12, Figs.  7 , 8 ). The adoption of direct tracking as well as genetic methods can be cost prohibitive in developing and poorer regions. However, cheaper and simpler methods to track individuals are increasing (Mennill et al. 2012 ; Cline and Hunter 2014 , 2016 ). Although existing application might not be ideal for reptiles and amphibians, new technologies for tagging and tracking small vertebrates are being developed including acoustic surveys and improved genetic methods (Broquet and Petit 2009 ; Mennill et al. 2012 ; Marques et al. 2013 ). While there are many improvements needed to obtain better quality dispersal data studies on movement ecology, reptiles and amphibians still only account for a mere 2.2% of the studies on dispersal when compared to plants and invertebrates which comprised over half of the studies based on a systematic review (Driscoll et al. 2014 ). Thus, we urge more studies to be conducted on these lesser-known taxa, especially in biodiverse regions. Given the limited dispersal in amphibians and reptiles, having a deeper understanding on their dispersal can be critical for the effective management and conservation of populations and metapopulations (Smith and Green 2005 ).

Agenda 3: technology advancement in conservation research

While community level approaches such as responses in species richness, occupancy, and abundance measure biodiversity response to habitat fragmentation, they are limited in inference because they do not reflect patterns of fitness across environmental gradients and landscape patterns. Instead, genetic structure at the population level can offer a higher resolution of species responses (Manel and Holderegger 2013 ). For instance, genetic erosion heavily affects the rate of species loss in many amphibian species (Allentoft and O’Brien 2010 ; Rivera‐Ortíz et al. 2015 ). Over the past decades we have seen a rapid increase in studies applying genetic analysis to assess the effects of habitat fragmentation (Keyghobadi 2007 ), reflecting the strength of these approaches. This growth is mostly evident in North America and Europe (but also Oceania for reptiles) ( Online Appendix 10–11). The availability of different genetic markers has been increasing, from microsatellites in the 1990s then shifting towards genotyping by sequencing (NGS) technologies that enable rapid genome-wide development (Allendorf et al. 2010 ; Monteiro et al. 2019 ). However, the study of population structure alone can lead to misleading results as environmental changes to species dynamics are not considered. The resistance imposed by landscape features on the dispersal of animals can ultimately shape gene flow and genetic structure (Bani et al. 2015 ; Pilliod et al. 2015 ; Monteiro et al. 2019 ).

To understand this, researchers combine genetic, land cover and climate variables to study the gene flow patterns across heterogeneous and fragmented landscapes (Manel and Holderegger 2013 ). Spatial analyses can be a powerful tool for monitoring biodiversity by quantifying environmental and landscape parameters. The growing interest in both landcover data and the rapid development of computer processing power prompted the development of new prediction methods, primarily in spatial models (Ray et al. 2002 ), ecological niche modelling (Urbina-Cardona and Loyola 2008 ; Tan et al. 2021 ), and landscape connectivity (Cushman et al. 2013 ; Ashrafzadeh et al. 2019 ). In some cases, niche models are useful in assessing the effectiveness of protected areas for endangered species (Urbina-Cardona and Loyola 2008 ; Tan et al. 2021 ).

The integration of genetic data in ecological niche models for recognising possible dispersal movements between populations were observed in our study (Fig.  3 c, d), especially in reptiles (Fig.  6b ). The hallmark of landscape genetics is the ability to estimate functional connectivity among populations and offer empirical approach of adaptive genetic variation in real landscapes to detect environmental factors driving evolutionary adaptation. The most common approach of landscape genetics is determining whether effective distances as determined by the presence of suitable habitat between populations, better predict genetic distances than do Euclidean distances (assuming spatially homogeneous landscape). However, straight-line geographic distance does not normally reflect true patterns of dispersal as landscape barriers or facilitators in a heterogeneous landscape could strongly affect gene flow (Emel and Storfer 2012 ; Fenderson et al. 2020 ). Therefore, in these cases, ecological distances or landscape resistance can often explain a greater deal of genetic variation between fragmented populations (Cushman 2006 ; Bani et al. 2015 ). Using a combination of habitat suitability modelling (e.g., Maxent, Phillips et al. 2017 ), multiple least-cost paths (LCPs) (Adriaensen et al. 2003 ) and the more recent circuit theory analysis (McRae et al. 2008 ) to investigate landscape resistance can be highly effective predicting potential pathways along which dispersal may occur, hence informing conservation management (Emel and Storfer 2012 ; Bani et al. 2015 ; Pilliod et al. 2015 ). To date, landscape genetics has been shown to be particularly useful in studying organisms with complex life histories (Emel and Storfer 2012 ; Shaffer et al. 2015 ). Yet, the applications of landscape genetics have been limited to contemporary patterns using modern genetic data. Few studies have benefitted from the inclusion of temporal genetic data (Fenderson et al. 2020 ). For example, historical DNA samples and heterochronous analyses could allow us to explore how anthropogenic impacts have affected past genetic diversity and population dynamics (Pacioni et al. 2015 ) and identify areas of future suitability of endangered animals in face of climate change (Nogués-Bravo et al. 2016 ). The possibility to investigate migration through spatiotemporal population connectivity can greatly improve the prediction of species responses under future landscape and climate change scenarios (Fenderson et al. 2020 ).

Population genetic and niche modelling studies for both taxa are rarely found in developing regions of the world, especially in Asia and Africa (Figs.  7 , 8 ). Even though conservation priorities are concentrated in these biodiverse regions, invaluable highly specific expertise such as conservation genetics and other contemporary methodologies might not be readily available due to lack of funding and infrastructure (Hetu et al. 2019 ). Thus, we encourage collaborations with the poorer countries initiated by foreign service providers from developed countries. Contrary to expectations, very few studies on conservation genetics were found in China and Japan despite their vast advances in genetic techniques. Fortunately, China has made substantial progress in the last 20 years in understanding human genetic history and interpreting genetic studies of human diseases (Forero et al. 2016 ) as well as biodiversity conservation (Wang et al. 2020 ), yet the same cannot be said for conservation genetics on reptiles and amphibians (Figs.  7 , 8 ), but see Fan et al. ( 2018 ) and Hu et al. ( 2021 ).

Limitations and knowledge gaps

The forms of habitat fragmentation which we categorised may not reflect the ecological impact in the real world as interactions between different habitat fragmentation forms were not accounted for. Although each of these forms of habitat fragmentation possesses serious environmental consequences, their combination could have severe synergistic impacts (Blaustein and Kiesecker 2002 ). For example, a fragmented landscape is not just reduced and isolated, but subject to other anthropogenic disturbances such as hunting, fire, invasive species, and pollution (Laurance and Useche 2009 ; Lazzari et al. 2022 ). Altered climatic conditions and emerging pathogens such as batrachochytrids can also interact with each other, and other threats (Fisher and Garner 2020 ). The use of habitat suitability models based on climatic scenarios, combined with hydrological and urbanisation models, are effective in detecting best to worst case scenarios and local extinctions, as shown for the spotted marsh frog ( Limnodynastes tasmaniensis ) (Wilson et al. 2013 ).

We acknowledge the bias of scientific research introduced from the limitation of search term to English-speaking literature on the geographic distribution of the papers we sampled (Konno et al. 2020 ; Angulo et al. 2021 ). In Latin American journals for example, we found a number of papers published in Spanish, but unfortunately, they did not fit the criteria of our selection (see Online Appendix 2). Conservation studies written in languages other than English are often published in local journals which do not normally go through international peer review.

The homogeneous distribution of the research agendas across geographical regions in our study may be explained by the lack of studies found in South America, Asia and Africa, preventing us to see a potentially dichotomous spatial pattern among the clusters. However, this reflects the current state of research and the challenges faced in less developed countries.

(4) Our study did not investigate whether habitat fragmentation has led to an improved or decreased biotic response. Predicting species response to habitat modification has been reviewed countless times (Rytwinski and Fahrig 2012 ; Driscoll et al. 2014 ; Doherty et al. 2020 ; Newbold et al. 2020 ; Cordier et al. 2021 ). Yet, these reviews often yield little or no general patterns (Doherty et al. 2020 ; Cordier et al. 2021 ). Response variables or traits measured are often found to be poor predictors of the impacts of habitat fragmentation. There are two possible explanations for this discrepancy. First, the strength and direction of the responses differs between species, ecophysiological groups (Rothermel and Semlitsch 2002 ), and phylogenetic or functional groups (Mazerolle and Desrochers 2005 ; Nowakowski et al. 2017 ). Second, responses in animals to different types of disturbance may be specific to the ecosystem where they live. Different biogeographic regions or biomes have different characteristics affecting local species (Lindell et al. 2007 ; Blowes et al. 2019 ; Newbold et al. 2020 ; Cordier et al. 2021 ).

Conclusions and recommendations

Our results underline promising research fields and geographic areas and may serve as a guideline or starting point for future habitat fragmentation studies. We suspect similar paradigms of geographic and thematic patterns to occur in other taxonomic groups.

Although studies dealing with habitat fragmentation impacts on mammals and birds are already widely recognised (Fardila et al. 2017 ), research on reptiles and amphibians has been lacking. We argue that amphibians and reptiles need more attention as they are equally or more threatened but highly neglected (Rytwinski and Fahrig 2012 ; Ferronato 2019 ; Cox et al. 2022 ).

Greater investment is required for studies in tropical and subtropical areas (Segovia et al. 2020 ), especially within the Asian continent. These areas are currently experiencing the highest rates of habitat loss (McDonald et al. 2013 ). Tropical specialists are further restricted to smaller geographic range sizes according to Rapoport’s rule which states that there is a positive latitudinal correlation with range size (Stevens 1989 ) (at least for amphibians in the Northern hemisphere where there is higher temperature and precipitation seasonality; Whitton et al. 2012 ). Having a small range size is often associated with negative responses to habitat modification (Doherty et al. 2020 ). Thus, more effort is needed in developing countries where the crisis is greatest and there is lack of funding and strong language barriers (Fazey et al. 2005 ). There is an urgent need to better integrate studies published in languages other than English with the broader international literature. Useful integration actions include training of local conservation biologists and promoting partnerships and research visits in these regions may have greater conservation consequences to understand global patterns of habitat modification (Meyer et al. 2015 ). Doing so will help remediate the sampling bias towards temperate generalists and will shed light on the fate of tropical specialists.

We encourage improved access to intermediary evidence-based conservation data (Kadykalo et al. 2021 ). Even when well-established genetic and genomic analyses have been proven to be promising area in herpetological conservation (Shaffer et al. 2015 ), there is a general lack of the transfer of knowledge between scientists and practitioners (Holderegger et al. 2019 ). As practitioners are generally interested in species monitoring and the evaluation of success of connectivity measures, an establishment of scientist-practitioner community to facilitate a platform for international exchange would help tremendously in future conservation planning and management (Holderegger et al. 2019 ).

Although different study designs and landscape measures have different strengths and limitations depending on the study objectives, we suggest reporting basic data to describe the effect of habitat fragmentation using standardised sampling methods, indices, and design (Holderegger et al. 2019 ). The results will allow future meta-analyses to be performed.

Incorporate remote sensing data, whenever possible, in studies involving habitat change and fragmentation. The use of niche modelling techniques combined with high resolution remote sensing has been instrumental in detecting potentially fragmented populations. With advances in landscape genomics, we are now able to examine the correlation between environmental factors and genomic data in natural populations (Manel and Holderegger 2013 ; Shaffer et al. 2015 ). Adopting such tools would be valuable in understanding how habitat amounts and configurations affect dispersal, survival, and population dynamics as well as the impacts of anthropogenic changes such as climate change (Shaffer et al. 2015 ).

Data availability

The datasets generated during the current study are available in Online Appendix 1. Codes used in the analyses are available from corresponding author on request.

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Acknowledgements

W.C. Tan was supported financially through a scholarship by the German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD). This work would not be possible without M. Flecks for his invaluable technical assistance with the figures.

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WCT, AH, and DR contributed to the study idea and conception. Literature search and data collection were performed by WCT and data analysis by DR and WCT. The first draft of the manuscript was written by WCT and all authors critically revised on later versions. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Tan, W.C., Herrel, A. & Rödder, D. A global analysis of habitat fragmentation research in reptiles and amphibians: what have we done so far?. Biodivers Conserv 32 , 439–468 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-022-02530-6

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Received : 18 August 2022

Revised : 02 December 2022

Accepted : 09 December 2022

Published : 08 January 2023

Issue Date : February 2023

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-022-02530-6

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