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Speech, language and communication needs

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Speech, language and communication needs (SLCN) is the term used to describe difficulties with:

• producing speech sounds accurately
• voice problems, such as hoarseness and loss of voice
• understanding language (making sense of what people say)
• using language (words and sentences)
• interacting with others, for example, difficulties understanding the non-verbal rules of good communication or using language in different ways to question, clarify or describe things

Everyone with SLCN is different and may have difficulty with one, some or all of the different aspects of speech, language or communication at different times of their lives.

Some difficulties are short-term but others will be more permanent and remain throughout childhood and adult life. Find out more about the common features of SLCN .

Sometimes a child or young person’s language disorder is associated with an underlying or co-concurring condition such as autism , hearing loss, cleft palate, neurodegenerative conditions and genetic conditions – for example, cerebral palsy or Down’s syndrome.

However, there are times when there may be no clearly identifiable cause. This is known as developmental language disorder (DLD) .

The Raising Awareness of Developmental Language Disorder campaign has created a video to explain more about what DLD is while this video from the University of Oxford explains how the term DLD was agreed upon and why it was so important.

The NAPLIC website has brought together a collection of articles all DLD related some of which you might find helpful.

If you think your child may have SLCN

Early identification is crucial in order to provide appropriate and timely support. If you think your child might have speech, language and communication needs, you should first talk to a professional involved with your child. This could be, for example, a:

• health visitor
• pre-school staff member
• school staff member
• speech and language therapist
• community paediatrician

The Speech and Language Therapy Team at Children and Family Health Devon outlines a process that you can follow, starting with ways to check your child’s development and ideas you can try at home to help with difficulties your child might be having.

The ‘Let’s Get Chatting’ campaign in Devon provides key messages to parents about speech, language and communication for their children . The resources available include advice about when to be concerned about your child’s development and who to talk to.

You can also find lots of helpful advice and resources on the Children and Family Health Devon Facebook page for pre-school age children and Facebook page for school age children .

The I CAN website also allows you to check the progress of your child’s speech and language development based on typical developmental milestones for children up to age 11.

Please note that these resources are intended to be used as guides only and any concerns you have should be shared with one of the professionals listed above.

The support available

In Devon, we aim to provide timely and appropriate support for children as early as possible in order to maximise their potential and ultimately improve their life chances.

All children and young people are supported under universal services, and if their needs require additional support, they can be referred to targeted and specialist services.

Universal support

Universal support is intended for all children and young people, not just those with additional needs.

You should be provided with information and guidance to support speech, language and communication skills development. This is available from a number of sources including Children and Family Health Devon , public health nurses, the Early Years Advisory Service , children’s centres and your child’s school/setting.

Targeted support

Some children will require additional support or provision. At this level, a range of support packages are available from a number of professionals and organisations, including Children and Family Health Devon , public health nurses, children’s centres and The Communication and Interaction Team .

Referral to one or more specialist services will need to be considered at any age if a child shows one or more of the following signs:

• A lack of progress or response to approaches used by those working at ‘universal’ and ‘early intervention/preventative’ levels.
• Communication skills that are somewhat behind other levels of the child’s development.
• A specific problem in a particular area of communication that hinders learning or access to the curriculum.
• A disordered pattern of communication development, for example, the child is not following the usual developmental pattern.
• The child’s ability to communicate is negatively impacting on their behaviour as well as their social, emotional and mental health development.

Specialist support

Children and young people requiring specialist support will have significant and persistent needs despite appropriate intervention and support.

At this level:

• a range of assessments are used to identify persistent and complex speech, language and communication needs
• The Speech and Language Therapy Team and Communication and Interaction Team provide specialist level support for practitioners in settings and schools to facilitate the effective implementation of specialist interventions
• schools and educational settings should provide teaching and learning opportunities that are different and additional to normal
• schools and educational settings should ensure that the learning environments are appropriately adapted to ensure optimum communication and learning
• workshops are provided for parents in order to ensure you understand your child’s needs and are confident in your role as key communication partner for your child
• speech and language therapists may deliver direct intervention as appropriate

These three levels of support are available to all children and young people aged from 0 to 25. There is more information available about the support during early years as well as information about the support at all three levels provided in schools .

How to access support

If you have spoken with professionals involved with your child and followed the advice provided but still think that your child needs additional targeted or specialist support, the following teams can help.

Speech and language therapists

Speech and language therapists (SLTs) play a key role in the diagnosis of children with different speech, language and communication needs.

Children and Family Health Devon provide a range of toolkits that you can use with your child before contacting SLT for a referral.

If you decide that you would like to get in touch with a speech therapist you can find speech and language therapy contact information here .

There are resources available that can help you to plan and submit an effective referral to speech and language therapy services. The Communication Trust has developed a series of factsheets that cover the decision-making process for making referrals, what to consider about your child, and how to build a speech, language and communication profile.

The Communication and Interaction Team

The Communication and Interaction (C and I) team offers support, advice and guidance to staff working in education settings in Devon.

In collaboration with schools and other professionals, the team support parents/carers through parent programmes for both autism and SLCN.

Direct engagement with parents/carers is always facilitated in partnership with school staff.

Find out more about the Communication and Interaction Team .

Other support available

Augmentative and alternative communication (aac) services.

AAC is a range of strategies and tools from simple letter or picture boards to sophisticated computer technologies. AAC helps someone to communicate as effectively as possible, in as many situations as possible. Find out more about AAC on the Communication Matters website .

Information about the support available for AAC users can be found on the Children and Family Health Devon website .

A group of professionals from across the whole of Devon have worked with parents and carers to create a free interactive training programme that provides an introduction to AAC that focuses on the following areas:

• What is AAC?
• AAC themes and myths
• Where can I find out more?

The free training is suitable for parents, carers and professionals and can be accessed at Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AAC) – an introduction .

Vranch House in Exeter provides an AAC intervention service. This service provides specialist speech and language therapist input to help people use high-tech AAC systems.

AAC West is commissioned by NHS England to provide an AAC service to the South West of England.

Today over 100,000 children and adults use Makaton symbols and signs, either as their main method of communication or as a way to support speech.

In addition to children and adults with communication and learning difficulties and the community around them (for example, teachers, health professionals, friends, public service bodies etc), Makaton is increasingly used by the general public to aid communication.

Makaton has been shown to be useful for all sorts of people including those who struggle with understanding concepts, those who have poor literacy skills, including grammatical knowledge, and those with English as an additional language.

By using Makaton, children and adults can take a more active part in life, because communication and language are key to everything we do and learn.

For more information, please visit  the Makaton website , or contact  Sharon Parnell (Licensed Regional Makaton Tutor) .

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SPEECH, LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION

GIVING CHILDREN THE BEST POSSIBLE START IN LIFE

NHS EDUCATION FOR SCOTLAND

WHAT ARE SPEECH, LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION NEEDS?

Speech, language and communication needs (SLCN) is an umbrella term. Children with SLCN may have difficulty with many aspects of communication. These can include difficulties with fluency, forming sounds and words, formulating sentences, understanding what others say and using language socially.

Speech, Language and Communication Needs can occur in childhood as primary difficulties with speech, language and communication or secondary to other developmental conditions such as autism. In some cases the cause of a child’s SLCN is unknown.

SLCN are some of the most common childhood disabilities.

PERSISTENT SLCN

7% of children aged about five years have specific speech, language and communication impairment and a further 1.8% have SLCN linked to other conditions, such as learning disability, cerebral palsy and autism spectrum disorders.

DELAYED LANGUAGE

There is a group of children who are starting school with SLCN who have poor or delayed language skills.  These children may have a small vocabulary, be just starting to join words together, find it hard to listen and may sound like a much younger child. With the right support, they may catch up with their peers. In some areas, particularly areas of social disadvantage, this group may be up to 50% of children.

OF CHILDREN

UNTREATED SLCN

Speech, language and communication needs can have a direct impact on children’s development and educational outcomes, health and wellbeing. If left unaddressed, they can adversely affect children across their life span. For example, as many as 60% of young offenders and 88% of long-term unemployed young men have been found to have SLCN. (Bryan et al 2009).

The Royal College of Speech and Language Therapists use the term speech, language and communication needs (SLCN) to describe difficulties across one or many aspects of communication .

ATTENTION AND LISTENING

Children may have difficulties sharing their attention with others or listening to what has been said to them.  They may struggle to concentrate on a game or activity for even a short period of time, flitting from one task to another without completing anything.

PLAY AND INTERACTION

Children may have difficulty interacting with others or with social communication skills. They may struggle to use their language skills effectively to have conversations, play and interact socially with others. This can include poor eye-contact, difficulties taking turns in a conversation, difficulties keeping to the topic of conversation and showing awareness of the listener.

RECEPTIVE LANGUAGE

Children may struggle to understand and make sense of words that they hear. They may struggle to follow instructions and make sense of the language they hear around them.

EXPRESSIVE LANGUAGE

Children may find it difficult to express their ideas, wants or feelings. They may have a small vocabulary for their age or have difficulty building up sentences and using correct grammar.

Children may have speech which is difficult to understand which might include difficulty in making different sounds. They may have difficulty discriminating between speech sounds.

Stammering or stuttering where sounds or words are repeated or may be difficult to produce without effort. Children might have hesitations in their speech and may prolong or repeat sounds and parts of words or sentences. They may struggle to get their words out at all. Stammering can emerge at any childhood stage, but most commonly between the ages of 2 and 5 years.

Voice problems i.e. hoarse voice or persistent voice loss. An unusual and persistently harsh or unusal voice quality.

FOR PROFESSIONALS

Communication Trust: Misunderstood: supporting children and young people with speech, language and communication needs

Communication Trust: Don’t get me wrong: Information for supporting children and young people with speech, language and communication needs

Communication Trust: Universally Speaking: The ages and stages of children’s communication development. From birth to 5 years

Early Support: Information about Speech, Language and Communication Needs

Other ways of Speaking: Supporting children and young people who have no speech or whose speech is difficult to understand

FOR PARENTS

Early Support: Information for parents: Speech and Language Difficulties

Listen up: resources to encourage listening, understanding, interaction and play. For pre-school children

Communication Trust Postcards

Bryan K, Freer J, Furlong C. Language and communication difficulties in juvenile offenders. International Journal of Language and Communication Difficulties , 2007; 42, 505-5

Elliott N. (2009). An Investigation into the Communication Skills of Long-Term Unemployed Young Men . University of Glamorgan.

Enderby P.,Judge S., Creer S., John A. 2013 Beyond the Anecdote: Examining the need for, and provision of, AAC in the United Kingdom. Communication Matters

Locke A., Ginsborg J., Peers I. 2002. Development and disadvantage: implications for the early years and beyond. International Journal of Language and Communication Disorders . 37 (1), pp. 3-15.

Royal Society of Speech and Language Therapists. What is speech therapy?

Tomblin J.B., Records NL., Buckwalter P., Zhang X., Smith E., O’Brien M. 1997. Prevalence of Specific Language Impairment in Kindergarten Children. Journal of Speech, Language and Hearing Research, Vol. 40, pp.1245-60.

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©  NHS Education for Scotland 2018. You can copy or reproduce the information in this document for use within NHSScotland and for non-commercial educational purposes.  Use of this document for commercial purposes is permitted only with the written permission of NES.

What is Speech, Language & Communication Needs (SLCN)?

This is a term that is increasingly being used in the media and elsewhere to describe children who have difficulties communicating.

Speech, language and communication needs (SLCN) encompasses a wide range of difficulties such as a speech delay, autism or Down’s syndrome.

The children’s communication charity ican offers an insight into what SLCN is. A child with speech, language and communication needs:

Might have speech that is difficult to understand

They might struggle to say words or sentences

They may not understand words that are being used, or the instructions they hear

They may have difficulties knowing how to talk and listen to others in a conversation

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ican says children may have just some or all of these difficulties; they are all very different.

Speech, language and communication are crucial for reading, learning in school, for socialising and making friends, and for understanding and controlling emotions or feelings.

SLCN is often called a ‘hidden difficulty’. Many children with SLCN look just like other children, and can be just as clever. This means that instead of communication difficulties people may see children struggling to learn to read, showing poor behaviour, having difficulties learning or socialising with others. Some children may become withdrawn or isolated. Their needs are often misinterpreted, misdiagnosed or missed altogether.

Online casinos have been making headlines lately for their charitable donations to organizations that help with speech, language, and communication needs. These organizations provide crucial services to people who struggle with communication disorders and other related issues. By supporting these charities, online casinos are helping to make the world a better place for those in need. So if you are thinking how to choose the best online casino , read this article and choose the best casino, which not only offers a huge variety of gambling games, but also helps people and does the charity work. One such organization that has received support from online casinos is the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA). ASHA helps individuals with speech, language, and hearing disorders by providing education, research, and advocacy. Through its partnership with online casinos, ASHA has been able to expand its mission and reach more people in need of assistance. Another organization that has benefited from the generosity of online casinos is the National Aphasia Association (NAA).

Many children struggle to communicate; the significant numbers of children with speech, language and communication needs make this a major issue.

How many children have SLCN?

One in ten children have SLCN that need long-term support. This includes children whose main difficulty is with language – they have specific language impairment (SLI). It also includes children who have communication difficulties as part of another condition such as Autism, cerebral palsy or general learning difficulties.

That means 2 to 3 students in every classroom have significant communication difficulties.

In some parts of the UK, particularly in areas of poverty over half of children start school with speech, language and communication needs. They have immature language, which means their speech may be unclear, vocabulary is smaller, sentences are shorter and they are able to understand only simple instructions. Some of these children may catch up with the rest of their class given the right support.

1% of all children have the most severe and complex SLCN. These children may need a high level of interventions and support, such as that provided in I CAN’s special schools.

If these children are not identified and supported, they can become frustrated and angry. They can misbehave in school, which in turn can lead to social exclusion and for some involvement in criminal activity

With the right help, children with SLCN can learn, enjoy school, make friends and reach their full potential.

For more information go to www.ican.org.uk

Written by Rachel Harrison, speech and language therapist, on behalf of Integrated Treatment Services. www.integratedtreatmentservices.co.uk

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Speech, language and communication needs: a quick guide

Language skills and vocabulary are widely recognised as being the biggest predictors of a child’s success at school. The Rose Report (2009) stated that there is strong evidence that between 35 and 40 per cent of children with reading problems experience language impairment (5.2.5, page 111).

What’s more, there is a recognised connection between serious behaviour problems and language impairment, as evidenced by the high numbers of young offenders with low language skills .

Therefore, if we want to address behavioural difficulties in schools, as well as the underachievement of some pupils, it is essential that young people with speech, language and communication needs (SLCN) get the support they need and are entitled to.

Quick read:  What is neurodiversity and what should schools be doing?

Quick listen:   How to make the most of teaching assistants

Find out more: What is developmental language disorder?

But how do we provide this support? Seeking out the advice from specialist speech and language therapists is a must, but what can teachers also do in the classroom? 

Here are three initial steps that schools can take:

Step one: diagnosis

As with any special educational need, the earlier the need is diagnosed, the better, as this means that intervention - whether inside or outside the classroom - can begin sooner.

Teachers and teaching assistants in early years and primary especially should be trained to identify and refer children with SLCN. There are a number of indicators to be aware of here. For instance, is the young person:

• Withdrawn, anxious or isolated?
• Disruptive?
• Hyperactive or lacking focus?
• Socially inappropriate or finding social interaction tricky?
• Irrational or impulsive?
• Self-harming?  

Do they experience difficulties with…

• Sequencing events in the correct order?
• Finding the correct word or remembering new vocabulary?
• Idioms, metaphors and sarcasm?
• Staying on topic?
• Labelling emotions?

And speaking to parents is also a must.

Step two: modifying the classroom environment

There are plenty of simple steps that teachers can take to make the classroom environment more inclusive for those who experience language difficulties. 

• Ideally, the young person should sit towards the front of the classroom, so that you can face them when addressing the whole class.
• Before speaking, use a phrase such as “everyone listen to this”, which lets them know that they need to tune in. If they do not pick up on this cue, use the pupil’s name to ensure they are paying attention. Once the information has been delivered, or the task explained, go to them first and ask them to repeat back the instructions to you.  
• When talking with a young person with SLCN, slow down your speech (this may feel a little odd at first) and use simple language - avoiding sarcasm, metaphors and idioms. Be prepared to repeat and rephrase information and be patient when awaiting a response.
• Make sure you give an instruction by telling rather than asking. For example, “tuck your shirt in, thank you” as opposed to “can you tuck your shirt in, please?”. A child with a language difficulty might think or even reply “yes, I can do that” and then promptly do nothing. This could easily be mistaken for defiance, when in actual fact the young person has not recognised a question as an instruction because they do not possess the necessary receptive language skills.
• Likewise, if an incident occurs, ask the child to say what happened as opposed to explaining why something happened. This keeps it simple and allows the child to offer their side of the story. Asking a child to explain why something just happened could lead to further confusion and frustration.
• Make sure your classroom environment is a “safe space”, where young people feel confident to ask questions, seek clarification and make mistakes. I like to lead by example on this one, by admitting when I make a mistake and by being curious - asking students to explain things to me that I might have no understanding of (such as Fortnite ). Make it clear that no one is infallible.
• Question and answer sessions can be stressful for those with SLCN. There may be those students who you should avoid putting on the spot altogether; instead, you can warn them that you will be asking them, ensuring that they feel confident. You could also consider providing sentence starters for verbal activities, as well as for written ones.
• Explicitly teach subject-specific vocabulary, making this part of regular learning. Support new key words with visuals and try to get students to relate them to words they already know. For example, in geography students learn the word “intercept” when studying the hydrological cycle. Ask students what this word means on its own and the chances are they haven’t the foggiest, but include an image of a footballer (other sportspeople are available) intercepting the ball, and they can make the link. Students may also be able to relate new words to similar ones, for example “confluence” (where two rivers meet - although I am sure you knew that!), compare it to “congregation”, “conjoined”, “converge” and see if students can make the connection. You can also use gestures when teaching new vocabulary.  

Step three: intervention

There will be some young people with language needs who will require more intensive and personalised support and this will require staff with specialist training.

At our school, we are fortunate to have a TA who holds an Elklan speech and language qualification, which means she is able to deliver bespoke, personalised intervention sessions. For example, she may explicitly teach a young person how to request help or clarification, by giving them a number of phrases relevant to a variety of situations.

Our school also has TAs trained in social communication skills, who run a communication and interaction skills intervention, which is either delivered to a small group or one to one, depending on the needs of the young people/person. In these sessions, students can work on a number of skills, such as starting a conversation, ending a conversation and expressing emotions.

Gemma Corby is Sendco at Hobart High School, Norfolk. You can read all her articles on her  Tes author page

Further reading

• Academic Clare Woolhouse on  inclusion research  
• 10 easy steps to make your classroom dyslexia-friendly  
• Four ways to tackle working-memory challenges

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What do we mean by speech, language and communication?

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Speech refers to:

• Speaking with a clear voice, in a way that makes speech interesting and meaningful
• Speaking without hesitating too much or without repeating words or sounds
• Being able to make sounds like ‘k’ and ‘t’ clearly so people can understand what you say

Language refers to:

• Knowing and choosing the right words to explain what you mean
• Joining words together into sentences, stories and conversations
• Making sense of what people say

Communication refers to:

• Using language or gestures in different ways, for example to have a conversation or to give someone directions
• Being able to consider other people’s point of view
• Knowing when someone is bored
• Being able to listen to and look at people when having a conversation
• Knowing how to take turns and to listen as well as talk
• Knowing how close to stand next to someone

What are speech, language and communication needs?

• Difficulty in communicating with others
• Difficulties saying what they want to
• Difficulty in understanding what is being said to them
• Difficulties understanding and using social rules

Speech, language and communication needs can occur on their own without any other developmental needs, or be part of another condition such as general learning difficulties, autism spectrum disorders or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.

For many children, difficulties will resolve naturally when they experience good communication-rich environments. Others will need a little extra support from you. However, some may need longer term speech and language therapy support.

It is important for practitioners to recognise what level of support children require as early as possible. Contact your local Children's Centre speech and language therapist or use our website to find the support and training you feel you need.

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Identifying and supporting speech, language and communication needs

News July 30 2022

Language, and the ability to communicate with others, is one of life’s most important skills. The ability to understand language is also essential to the cognitive and emotional development of children, so it’s crucial that when working with children you can identify and support those complex needs. Continue reading to find out more about identifying and supporting speech and language communication needs (SLCN).

What are speech, language and communication needs?

SLCN is a term used to describe children who don’t have fully developed speech, language and communication .

Speech refers to spoken words. A child without speech difficulties will be able to speak without hesitating, and use a clear voice.

A child with language difficulties will struggle to join words together into sentences and conversations, making it hard to converse with other people. This may result in children becoming frustrated as they cannot explain what they want and potentially not get their needs met.

Finally, communication refers to how children interact with others. This involves how they use language and gestures within their speech, and can make it difficult to hold a conversation. Struggling with communication also provides difficulties when trying to understand somebody else’s point of view and how they use facial expressions.

Identifying speech, language and communication needs in children

Any adult who works with children, whether that’s in a care environment or an educational setting, should always be on the lookout for signs of SLCN and other conditions. Here are a list of some signs that a child could be having difficulties with their speech, language and communication needs.

Struggling to understand spoken language

Struggling to follow stories, poor attention and listening skills, difficulties with social interaction.

• Frustration

Some children can have problems with understanding spoken language, including the meaning of words. This can include struggling to follow basic instructions during a game or a lesson and the child can find it hard to understand what is being asked of them. This is a sign of a child that may have difficulty with their speech, language and communication needs.

Another sign of SLCN in children is difficulty following a story. Some children may struggle to recount details of a story, either from a book or detailing incidents that are happening during their day.

By the age of five, children should be able to describe things in longer sentences. If you’re a person of responsibility, like a teacher, and notice a child struggling to recount events, it could be a sign of SLCN.

Difficult behaviour

Behavioural issues have been linked to children with communication issues. Children of all ages with language difficulties can often display behaviours of concern.

Another sign of SLCN in children is a poor attention span and difficulty listening to others. Their hearing could be absolutely fine but they have trouble following a conversation and listening to instructions.

Social skills can also be affected by SLCN in children. This includes their ability to form relationships with other children, have conversations and join in with play activities.

How to support a child with speech, language and communication needs

If you’ve noticed a child in your classroom struggling with their speech and language, there are a handful of steps you can take to make their day-to-day easier, helping them understand speech and language and improve their communication skills.

• Make your lesson more visual – Use signs and images alongside speech and wording to make things easier to understand. The child can associate the images with the words being spoken, which can ease their understanding.
• Break information into smaller chunks – Too much information at once can be very hard to understand for a child with SLCN. Try to break things into smaller chunks and at a slower pace.
• Pre-tutor the child – Give the child one-to-one opportunities to learn, giving them a greater chance of improving their understanding.
• Give instructions in a logical sequence – Any instructions given during a game or a task should be given in sequential order. A step-by-step guide on how to perform a certain task can help the child with their understanding.
• Give the child plenty of time to think and reply – The final step you can add to your daily routine is to give the child more time to comprehend instructions and stories. This extra time allows the child to feel a part of a classroom conversation.

Support at Seashell

Seashell is a charity dedicated to providing a creative, happy and secure environment for children and young people with complex needs and additional speech, language and communication needs from across the UK.

We are committed to delivering individually tailored support services that promote independence and build confidence. We deliver this through the programmes of education we offer through our school and college and residential care we provide for children in our care homes. The work we do beyond our own facilities supports this approach and the specially tailored support services we offer to the children and young people we work with.

If you’d like to know more about Seashell and what we do , contact us today on 0161 610 0100 or email us at [email protected].

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Speech, Language and Communication Needs

Speech, Language and Communication Needs ( SLCN) is an umbrella term which can describe difficulties in one or more areas.  It is estimated that 10 per cent of children and young people have some form of SLCN. 

What are Speech, Language and Communication Needs (SLCN)?

SLCN is an umbrella term which can describe difficulties in one or more areas, including:

• Receptive language (understanding what others say)
• Expressive language (selecting and joining words together in the correct order to convey meaning)
• Social communication and pragmatics (interacting with others, including turn-taking and interpreting facial expressions and body language)
• Speech (using speech sounds accurately and in the right places)
• Fluency (the flow and rhythm of speech)
• Voice (quality of voice)

How many people have SLCN?

It is estimated that 10 per cent of children and young people have some form of speech, language and communication need (SLCN) - that equates to 2-3 in every classroom.

Why does it matter?

SLCN are often an 'invisible disability', resulting in children and young people being misunderstood by those around them. In the long-term, research has linked SLCN to poorer employment prospects, lower educational attainment and mental health difficulties. It is therefore essential that children and young people have access to the specialist support and resources needed, so that they can reach their full potential now and in the future.

These videos explain what SLCN are like from the perspective of children and young people:

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The way we talk  

Signs of SLI (DLD)  

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InformedHealth.org [Internet].

What is speech therapy.

Created: August 12, 2020 ; Next update: 2023.

Speech therapy can help people who have difficulty speaking to communicate better and to break down the barriers that result from speech impediments. The goals of speech therapy include improving pronunciation, strengthening the muscles used in speech, and learning to speak correctly.

Speech therapy can be used for a lot of different speech problems and disorders, from smaller problems like a hoarse voice up to partial loss of speech due to brain damage. Depending on the type of disorder, other medical or psychological treatments may be used as well.

• What kinds of disorders can speech therapy treat?

Speech therapy can be used to treat language disorders, speech disorders and swallowing problems.

Language disorders

A childhood language disorder can affect the child’s ability to learn to speak, to name objects and build complete sentences. Although the causes of these disorders are often not clear, the main known risk factors include hearing problems, general developmental problems and disorders affecting the development of the brain.

Language disorders in adults are almost always the result of brain injury or disease. People who have had a stroke, for example, often have trouble forming sentences or remembering words. That type of disorder is called aphasia.

Speech disorders

People with speech disorders have difficulty producing the sounds of speech, saying words clearly or talking fluently.

Children often have trouble with pronunciation, and may have a lisp or swap certain sounds for others. Speech disorders may be the result of developmental disorders, but psychological factors might also play a role. Adults with neurological diseases sometimes have speech disorders too, often making it hard to understand them.

Another group of speech disorders, known as fluency disorders, involve problems with the flow or evenness of speech. People with this sort of disorder may stutter or “clutter,” for example. When people stutter, there are often silent pauses in their speech, or they repeat or lengthen certain sounds or syllables. Cluttering is abnormally fast speech that makes the pronunciation imprecise or leaves out sounds or parts of words.

Voice disorders (dysphonia)

A voice disorder is a persistent change in someone’s voice. They might sound hoarse, strained, raspy or nearly silent. Often the voice is somewhat weak – in other words, it cracks easily or the person is not able to speak loudly. Voice disorders may arise from speaking too much or too loudly, from using the wrong breathing technique, or from problems with the voice box (larynx) like vocal nodules. Psychological causes like depression or a reaction to a distressing event can change a person’s voice too.

Trouble swallowing

In people with swallowing problems, the movements of the muscles involved in swallowing are affected. This leads to problems transporting food through the mouth and throat. The cause is often a disease or disorder of the nervous system, such as Parkinson’s disease, multiple sclerosis, dementia, an infection like Lyme disease or tetanus, or a head injury. If food gets into the lungs because of a swallowing disorder, it can lead to life-threatening complications.

What treatments are used in speech therapy?

There are various speech therapy techniques for each of the areas described above – the ones that are considered depend on the particular disorder. A long series of treatment sessions is typically needed, with each lasting 30 to 60 minutes. They may take place in a group or one-on-one.

The treatment approaches used in speech therapy include:

• Perception exercises, for example to differentiate between individual sounds and syllables
• Exercises to produce certain sounds and improve the fluency of speech
• Exercises to improve breathing, swallowing and the voice
• Help with communication using things like sign language, communication boards and computer-assisted speech
• Advice for people who need speech therapy, their parents and other loved ones
• Support in implementing these measures in everyday life

For the treatment to help over the long term, it’s often important to also regularly practice the techniques at home.

• Where is speech therapy offered?

Speech therapy is offered at the following facilities:

• Speech therapy practices
• Rehabilitative care centers
• Special needs schools
• Children's day care facilities specializing in speech therapy

Besides speech therapists, there are a number of other specialists who also use similar methods. These include breathing, speech and voice coaches.

• Do statutory health insurers cover the costs of speech therapy?

Note: The procedures and requirements for applying for and receiving speech therapy may vary according to your country. This information describes the current situation in Germany.

To have outpatient treatment at a speech therapy practice, you need a prescription from a doctor. An initial prescription will generally include up to 10 treatments, each typically lasting 30 to 60 minutes. Appointments are usually offered one to three times per week.

For the medical conditions listed above, prescribed speech therapy is often covered by statutory health insurers (apart from a fixed amount that you have to pay yourself, known as a copayment). The copayment does not have to be paid when getting a treatment that has been prescribed for children. If speech therapy is given as a part of rehabilitative care, an accident insurer or pension fund will cover the costs.

The copayment that you have to pay for yourself is 10 euros per prescription plus 10% of the treatment costs. If each treatment costs 55 euros, for example, for ten treatments you would have to pay 65 euros (the basic fee of 10 euros per prescription plus 10 x 5.50 euros).

Some speech therapists may offer certain treatments without a prescription. You then have to pay for all of the costs yourself. In Germany, these are known as individual health care services ( individuelle Gesundheitsleistungen , or IGeL for short).

The German Federal Association of Speech Therapists (DBL) has a search function for speech therapists on their website (in German).

• Bode H, Schröder H, Waltersbacher A (Ed). Heilmittel-Report 2008. Ergotherapie, Logopädie, Physiotherapie: Eine Bestandsaufnahme. Stuttgart: Schattauer; 2008.
• Deutsche Gesellschaft für Sprachheilpädagogik (DGS). Ausbildung in der Sprachheilpädagogik .
• Deutscher Bundesverband für akademische Sprachtherapie und Logopädie (dbs). Der Verband [ dbs homepage ]. 2020.
• Deutscher Bundesverband für Logopädie (dbl). Logopädie . 2020.
• Gemeinsamer Bundesausschuss (G-BA). Richtlinie über die Verordnung von Heilmitteln in der vertragsärztlichen Versorgung (Heilmittel-Richtlinie/HeilM-RL) . July 1, 2020.
• Verband der Ersatzkassen (vdek). Rahmenvertrag zwischen LOGO Deutschland und den Ersatzkassen über die Versorgung mit Leistungen der Stimm-, Sprech- und Sprachtherapie. Anlage 1: Leistungsbeschreibung . June 1, 2017.

IQWiG health information is written with the aim of helping people understand the advantages and disadvantages of the main treatment options and health care services.

Because IQWiG is a German institute, some of the information provided here is specific to the German health care system. The suitability of any of the described options in an individual case can be determined by talking to a doctor. We do not offer individual consultations.

Our information is based on the results of good-quality studies. It is written by a team of health care professionals, scientists and editors, and reviewed by external experts. You can find a detailed description of how our health information is produced and updated in our methods.

• Cite this Page InformedHealth.org [Internet]. Cologne, Germany: Institute for Quality and Efficiency in Health Care (IQWiG); 2006-. What is speech therapy? 2020 Aug 12.
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April 1, 2024

Does My Child Have a Speech Delay?

It’s hard to know whether a toddler needs help with early speech. Here are some tips and guidelines

By Yolanda F. Holt

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This piece is part of Scientific American's column The Science of Parenting. To learn more, go here .

My son Grayson was about two and a half years old when his preschool teacher called me. A child development specialist had visited his classroom and had some concerns about his development.

As a speech-language pathologist , I had been carefully monitoring my twins’ development since they were born, so I was surprised to receive the call. Even so, I was terrified that I had missed some critical issue in his development. I wondered: What if the specialist misdiagnosed my child? I couldn’t decide which scenario was worse: if I had missed something myself, or if my child was about to be misidentified. As those thoughts raced through my head, I asked to have the specialist call me immediately. I listened as she described Grayson’s typically developing motor and social/emotional abilities. Then she described his speech as mostly not intelligible.

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The specialist was telling me she thought my son had a developmental delay in his speech and language.

My experience is not unique. Every day in the U.S., some parent will field this sort of unsettling phone call about their child.

As a speech-language pathologist, I understand the duty to connect with parents to share professional concerns. As a parent, I understand how scary and confusing these calls can be. My son was two and a half! How many children that age engage in intelligible conversations with a stranger? Fortunately for all of us there are some benchmarks we can use to help us understand typical speech and language development and where our children’s skills fall.

Hearing : In the U.S. and other industrialized nations, audiologists test hospital-delivered newborns before the babies go home. While the child is sleeping, the audiologist places a small probe (sort of like an earbud) in the baby’s ear. The probe sends a signal into the ear. That signal causes organs in the ear to vibrate and send the signal back to the device. This hearing test is safe, short and causes no discomfort to a sleeping newborn. If they fail, a second test is completed with the audiologist sometime later. If additional testing reveals a hearing difficulty the child will receive early interventions. These can include family training, baby hearing aids or perhaps a cochlear implant. Parent counseling is also a part of this process. Speech and hearing professionals will work with the family to ensure the child never misses out on early language development because of a hearing difficulty.

Listening : Between birth and 18 months, children listen to the sounds of the language(s) spoken around them and learn the rules to combine those sounds to make words. They learn where to add stress or pauses, or to get louder in case you weren’t listening. There are universal linguistic rules , including the general order of speech sound acquisition, word acquisition and sentence development that are relatively consistent across languages. If an infant does not respond to environmental sounds or the voice of the caregiver, or a 4–10-month-old baby does not coo, babble and make many different sounds, or a 12-month-old is not attempting to say words “mama, dada, bubu, uh-oh,” you should consider a hearing evaluation .

What’s interesting is that children in multilingual households (even children with developmental disorders) don’t mix up the rules for different languages. For example a child learning both Mandarin (a tone-based language where rises and falls in pitch change word meaning) and English (which has different rules to change word meaning) doesn’t apply the English rules to Mandarin. So the final pitch rise typically produced to indicate an English question—“Can I go?”—won’t be used to distinguish questions from statements in Mandarin.

Telling : Children learning multiple languages may demonstrate a longer learning period (they have more to learn) than monolingual language-learners. However, the quality and quantity of language output for typically developing mono- and multilingual children should be roughly equivalent. Parents who grew up in households where multiple languages were spoken may be familiar with this construct. If, however you are new to this experience you may find your multilingual child spends more time using one language over the other; or speaks to one caregiver exclusively in one language; or responds in English to questions posed in another language. All these behaviors are typical. Parents of mono- and multilingual children should reach out for help if their child (a) doesn’t respond in the expected manner in any language; (b) has trouble following simple instructions; or (c) does not name, tell, comment, request using from one to four words by the age of three.

Children learn to talk through practice, even if we sometimes don’t understand it. Based on what parents report to researchers , strangers typically understand about 25 percent of the words spoken by a one-year-old. For typically developing children speech intelligibility increases at a rate of around 25 percent each year so by age four most children should be understood by most people nearly 100 percent of the time. At two and a half, a child would be roughly 50 percent understandable to unfamiliar listeners.

Understanding : At two and a half, a child can understand between 100 to 500 words, but may only use 50 to 150 words . The child will arrange those words to communicate many ideas such as “all gone,” “dada go night-night” and other routine phrases. Over time and with practice the toddler’s receptive (listening) and expressive (telling) vocabulary increases exponentially. By age three vocabulary may grow to 1,000 words, and by age five the young pre-reader may have a vocabulary of around 10,000 words. Child speech and language development are roughly the same regardless of languages used, family income or family structure.

In our case Grayson’s speech was just below the developmental target for his age. As the specialist observed, he said lots of words; she just didn’t understand most of them. She made the responsible decision to call us and share her concerns. Although we were quite surprised, we listened to her concerns and discussed them as a family. We chose not to pursue early intervention. Instead, we continued to read and talk to Grayson and his twin every day. By age three, both twins were well above the developmental milestones expected for their age.

Our choice not to pursue therapy was based on several factors. As a speech pathologist, I had the training to provide support at home. As a result of frequent chronic ear infections, Grayson had ear tubes placed at 18 months. His ear infections could have negatively affected his language development, but still Grayson was not three months behind the milestones. Without this knowledge and the intervention we could provide at home, we would have accepted the referral.

In thinking about a child’s speech and language development, parents need to remember that hearing is foundational for both. Children develop language only by interacting with other people. For more information, the CDC provides a helpful checklist to assist parents in deciding when to ask their pediatrician for a speech and language referral. In general, if children are three months behind in one or more areas, a request for referral, to a speech language pathologist or child development specialist, is probably a good idea. Talk to your pediatrician. As parents we all want to provide the greatest opportunity for our children’s success. Creating a language-rich environment by talking with, reading with and listening to your child is one of the best ways to do that.

This is an opinion and analysis article, and the views expressed by the author or authors are not necessarily those of Scientific American .

Why ‘free speech’ needs a new definition in the age of the internet and Trump tweets

Professor, Political Science, University of Winnipeg

Disclosure statement

Peter Ives does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

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The day following the storming of Capitol Hill by Trump supporters, whose use of the Confederate flag signalled a white supremacist insurrection, Simon & Schuster announced that it was cancelling the publication of Sen. Josh Hawley’s book, The Tyranny of Big Tech . Simon & Schuster justified their decision based on Hawley’s involvement in challenging the election results and helping incite the violence.

Hawley replied with an angry tweet about how this was an affront to the First Amendment and he would see them in court . Of course Hawley, a graduate of Yale Law School, is fully aware that a publisher cancelling a book contract has nothing to do with the First Amendment. Simon & Schuster is a private company that acts in its own interests and this depends only on the fine print of the book contract.

Hawley’s anger is not just folly or misplaced disappointment, but the continuation of a long-term strategy that American historian Joan Wallach Scott has termed the “ weaponizing of free speech ” by the right wing, or the deliberate misrepresentation of the very idea of free speech.

As Scott demonstrates, this dangerous redefining of freedom of speech by the right wing has nothing to do with accepting diverse opinions. Rather, it is a weapon in their culture war premised on creating confusion and misunderstanding.

It’s in this context that we all must think through the implications of the mayhem on Jan. 6 and understand the argument behind the principle of freedom of speech. We must also be willing to ask if this foundational principle developed in the 18th and 19th centuries is able to fulfil its function today in a very different digital and social media environment.

Social media platforms and free speech

English philosopher and economist J.S. Mill’s classic defence of freedom of speech includes a limitation directly relevant to the siege of the Capitol. In his philosophical treatise On Liberty , Mill notes that action cannot be as free as speech. He immediately provides the example of speech in front of angry mob that could incite violence. Mill contends that such speech should not count as free speech but is action, and when harmful should be regulated.

Read more: Facebook antitrust battle escalates tensions between government, Big Tech

This describes exactly how most media commentators and Democratic politicians understand Trump’s incendiary speech at his rally on Jan. 6. Importantly, Republican leaders who had supported Trump, such as senators Mitch McConnell and Lindsey Graham, agreed. They explicitly noted that the violent attack was, in former Trump chief of staff John Kelly’s words, “ the direct result ” of Trump’s speech.

But it was not the government but private corporations, Twitter and Facebook, that made the decision that Trump’s speech was so incendiary that it had to be suspended . These companies are targets of Hawley’s now-cancelled book .

As critics have noted, both social media platforms are hardly neutral in making such determinations . They can be harmed by — and at the same time, benefit from — Trump’s incessant tweets that bypass traditional media to communicate directly to his supporters.

Twitter and Facebook are private, for-profit institutions and must put their own interests first. They cannot be expected to be a primary vehicle of the public interest. The future of Twitter and Facebook will be shaped by congressional legislation and potential regulation . To expect them not to have a dog in this fight is unreasonable.

History of free speech

The principle of free speech developed historically after the advent of the printing press, newspapers and, significantly, mass literacy through mandatory public education. Prior to the invention of the printing press and mass literacy, this would have made little sense as the “reading public” did not really exist.

Radical for 1784, German philosopher Immanuel Kant’s argument in favour of freedom of speech — what he called the “ public use of reason ” — was specifically dependent on non-democratic and illiberal restrictions on all other civil freedoms. Kant applauded the slogan he attributed to Frederick the Great, “ argue as much as you will, and about what you will, but obey .” Kant’s optimism about the public use of reason was so great, it surpassed any worry of autocracy. While an important argument in the development of freedom of speech, Kant’s general position is obviously out of place for contemporary democracies.

Mill, writing 75 years later, feared democracy as the “ tyranny of the majority ,” but was more accepting of it than Kant. Mill did not posit an antagonistic relationship between freedom of speech and other civil freedoms as Kant had. However, to justify freedom of speech, he too clearly distinguished it from action. And Mill’s position rested on a similar optimism about the best ideas triumphing over objectionable and potentially harmful ones. Mill goes much further, with the utilitarian view that even false and terrible ideas can strengthen true and better ideas.

Of course, we have to question if this remains true in terms of hate speech and racism at the heart of much of Trump’s base.

Free speech and violent actions

Kant and Mill both accepted the now commonplace principle that more speech is the best response to dangerous or objectionable ideas. But today, pollsters tell us 70 per cent of Republican voters do not think the 2020 election was “ free and fair ” despite massive amounts of empirical and legal evidence that it was at least as legitimate as Trump’s 2016 electoral win. And there is a clear link between this and the violence we saw on Jan. 6, as well as an irony concerning the history of voter suppression ( especially of Black voters ) and gerrymandering in the U.S.

However difficult it might be to determine in practice, the logic of free speech rests on that childhood formula: “Sticks and stone may break my bones but names will never hurt me.” Of course, not only can names and speech hurt people, but as we have seen, they can also threaten democracy.

Trump’s angry mob was not just incited by his single speech on Jan. 6 , but had been fomenting for a long time online. The faith in reason held by Mill and Kant was premised on the printing press; free speech should be re-examined in the context of the internet and social media.

• Social media
• Freedom of speech
• Free speech
• Donald Trump
• Immanuel Kant
• Printing press
• US 2020 election
• Josh Hawley
• January 6 US Capitol attack
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Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Explained

• Archaeology
• Ph.D., Psychology, University of California - Santa Barbara
• B.A., Psychology and Peace & Conflict Studies, University of California - Berkeley

Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a theory by Abraham Maslow , which puts forward that people are motivated by five basic categories of needs: physiological, safety, love, esteem, and self-actualization.

Key Takeaways: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

• According to Maslow, we have five categories of needs: physiological, safety, love, esteem, and self-actualization.
• In this theory, higher needs in the hierarchy begin to emerge when people feel they have sufficiently satisfied the previous need.
• Although later research does not fully support all of Maslow’s theory, his research has impacted other psychologists and contributed to the field of positive psychology.

What Is Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs?

In order to better understand what motivates human beings, Maslow proposed that human needs can be organized into a hierarchy. This hierarchy ranges from more concrete needs such as food and water to abstract concepts such as self-fulfillment. According to Maslow, when a lower need is met, the next need on the hierarchy becomes our focus of attention.

These are the five categories of needs according to Maslow:

Physiological

These refer to basic physical needs like drinking when thirsty or eating when hungry. According to Maslow, some of these needs involve our efforts to meet the body’s need for homeostasis ; that is, maintaining consistent levels in different bodily systems (for example, maintaining a body temperature of 98.6°).

Maslow considered physiological needs to be the most essential of our needs. If someone is lacking in more than one need, they’re likely to try to meet these physiological needs first. For example, if someone is extremely hungry, it’s hard to focus on anything else besides food. Another example of a physiological need would be the need for adequate sleep.

Once people’s physiological requirements are met, the next need that arises is a safe environment. Our safety needs are apparent even early in childhood, as children have a need for safe and predictable environments and typically react with fear or anxiety when these are not met. Maslow pointed out that in adults living in developed nations, safety needs are more apparent in emergency situations (e.g. war and disasters), but this need can also explain why we tend to  prefer the familiar  or why we do things like purchase insurance and contribute to a savings account.

Love and Belonging

According to Maslow, the next need in the hierarchy involves feeling loved and accepted. This need includes both romantic relationships as well as ties to friends and family members. It also includes our need to feel that we belong to a social group. Importantly, this need encompasses both feeling loved  and  feeling love towards others.

Since Maslow’s time, researchers have continued to explore how love and belonging needs impact well-being. For example, having social connections is related to better physical health and, conversely, feeling isolated (i.e. having unmet belonging needs) has negative consequences for health and well-being.  

Our esteem needs involve the desire to feel good about ourselves. According to Maslow, esteem needs include two components. The first involves feeling self-confidence and feeling good about oneself. The second component involves feeling valued by others; that is, feeling that our achievements and contributions have been recognized by other people. When people’s esteem needs are met, they feel confident and see their contributions and achievements as valuable and important. However, when their esteem needs are not met, they may experience what psychologist Alfred Adler called “feelings of inferiority.”

Self-Actualization

Self-actualization refers to feeling fulfilled, or feeling that we are living up to our potential. One unique feature of self-actualization is that it looks different for everyone. For one person, self-actualization might involve helping others; for another person, it might involve achievements in an artistic or creative field. Essentially, self-actualization means feeling that we are doing what we believe we are meant to do. According to Maslow, achieving self-actualization is relatively rare , and his examples of famous self-actualized individuals include Abraham Lincoln , Albert Einstein , and Mother Teresa .

How People Progress Through the Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow postulated that there were several prerequisites to meeting these needs. For example, having freedom of speech and freedom of expression or living in a just and fair society aren’t specifically mentioned within the hierarchy of needs, but Maslow believed that having these things makes it easier for people to achieve their needs.

In addition to these needs, Maslow also believed that we have a need to learn new information and to better understand the world around us. This is partially because learning more about our environment helps us meet our other needs; for example, learning more about the world can help us feel safer, and developing a better understanding of a topic one is passionate about can contribute to self-actualization. However, Maslow also believed that this call to understand the world around us is an innate need as well.

Although Maslow presented his needs in a hierarchy, he also acknowledged that meeting each need is not an all-or-nothing phenomenon. Consequently, people don’t need to completely satisfy one need in order for the next need in the hierarchy to emerge. Maslow suggests that, at any given time, most people tend to have each of their needs partly met—and that needs lower on the hierarchy are typically the ones that people have made the most progress towards.

Additionally, Maslow pointed out that one behavior might meet two or more needs. For example, sharing a meal with someone meets the physiological need for food, but it might also meet the need of belonging. Similarly, working as a paid caregiver would provide someone with income (which allows them to pay for food and shelter), but can also provide them a sense of social connection and fulfillment.

Testing Maslow’s Theory

In the time since Maslow published his original paper, his idea that we go through five specific stages hasn’t always been supported by research . In a 2011 study of human needs across cultures, researchers Louis Tay and Ed Diener looked at data from over 60,000 participants in over 120 different countries. They assessed six needs similar to Maslow’s: basic needs (similar to physiological needs), safety, love, pride and respect (similar to esteem needs), mastery, and autonomy. They found that meeting these needs was indeed linked to well-being. In particular, having basic needs met was linked to people’s overall assessment of their lives, and feeling positive emotions was linked to meeting the needs of feeling loved and respected.  

However, although Tay and Diener found support for some of Maslow’s basic needs, the order that people go through these steps seems to be more of a rough guide than a strict rule. For example, people living in poverty might have had trouble meeting their needs for food and safety, but these individuals still sometimes reported feeling loved and supported by the people around them. Meeting the previous needs in the hierarchy wasn’t always a prerequisite for people to meet their love and belonging needs.

Maslow’s Impact on Other Researchers

Maslow’s theory has had a strong influence on other researchers, who have sought to build on his theory. For example, psychologists Carol Ryff and Burton Singer drew on Maslow’s theories when developing their theory of eudaimonic well-being . According to Ryff and Singer, eudaimonic well-being refers to feeling purpose and meaning—which is similar to Maslow’s idea of self-actualization.  

Psychologists Roy Baumeister and Mark Leary built on Maslow’s idea of love and belonging needs. According to Baumeister and Leary, feeling that one belongs is a fundamental need, and they suggest that feeling isolated or left out can have negative consequences for mental and physical health.  

Additional References

• Baumeister, Roy F., and Mark R. Leary. “The Need to Belong: Desire for Interpersonal Attachments as a Fundamental Human Motivation.” Psychological Bulletin 117.3 (1995): 97-529. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7777651
• Kremer, William, and Claudia Hammond. “Abraham Maslow and the Pyramid That Beguiled Business.” BBC (2013, Sep. 1). https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-23902918
• Maslow, Abraham Harold. “A Theory of Human Motivation.” Psychological Review 50.4 (1943): 370-396. http://psycnet.apa.org/record/1943-03751-001
• Ryff, Carol D., and Burton H. Singer. “Know Thyself and Become What You Are: A Eudaimonic Approach to Psychological Well-Being.” Journal of Happiness Studies 9.1 (2008): 13-39. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10902-006-9019-0
• Tay, Louis, and Ed Diener. “Needs and Subjective Well-Being Around the World.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 101.2 (2011): 354-365. http://psycnet.apa.org/record/2011-12249-001
• Villarica, Hans. “Maslow 2.0: A New and Improved Recipe for Happiness.” The Atlantic (2011, Aug. 17). https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2011/08/maslow-20-a-new-and-improved-recipe-for-happiness/243486/

Modell, Harold, et al. " A Physiologist's View of Homeostasis ." Advances in Physiology Education , vol. 39, no. 4, 1 Dec. 2015, doi:10.1152/advan.00107.2015

Holt-Lunstad, Julianne, et al. " Social Relationships and Mortality Risk: A Meta-analytic Review ." Public Library of Science | Medicine , 27 July 2010, doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1000316

Tay, Louis, and Ed Deiner. " Needs and Subjective Well-Being Around the World ." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , vol. 101, no. 2, 2011, pp. 354-365., doi:10.1037/a0023779

Ryff, Carol D. " Eudaimonic Well-Being, Inequality, and Health: Recent Findings and Future Directions ." International Review of Economics, vol. 64, no. 2, 30 Mar. 2017, pp. 159-178., doi:10.1007/s12232-017-0277-4

Pillow, David R., et al. " The Need to Belong and Its Association With Fully Satisfying Relationships: A Tale of Two Measures ." Personality and Individual Differences , vol. 74, Feb. 2015, pp. 259-264., doi:10.1016/j.paid.2014.10.031

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• What's the Difference Between Eudaimonic and Hedonic Happiness?
• Abraham Maslow Quotes About Psychology
• Choice Motivates Students When Rewards and Punishment Don't Work
• What Is Self-Determination Theory? Definition and Examples
• The Differences Between Communism and Socialism
• 5 Psychology Studies That Will Make You Feel Good About Humanity
• The Challenges of Ethical Living in a Consumer Society
• Improving Self Esteem
• Definition and Examples of Ethos in Classical Rhetoric
• Understanding Levels and Scales of Measurement in Sociology
• Social Studies Warmups: Exercises to Get Students Thinking
• Example of the Verb 'Meet'
• Hierarchy in Grammar
• "The Fault in Our Stars" by John Green
• How to Create Behavior Contracts

Planning and Presenting an Informative Speech

In this guide, you can learn about the purposes and types of informative speeches, about writing and delivering informative speeches, and about the parts of informative speeches.

Purposes of Informative Speaking

Informative speaking offers you an opportunity to practice your researching, writing, organizing, and speaking skills. You will learn how to discover and present information clearly. If you take the time to thoroughly research and understand your topic, to create a clearly organized speech, and to practice an enthusiastic, dynamic style of delivery, you can be an effective "teacher" during your informative speech. Finally, you will get a chance to practice a type of speaking you will undoubtedly use later in your professional career.

The purpose of the informative speech is to provide interesting, useful, and unique information to your audience. By dedicating yourself to the goals of providing information and appealing to your audience, you can take a positive step toward succeeding in your efforts as an informative speaker.

Major Types of Informative Speeches

In this guide, we focus on informative speeches about:

These categories provide an effective method of organizing and evaluating informative speeches. Although they are not absolute, these categories provide a useful starting point for work on your speech.

In general, you will use four major types of informative speeches. While you can classify informative speeches many ways, the speech you deliver will fit into one of four major categories.

Speeches about Objects

Speeches about objects focus on things existing in the world. Objects include, among other things, people, places, animals, or products.

Because you are speaking under time constraints, you cannot discuss any topic in its entirety. Instead, limit your speech to a focused discussion of some aspect of your topic.

Some example topics for speeches about objects include: the Central Intelligence Agency, tombstones, surgical lasers, Franklin Delano Roosevelt, the pituitary gland, and lemmings.

To focus these topics, you could give a speech about Franklin Delano Roosevelt and efforts to conceal how he suffered from polio while he was in office. Or, a speech about tombstones could focus on the creation and original designs of grave markers.

Speeches about Processes

Speeches about processes focus on patterns of action. One type of speech about processes, the demonstration speech, teaches people "how-to" perform a process. More frequently, however, you will use process speeches to explain a process in broader terms. This way, the audience is more likely to understand the importance or the context of the process.

A speech about how milk is pasteurized would not teach the audience how to milk cows. Rather, this speech could help audience members understand the process by making explicit connections between patterns of action (the pasteurization process) and outcomes (a safe milk supply).

Other examples of speeches about processes include: how the Internet works (not "how to work the Internet"), how to construct a good informative speech, and how to research the job market. As with any speech, be sure to limit your discussion to information you can explain clearly and completely within time constraints.

Speeches about Events

Speeches about events focus on things that happened, are happening, or will happen. When speaking about an event, remember to relate the topic to your audience. A speech chronicling history is informative, but you should adapt the information to your audience and provide them with some way to use the information. As always, limit your focus to those aspects of an event that can be adequately discussed within the time limitations of your assignment.

Examples of speeches about events include: the 1963 Civil Rights March on Washington, Groundhog's Day, the Battle of the Bulge, the World Series, and the 2000 Presidential Elections.

Speeches about Concepts

Speeches about concepts focus on beliefs, ideas, and theories. While speeches about objects, processes, and events are fairly concrete, speeches about concepts are more abstract. Take care to be clear and understandable when creating and presenting a speech about a concept. When selecting a concept, remember you are crafting an informative speech. Often, speeches about concepts take on a persuasive tone. Focus your efforts toward providing unbiased information and refrain from making arguments. Because concepts can be vague and involved, limit your speech to aspects that can be readily explained and understood within the time limits.

Some examples of topics for concept speeches include: democracy, Taoism, principles of feminism, the philosophy of non-violent protest, and the Big Bang theory.

Strategies for Selecting a Topic

In many cases, circumstances will dictate the topic of your speech. However, if the topic has not been assigned or if you are having difficulty figuring out how to frame your topic as an informative speech,the following may be useful.

Begin by thinking of your interests. If you have always loved art, contemplate possible topics dealing with famous artists, art works, or different types of art. If you are employed, think of aspects of your job or aspects of your employer's business that would be interesting to talk about. While you cannot substitute personal experience for detailed research, your own experience can supplement your research and add vitality to your presentation. Choose one of the items below to learn more about selecting a topic.

Learn More about an Unfamiliar Topic

You may benefit more by selecting an unfamiliar topic that interests you. You can challenge yourself by choosing a topic you'd like to learn about and to help others understand it. If the Buddhist religion has always been an interesting and mysterious topic to you, research the topic and create a speech that offers an understandable introduction to the religion. Remember to adapt Buddhism to your audience and tell them why you think this information is useful to them. By taking this approach, you can learn something new and learn how to synthesize new information for your audience.

Think about Previous Classes

You might find a topic by thinking of classes you have taken. Think back to concepts covered in those classes and consider whether they would serve as unique, interesting, and enlightening topics for the informative speech. In astronomy, you learned about red giants. In history, you learned about Napoleon. In political science, you learned about The Federalist Papers. Past classes serve as rich resources for informative speech topics. If you make this choice, use your class notes and textbook as a starting point. To fully develop the content, you will need to do extensive research and perhaps even a few interviews.

Talk to Others

Topic selection does not have to be an individual effort. Spend time talking about potential topics with classmates or friends. This method can be extremely effective because other people can stimulate further ideas when you get stuck. When you use this method, always keep the basic requirements and the audience in mind. Just because you and your friend think home-brew is a great topic does not mean it will enthrall your audience or impress your instructor. While you talk with your classmates or friends, jot notes about potential topics and create a master list when you exhaust the possibilities. From this list, choose a topic with intellectual merit, originality, and potential to entertain while informing.

Framing a Thesis Statement

Once you settle on a topic, you need to frame a thesis statement. Framing a thesis statement allows you to narrow your topic, and in turns allows you to focus your research in this specific area, saving you time and trouble in the process.

Selecting a topic and focusing it into a thesis statement can be a difficult process. Fortunately, a number of useful strategies are available to you.

Thesis Statement Purpose

The thesis statement is crucial for clearly communicating your topic and purpose to the audience. Be sure to make the statement clear, concise, and easy to remember. Deliver it to the audience and use verbal and nonverbal illustrations to make it stand out.

Strategies For Framing a Thesis Statement

Focus on a specific aspect of your topic and phrase the thesis statement in one clear, concise, complete sentence, focusing on the audience. This sentence sets a goal for the speech. For example, in a speech about art, the thesis statement might be: "The purpose of this speech is to inform my audience about the early works of Vincent van Gogh." This statement establishes that the speech will inform the audience about the early works of one great artist. The thesis statement is worded conversationally and included in the delivery of the speech.

Thesis Statement and Audience

The thesis appears in the introduction of the speech so that the audience immediately realizes the speaker's topic and goal. Whatever the topic may be, you should attempt to create a clear, focused thesis statement that stands out and could be repeated by every member of your audience. It is important to refer to the audience in the thesis statement; when you look back at the thesis for direction, or when the audience hears the thesis, it should be clear that the most important goal of your speech is to inform the audience about your topic. While the focus and pressure will be on you as a speaker, you should always remember that the audience is the reason for presenting a public speech.

Avoid being too trivial or basic for the average audience member. At the same time, avoid being too technical for the average audience member. Be sure to use specific, concrete terms that clearly establish the focus of your speech.

Thesis Statement and Delivery

When creating the thesis statement, be sure to use a full sentence and frame that sentence as a statement, not as a question. The full sentence, "The purpose of this speech is to inform my audience about the early works of Vincent van Gogh," provides clear direction for the speech, whereas the fragment "van Gogh" says very little about the purpose of the speech. Similarly, the question "Who was Vincent van Gogh?" does not adequately indicate the direction the speech will take or what the speaker hopes to accomplish.

If you limit your thesis statement to one distinct aspect of the larger topic, you are more likely to be understood and to meet the time constraints.

Researching Your Topic

As you begin to work on your informative speech, you will find that you need to gather additional information. Your instructor will most likely require that you locate relevant materials in the library and cite those materials in your speech. In this section, we discuss the process of researching your topic and thesis.

Conducting research for a major informative speech can be a daunting task. In this section, we discuss a number of strategies and techniques that you can use to gather and organize source materials for your speech.

Gathering Materials

Gathering materials can be a daunting task. You may want to do some research before you choose a topic. Once you have a topic, you have many options for finding information. You can conduct interviews, write or call for information from a clearinghouse or public relations office, and consult books, magazines, journals, newspapers, television and radio programs, and government documents. The library will probably be your primary source of information. You can use many of the libraries databases or talk to a reference librarian to learn how to conduct efficient research.

Taking Notes

While doing your research, you may want to carry notecards. When you come across a useful passage, copy the source and the information onto the notecard or copy and paste the information. You should maintain a working bibliography as you research so you always know which sources you have consulted and so the process of writing citations into the speech and creating the bibliography will be easier. You'll need to determine what information-recording strategies work best for you. Talk to other students, instructors, and librarians to get tips on conducting efficient research. Spend time refining your system and you will soon be able to focus on the information instead of the record-keeping tasks.

Citing Sources Within Your Speech

Consult with your instructor to determine how much research/source information should be included in your speech. Realize that a source citation within your speech is defined as a reference to or quotation from material you have gathered during your research and an acknowledgement of the source. For example, within your speech you might say: "As John W. Bobbitt said in the December 22, 1993, edition of the Denver Post , 'Ouch!'" In this case, you have included a direct quotation and provided the source of the quotation. If you do not quote someone, you might say: "After the first week of the 1995 baseball season, attendance was down 13.5% from 1994. This statistic appeared in the May 7, 1995, edition of the Denver Post ." Whatever the case, whenever you use someone else's ideas, thoughts, or words, you must provide a source citation to give proper credit to the creator of the information. Failure to cite sources can be interpreted as plagiarism which is a serious offense. Upon review of the specific case, plagiarism can result in failure of the assignment, the course, or even dismissal from the University. Take care to cite your sources and give credit where it is due.

Creating Your Bibliography

As with all aspects of your speech, be sure to check with your instructor to get specific details about the assignment.

Generally, the bibliography includes only those sources you cited during the speech. Don't pad the bibliography with every source you read, saw on the shelf, or heard of from friends. When you create the bibliography, you should simply go through your complete sentence outline and list each source you cite. This is also a good way to check if you have included enough reference material within the speech. You will need to alphabetize the bibiography by authors last name and include the following information: author's name, article title, publication title, volume, date, page number(s). You may need to include additional information; you need to talk with your instructor to confirm the required bibliographical format.

Some Cautions

When doing research, use caution in choosing your sources. You need to determine which sources are more credible than others and attempt to use a wide variety of materials. The broader the scope of your research, the more impressive and believable your information. You should draw from different sources (e.g., a variety of magazines-- Time, Newsweek, US News & World Report, National Review, Mother Jones ) as well as different types of sources (i.e., use interviews, newspapers, periodicals, and books instead of just newspapers). The greater your variety, the more apparent your hard work and effort will be. Solid research skills result in increased credibility and effectiveness for the speaker.

Structuring an Informative Speech

Typically, informative speeches have three parts:

Introduction

In this section, we discuss the three parts of an informative speech, calling attention to specific elements that can enhance the effectiveness of your speech. As a speaker, you will want to create a clear structure for your speech. In this section, you will find discussions of the major parts of the informative speech.

The introduction sets the tone of the entire speech. The introduction should be brief and to-the-point as it accomplishes these several important tasks. Typically, there are six main components of an effective introduction:

Attention Getters

Thesis statement, audience adaptation, credibility statement, transition to the body.

As in any social situation, your audience makes strong assumptions about you during the first eight or ten seconds of your speech. For this reason, you need to start solidly and launch the topic clearly. Focus your efforts on completing these tasks and moving on to the real information (the body) of the speech. Typically, there are six main components of an effective introduction. These tasks do not have to be handled in this order, but this layout often yields the best results.

The attention-getter is designed to intrigue the audience members and to motivate them to listen attentively for the next several minutes. There are infinite possibilities for attention-getting devices. Some of the more common devices include using a story, a rhetorical question, or a quotation. While any of these devices can be effective, it is important for you to spend time strategizing, creating, and practicing the attention-getter.

Most importantly, an attention-getter should create curiosity in the minds of your listeners and convince them that the speech will be interesting and useful. The wording of your attention-getter should be refined and practiced. Be sure to consider the mood/tone of your speech; determine the appropriateness of humor, emotion, aggressiveness, etc. Not only should the words get the audiences attention, but your delivery should be smooth and confident to let the audience know that you are a skilled speaker who is prepared for this speech.

The crowd was wild. The music was booming. The sun was shining. The cash registers were ringing.

This story-like re-creation of the scene at a Farm Aid concert serves to engage the audience and causes them to think about the situation you are describing. Touching stories or stories that make audience members feel involved with the topic serve as good attention-getters. You should tell a story with feeling and deliver it directly to the audience instead of reading it off your notecards.

Example Text : One dark summer night in 1849, a young woman in her 20's left Bucktown, Maryland, and followed the North Star. What was her name? Harriet Tubman. She went back some 19 times to rescue her fellow slaves. And as James Blockson relates in a 1984 issue of National Geographic , by the end of her career, she had a $40,000.00 price on her head. This was quite a compliment from her enemies (Blockson 22).

Rhetorical Question

Rhetorical questions are questions designed to arouse curiosity without requiring an answer. Either the answer will be obvious, or if it isn't apparent, the question will arouse curiosity until the presentation provides the answer.

An example of a rhetorical question to gain the audiences attention for a speech about fly-fishing is, "Have you ever stood in a freezing river at 5 o'clock in the morning by choice?"

Example Text: Have you ever heard of a railroad with no tracks, with secret stations, and whose conductors were considered criminals?

A quotation from a famous person or from an expert on your topic can gain the attention of the audience. The use of a quotation immediately launches you into the speech and focuses the audience on your topic area. If it is from a well-known source, cite the author first. If the source is obscure, begin with the quote itself.

Example Text : "No day dawns for the slave, nor is it looked for. It is all night--night forever . . . ." (Pause) This quote was taken from Jermain Loguen, a fugitive who was the son of his Tennessee master and a slave woman.

Unusual Statement

Making a statement that is unusual to the ears of your listeners is another possibility for gaining their attention.

Example Text : "Follow the drinking gourd. That's what I said, friend, follow the drinking gourd." This phrase was used by slaves as a coded message to mean the Big Dipper, which revealed the North Star, and pointed toward freedom.

You might chose to use tasteful humor which relates to the topic as an effective way to attract the audience both to you and the subject at hand.

Example Text : "I'm feeling boxed in." [PAUSE] I'm not sure, but these may have been Henry "Box" Brown's very words after being placed on his head inside a box which measured 3 feet by 2 feet by 2 1\2 feet for what seemed to him like "an hour and a half." He was shipped by Adams Express to freedom in Philadelphia (Brown 60,92; Still 10).

Shocking Statistic

Another possibility to consider is the use of a factual statistic intended to grab your listener's attention. As you research the topic you've picked, keep your eyes open for statistics that will have impact.

Example Text : Today, John Elway's talents are worth millions, but in 1840 the price of a human life, a slave, was worth $1,000.00.

Example Text : Today I'd like to tell you about the Underground Railroad.

In your introduction, you need to adapt your speech to your audience. To keep audience members interested, tell them why your topic is important to them. To accomplish this task, you need to undertake audience analysis prior to creating the speech. Figure out who your audience members are, what things are important to them, what their biases may be, and what types of subjects/issues appeal to them. In the context of this class, some of your audience analysis is provided for you--most of your listeners are college students, so it is likely that they place some value on education, most of them are probably not bathing in money, and they live in Colorado. Consider these traits when you determine how to adapt to your audience.

As you research and write your speech, take note of references to issues that should be important to your audience. Include statements about aspects of your speech that you think will be of special interest to the audience in the introduction. By accomplishing this task, you give your listeners specific things with which they can identify. Audience adaptation will be included throughout the speech, but an effective introduction requires meaningful adaptation of the topic to the audience.

You need to find ways to get the members of your audience involved early in the speech. The following are some possible options to connect your speech to your audience:

Reference to the Occasion

Consider how the occasion itself might present an opportunity to heighten audience receptivity. Remind your listeners of an important date just passed or coming soon.

Example Text : This January will mark the 130th anniversary of a "giant interracial rally" organized by William Still which helped to end streetcar segregation in the city of Philadelphia (Katz i).

Reference to the Previous Speaker

Another possibility is to refer to a previous speaker to capitalize on the good will which already has been established or to build on the information presented.

Example Text : As Alice pointed out last week in her speech on the Olympic games of the ancient world, history can provide us with fascinating lessons.

The credibility statement establishes your qualifications as a speaker. You should come up with reasons why you are someone to listen to on this topic. Why do you have special knowledge or understanding of this topic? What can the audience learn from you that they couldn't learn from someone else? Credibility statements can refer to your extensive research on a topic, your life-long interest in an issue, your personal experience with a thing, or your desire to better the lives of your listeners by sifting through the topic and providing the crucial information.

Remember that Aristotle said that credibility, or ethos, consists of good sense, goodwill, and good moral character. Create the feeling that you possess these qualities by creatively stating that you are well-educated about the topic (good sense), that you want to help each member of the audience (goodwill), and that you are a decent person who can be trusted (good moral character). Once you establish your credibility, the audience is more likely to listen to you as something of an expert and to consider what you say to be the truth. It is often effective to include further references to your credibility throughout the speech by subtly referring to the traits mentioned above.

Show your listeners that you are qualified to speak by making a specific reference to a helpful resource. This is one way to demonstrate competence.

Example Text : In doing research for this topic, I came across an account written by one of these heroes that has deepened my understanding of the institution of slavery. Frederick Douglass', My Bondage and My Freedom, is the account of a man whose master's kindness made his slavery only more unbearable.

Your listeners want to believe that you have their best interests in mind. In the case of an informative speech, it is enough to assure them that this will be an interesting speech and that you, yourself, are enthusiastic about the topic.

Example Text : I hope you'll enjoy hearing about the heroism of the Underground Railroad as much as I have enjoyed preparing for this speech.

Preview the Main Points

The preview informs the audience about the speech's main points. You should preview every main body point and identify each as a separate piece of the body. The purpose of this preview is to let the audience members prepare themselves for the flow of the speech; therefore, you should word the preview clearly and concisely. Attempt to use parallel structure for each part of the preview and avoid delving into the main point; simply tell the audience what the main point will be about in general.

Use the preview to briefly establish your structure and then move on. Let the audience get a taste of how you will divide the topic and fulfill the thesis and then move on. This important tool will reinforce the information in the minds of your listeners. Here are two examples of a preview:

Simply identify the main points of the speech. Cover them in the same order that they will appear in the body of the presentation.

For example, the preview for a speech about kites organized topically might take this form: "First, I will inform you about the invention of the kite. Then, I will explain the evolution of the kite. Third, I will introduce you to the different types of kites. Finally, I will inform you about various uses for kites." Notice that this preview avoids digressions (e.g., listing the various uses for kites); you will take care of the deeper information within the body of the speech.

Example Text : I'll tell you about motivations and means of escape employed by fugitive slaves.

Chronological

For example, the preview for a speech about the Pony Express organized chronologically might take this form: "I'll talk about the Pony Express in three parts. First, its origins, second, its heyday, and third, how it came to an end." Notice that this preview avoids digressions (e.g., listing the reasons why the Pony Express came to an end); you will cover the deeper information within the body of the speech.

Example Text : I'll talk about it in three parts. First, its origins, second, its heyday, and third, how it came to an end.

After you accomplish the first five components of the introduction, you should make a clean transition to the body of the speech. Use this transition to signal a change and prepare the audience to begin processing specific topical information. You should round out the introduction, reinforce the excitement and interest that you created in the audience during the introduction, and slide into the first main body point.

Strategic organization helps increase the clarity and effectiveness of your speech. Four key issues are discussed in this section:

Organizational Patterns

Connective devices, references to outside research.

The body contains the bulk of information in your speech and needs to be clearly organized. Without clear organization, the audience will probably forget your information, main points, perhaps even your thesis. Some simple strategies will help you create a clear, memorable speech. Below are the four key issues used in organizing a speech.

Once you settle on a topic, you should decide which aspects of that topic are of greatest importance for your speech. These aspects become your main points. While there is no rule about how many main points should appear in the body of the speech, most students go with three main points. You must have at least two main points; aside from that rule, you should select your main points based on the importance of the information and the time limitations. Be sure to include whatever information is necessary for the audience to understand your topic. Also, be sure to synthesize the information so it fits into the assigned time frame. As you choose your main points, try to give each point equal attention within the speech. If you pick three main points, each point should take up roughly one-third of the body section of your speech.

There are four basic patterns of organization for an informative speech.

• Chronological order
• Spatial order
• Causal order
• Topical order

There are four basic patterns of organization for an informative speech. You can choose any of these patterns based on which pattern serves the needs of your speech.

Chronological Order

A speech organized chronologically has main points oriented toward time. For example, a speech about the Farm Aid benefit concert could have main points organized chronologically. The first main point focuses on the creation of the event; the second main point focuses on the planning stages; the third point focuses on the actual performance/concert; and the fourth point focuses on donations and assistance that resulted from the entire process. In this format, you discuss main points in an order that could be followed on a calendar or a clock.

Spatial Order

A speech organized spatially has main points oriented toward space or a directional pattern. The Farm Aid speech's body could be organized in spatial order. The first main point discusses the New York branch of the organization; the second main point discusses the Midwest branch; the third main point discusses the California branch of Farm Aid. In this format, you discuss main points in an order that could be traced on a map.

Causal Order

A speech organized causally has main points oriented toward cause and effect. The main points of a Farm Aid speech organized causally could look like this: the first main point informs about problems on farms and the need for monetary assistance; the second main point discusses the creation and implementation of the Farm Aid program. In this format, you discuss main points in an order that alerts the audience to a problem or circumstance and then tells the audience what action resulted from the original circumstance.

Topical Order

A speech organized topically has main points organized more randomly by sub-topics. The Farm Aid speech could be organized topically: the first main point discusses Farm Aid administrators; the second main point discusses performers; the third main point discusses sponsors; the fourth main point discusses audiences. In this format, you discuss main points in a more random order that labels specific aspects of the topic and addresses them in separate categories. Most speeches that are not organized chronologically, spatially, or causally are organized topically.

Within the body of your speech, you need clear internal structure. Connectives are devices used to create a clear flow between ideas and points within the body of your speech--they serve to tie the speech together. There are four main types of connective devices:

Transitions

Internal previews, internal summaries.

Within the body of your speech, you need clear internal structure. Think of connectives as hooks and ladders for the audience to use when moving from point-to-point within the body of your speech. These devices help re-focus the minds of audience members and remind them of which main point your information is supporting. The four main types of connective devices are:

Transitions are brief statements that tell the audience to shift gears between ideas. Transitions serve as the glue that holds the speech together and allow the audience to predict where the next portion of the speech will go. For example, once you have previewed your main points and you want to move from the introduction to the body of the Farm Aid speech, you might say: "To gain an adequate understanding of the intricacies of this philanthropic group, we need to look at some specific information about Farm Aid. We'll begin by looking at the administrative branch of this massive fund-raising organization."

Internal previews are used to preview the parts of a main point. Internal previews are more focused than, but serve the same purpose as, the preview you will use in the introduction of the speech. For example, you might create an internal preview for the complex main point dealing with Farm Aid performers: "In examining the Farm Aid performers, we must acknowledge the presence of entertainers from different genres of music--country and western, rhythm and blues, rock, and pop." The internal preview provides specific information for the audience if a main point is complex or potentially confusing.

Internal summaries are the reverse of internal previews. Internal summaries restate specific parts of a main point. To internally summarize the main point dealing with Farm Aid performers, you might say: "You now know what types of people perform at the Farm Aid benefit concerts. The entertainers come from a wide range of musical genres--country and western, rhythm and blues, rock, and pop." When using both internal previews and internal summaries, be sure to stylize the language in each so you do not become redundant.

Signposts are brief statements that remind the audience where you are within the speech. If you have a long point, you may want to remind the audience of what main point you are on: "Continuing my discussion of Farm Aid performers . . . "

When organizing the body of your speech, you will integrate several references to your research. The purpose of the informative speech is to allow you and the audience to learn something new about a topic. Additionally, source citations add credibility to your ideas. If you know a lot about rock climbing and you cite several sources who confirm your knowledge, the audience is likely to see you as a credible speaker who provides ample support for ideas.

Without these references, your speech is more like a story or a chance for you to say a few things you know. To complete this assignment satisfactorily, you must use source citations. Consult your textbook and instructor for specific information on how much supporting material you should use and about the appropriate style for source citations.

While the conclusion should be brief and tight, it has a few specific tasks to accomplish:

Re-assert/Reinforce the Thesis

Review the main points, close effectively.

Take a deep breath! If you made it to the conclusion, you are on the brink of finishing. Below are the tasks you should complete in your conclusion:

When making the transition to the conclusion, attempt to make clear distinctions (verbally and nonverbally) that you are now wrapping up the information and providing final comments about the topic. Refer back to the thesis from the introduction with wording that calls the original thesis into memory. Assert that you have accomplished the goals of your thesis statement and create the feeling that audience members who actively considered your information are now equipped with an understanding of your topic. Reinforce whatever mood/tone you chose for the speech and attempt to create a big picture of the speech.

Within the conclusion, re-state the main points of the speech. Since you have used parallel wording for your main points in the introduction and body, don't break that consistency in the conclusion. Frame the review so the audience will be reminded of the preview and the developed discussion of each main point. After the review, you may want to create a statement about why those main points fulfilled the goals of the speech.

Finish strongly. When you close your speech, craft statements that reinforce the message and leave the audience with a clear feeling about what was accomplished with your speech. You might finalize the adaptation by discussing the benefits of listening to the speech and explaining what you think audience members can do with the information.

Remember to maintain an informative tone for this speech. You should not persuade about beliefs or positions; rather, you should persuade the audience that the speech was worthwhile and useful. For greatest effect, create a closing line or paragraph that is artistic and effective. Much like the attention-getter, the closing line needs to be refined and practiced. Your close should stick with the audience and leave them interested in your topic. Take time to work on writing the close well and attempt to memorize it so you can directly address the audience and leave them thinking of you as a well-prepared, confident speaker.

Outlining an Informative Speech

Two types of outlines can help you prepare to deliver your speech. The complete sentence outline provides a useful means of checking the organization and content of your speech. The speaking outline is an essential aid for delivering your speech. In this section, we discuss both types of outlines.

Two types of outlines can help you prepare to deliver your speech. The complete sentence outline provides a useful means of checking the organization and content of your speech. The speaking outline is an essential aid for delivering your speech.

The Complete Sentence Outline

A complete sentence outline may not be required for your presentation. The following information is useful, however, in helping you prepare your speech.

The complete sentence outline helps you organize your material and thoughts and it serves as an excellent copy for editing the speech. The complete sentence outline is just what it sounds like: an outline format including every complete sentence (not fragments or keywords) that will be delivered during your speech.

Writing the Outline

You should create headings for the introduction, body, and conclusion and clearly signal shifts between these main speech parts on the outline. Use standard outline format. For instance, you can use Roman numerals, letters, and numbers to label the parts of the outline. Organize the information so the major headings contain general information and the sub-headings become more specific as they descend. Think of the outline as a funnel: you should make broad, general claims at the top of each part of the outline and then tighten the information until you have exhausted the point. Do this with each section of the outline. Be sure to consult with your instructor about specific aspects of the outline and refer to your course book for further information and examples.

Using the Outline

If you use this outline as it is designed to be used, you will benefit from it. You should start the outline well before your speech day and give yourself plenty of time to revise it. Attempt to have the final, clean copies ready two or three days ahead of time, so you can spend a day or two before your speech working on delivery. Prepare the outline as if it were a final term paper.

The Speaking Outline

Depending upon the assignment and the instructor, you may use a speaking outline during your presentation. The following information will be helpful in preparing your speech through the use of a speaking outline.

This outline should be on notecards and should be a bare bones outline taken from the complete sentence outline. Think of the speaking outline as train tracks to guide you through the speech.

Many speakers find it helpful to highlight certain words/passages or to use different colors for different parts of the speech. You will probably want to write out long or cumbersome quotations along with your source citation. Many times, the hardest passages to learn are those you did not write but were spoken by someone else. Avoid the temptation to over-do the speaking outline; many speakers write too much on the cards and their grades suffer because they read from the cards.

The best strategy for becoming comfortable with a speaking outline is preparation. You should prepare well ahead of time and spend time working with the notecards and memorizing key sections of your speech (the introduction and conclusion, in particular). Try to become comfortable with the extemporaneous style of speaking. You should be able to look at a few keywords on your outline and deliver eloquent sentences because you are so familiar with your material. You should spend approximately 80% of your speech making eye-contact with your audience.

Delivering an Informative Speech

For many speakers, delivery is the most intimidating aspect of public speaking. Although there is no known cure for nervousness, you can make yourself much more comfortable by following a few basic delivery guidelines. In this section, we discuss those guidelines.

The Five-Step Method for Improving Delivery

• Read aloud your full-sentence outline. Listen to what you are saying and adjust your language to achieve a good, clear, simple sentence structure.
• Practice the speech repeatedly from the speaking outline. Become comfortable with your keywords to the point that what you say takes the form of an easy, natural conversation.
• Practice the speech aloud...rehearse it until you are confident you have mastered the ideas you want to present. Do not be concerned about "getting it just right." Once you know the content, you will find the way that is most comfortable for you.
• Practice in front of a mirror, tape record your practice, and/or present your speech to a friend. You are looking for feedback on rate of delivery, volume, pitch, non-verbal cues (gestures, card-usage, etc.), and eye-contact.
• Do a dress rehearsal of the speech under conditions as close as possible to those of the actual speech. Practice the speech a day or two before in a classroom. Be sure to incorporate as many elements as possible in the dress rehearsal...especially visual aids.

It should be clear that coping with anxiety over delivering a speech requires significant advanced preparation. The speech needs to be completed several days beforehand so that you can effectively employ this five-step plan.

Anderson, Thad, & Ron Tajchman. (1994). Informative Speaking. Writing@CSU . Colorado State University. https://writing.colostate.edu/guides/guide.cfm?guideid=52

• Cambridge Dictionary +Plus

Meaning of speech in English

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speech noun ( SAY WORDS )

• She suffers from a speech defect .
• From her slow , deliberate speech I guessed she must be drunk .
• Freedom of speech and freedom of thought were both denied under the dictatorship .
• As a child , she had some speech problems .
• We use these aids to develop speech in small children .
• a problem shared is a problem halved idiom
• banteringly
• bull session
• chew the fat idiom
• conversation
• conversational
• put the world to rights idiom
• take/lead someone on/to one side idiom
• tête-à-tête

You can also find related words, phrases, and synonyms in the topics:

speech noun ( FORMAL TALK )

• talk She will give a talk on keeping kids safe on the internet.
• lecture The lecture is entitled "War and the Modern American Presidency".
• presentation We were given a presentation of progress made to date.
• speech You might have to make a speech when you accept the award.
• address He took the oath of office then delivered his inaugural address.
• oration It was to become one of the most famous orations in American history.
• Her speech was received with cheers and a standing ovation .
• She closed the meeting with a short speech.
• The vicar's forgetting his lines in the middle of the speech provided some good comedy .
• Her speech caused outrage among the gay community .
• She concluded the speech by reminding us of our responsibility .
• call for papers
• extemporize
• maiden speech
• presentation
• talk at someone

speech | American Dictionary

Speech noun ( talking ), examples of speech, collocations with speech.

These are words often used in combination with speech .

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Translations of speech

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Word of the Day

cloak-and-dagger

used to describe an exciting story involving secrets and mystery, often about spies, or something that makes you think of this

Shoots, blooms and blossom: talking about plants

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Definition of speech

• declamation

Examples of speech in a Sentence

These examples are programmatically compiled from various online sources to illustrate current usage of the word 'speech.' Any opinions expressed in the examples do not represent those of Merriam-Webster or its editors. Send us feedback about these examples.

Word History

Middle English speche , from Old English sprǣc, spǣc ; akin to Old English sprecan to speak — more at speak

before the 12th century, in the meaning defined at sense 1a

Phrases Containing speech

• acceptance speech
• freedom of speech
• figure of speech
• free speech
• hate speech
• polite speech

speech community

• part of speech
• speech form
• speech therapy
• speech impediment
• stump speech
• visible speech

Dictionary Entries Near speech

Cite this entry.

“Speech.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary , Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/speech. Accessed 4 Apr. 2024.

Kids Definition

Kids definition of speech, medical definition, medical definition of speech, legal definition, legal definition of speech, more from merriam-webster on speech.

Nglish: Translation of speech for Spanish Speakers

Britannica English: Translation of speech for Arabic Speakers

Britannica.com: Encyclopedia article about speech

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Joe Biden Mocked for Comment at Easter Egg Roll

C onservatives on social media shared a clip of President Joe Biden 's recent remarks from Monday's Easter egg roll event, mocking a seeming slip-up in his pronunciation.

Biden and First Lady Dr. Jill Biden appeared at the annual Easter-themed event Monday, which drew a considerable crowd following a brief delay for rain, an estimated 40,000 attendees, up from around 30,000 in 2023. The event, which features the playing of the traditional "egg roll" game, has been popular in Washington, D.C., since 1814 during the tenure of President James Madison, and is credited to his wife, First Lady Dolley Madison. President Rutherford B. Hayes is credited with moving the yearly event to the White House grounds in 1878.

"Easter reminds us of the power of hope and renewal, and sacrifice and resurrection," Biden said during an address at the event. "But mainly love and grace towards one another…That's what I see in our country. We're a great nation because we're a good people. Our values are solid."

It was a remark from elsewhere in the address, however, that drew mockery from conservatives on X, the platform previously known as Twitter . Near the end of his remarks just before he went to join the festivities, Biden gestured for two individuals dressed as the Easter bunny to greet the crowd, though in the clip, spread by accounts like RNC Research, he appears to slip up and call them "oyster bunnies"

This gaffe continued to circulate amongst conservatives on X, drawing mockery as an example of Biden's advanced age and trouble speaking, an issue frequently leveled against the 81-year-old president by his critics.

"What did he mean by this?" right-wing commentator Ian Miles Cheong wrote in a post.

"Happy Oyster," another conservative user, going by "ALX," wrote.

"Joe Biden slurs his words and calls the Easter bunnies the 'oyster bunnies,'" Steve Cortes, a conservative political operative previously employed by Donald Trump 's 2016 and 2020 campaigns, wrote. "This is the Commander-in-Chief of the most powerful nation on Earth."

"Biden calls him the Osyter Bunny," another user, going by "True Stormy Joe," wrote alongside an image of the president standing next to an Easter bunny with an oyster pasted over its face.

Newsweek reached out to the White House via email on Monday afternoon for comment.

As the oldest individual to ever hold the presidency, Biden's age has long been under intense scrutiny from critics across the political spectrum, with his verbal gaffes in speeches receiving particular attention. He has, however, often received acclaim for his energy and clarity in high-import speeches, including his last two State of the Union addresses .

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