what is a critical appraisal essay

How To Write a Critical Appraisal

A critical appraisal is an academic approach that refers to the systematic identification of strengths and weakness of a research article with the intent of evaluating the usefulness and validity of the work’s research findings. As with all essays, you need to be clear, concise, and logical in your presentation of arguments, analysis, and evaluation. However, in a critical appraisal there are some specific sections which need to be considered which will form the main basis of your work.

Structure of a Critical Appraisal

Introduction.

Your introduction should introduce the work to be appraised, and how you intend to proceed. In other words, you set out how you will be assessing the article and the criteria you will use. Focusing your introduction on these areas will ensure that your readers understand your purpose and are interested to read on. It needs to be clear that you are undertaking a scientific and literary dissection and examination of the indicated work to assess its validity and credibility, expressed in an interesting and motivational way.

Body of the Work

The body of the work should be separated into clear paragraphs that cover each section of the work and sub-sections for each point that is being covered. In all paragraphs your perspectives should be backed up with hard evidence from credible sources (fully cited and referenced at the end), and not be expressed as an opinion or your own personal point of view. Remember this is a critical appraisal and not a presentation of negative parts of the work.

When appraising the introduction of the article, you should ask yourself whether the article answers the main question it poses. Alongside this look at the date of publication, generally you want works to be within the past 5 years, unless they are seminal works which have strongly influenced subsequent developments in the field. Identify whether the journal in which the article was published is peer reviewed and importantly whether a hypothesis has been presented. Be objective, concise, and coherent in your presentation of this information.

Once you have appraised the introduction you can move onto the methods (or the body of the text if the work is not of a scientific or experimental nature). To effectively appraise the methods, you need to examine whether the approaches used to draw conclusions (i.e., the methodology) is appropriate for the research question, or overall topic. If not, indicate why not, in your appraisal, with evidence to back up your reasoning. Examine the sample population (if there is one), or the data gathered and evaluate whether it is appropriate, sufficient, and viable, before considering the data collection methods and survey instruments used. Are they fit for purpose? Do they meet the needs of the paper? Again, your arguments should be backed up by strong, viable sources that have credible foundations and origins.

One of the most significant areas of appraisal is the results and conclusions presented by the authors of the work. In the case of the results, you need to identify whether there are facts and figures presented to confirm findings, assess whether any statistical tests used are viable, reliable, and appropriate to the work conducted. In addition, whether they have been clearly explained and introduced during the work. In regard to the results presented by the authors you need to present evidence that they have been unbiased and objective, and if not, present evidence of how they have been biased. In this section you should also dissect the results and identify whether any statistical significance reported is accurate and whether the results presented and discussed align with any tables or figures presented.

The final element of the body text is the appraisal of the discussion and conclusion sections. In this case there is a need to identify whether the authors have drawn realistic conclusions from their available data, whether they have identified any clear limitations to their work and whether the conclusions they have drawn are the same as those you would have done had you been presented with the findings.

The conclusion of the appraisal should not introduce any new information but should be a concise summing up of the key points identified in the body text. The conclusion should be a condensation (or precis) of all that you have already written. The aim is bringing together the whole paper and state an opinion (based on evaluated evidence) of how valid and reliable the paper being appraised can be considered to be in the subject area. In all cases, you should reference and cite all sources used. To help you achieve a first class critical appraisal we have put together some key phrases that can help lift you work above that of others.

Key Phrases for a Critical Appraisal

Whilst the title might suggest
The focus of the work appears to be…
The author challenges the notion that…
The author makes the claim that…
The article makes a strong contribution through…
The approach provides the opportunity to…
The authors consider…
The argument is not entirely convincing because…
However, whilst it can be agreed that… it should also be noted that…
Several crucial questions are left unanswered…
It would have been more appropriate to have stated that…
This framework extends and increases…
The authors correctly conclude that…
The authors efforts can be considered as…
Less convincing is the generalisation that…
This appears to mislead readers indicating that…
This research proves to be timely and particularly significant in the light of…

Critical Appraisal: A Checklist

Posted on 6th September 2016 by Robert Will

Critical appraisal of scientific literature is a necessary skill for healthcare students. Students can be overwhelmed by the vastness of search results. Database searching is a skill in itself, but will not be covered in this blog. This blog assumes that you have found a relevant journal article to answer a clinical question. After selecting an article, you must be able to sit with the article and critically appraise it. Critical appraisal of a journal article is a literary and scientific systematic dissection in an attempt to assign merit to the conclusions of an article. Ideally, an article will be able to undergo scrutiny and retain its findings as valid.

The specific questions used to assess validity change slightly with different study designs and article types. However, in an attempt to provide a generalized checklist, no specific subtype of article has been chosen. Rather, the 20 questions below should be used as a quick reference to appraise any journal article. The first four checklist questions should be answered “Yes.” If any of the four questions are answered “no,” then you should return to your search and attempt to find an article that will meet these criteria.

Critical appraisal of…the Introduction

Does the article attempt to answer the same question as your clinical question?
Is the article recently published (within 5 years) or is it seminal (i.e. an earlier article but which has strongly influenced later developments)?
Is the journal peer-reviewed?
Do the authors present a hypothesis?

Critical appraisal of…the Methods

Is the study design valid for your question?
Are both inclusion and exclusion criteria described?
Is there an attempt to limit bias in the selection of participant groups?
Are there methodological protocols (i.e. blinding) used to limit other possible bias?
Do the research methods limit the influence of confounding variables?
Are the outcome measures valid for the health condition you are researching?

Critical appraisal of…the Results

Is there a table that describes the subjects’ demographics?
Are the baseline demographics between groups similar?
Are the subjects generalizable to your patient?
Are the statistical tests appropriate for the study design and clinical question?
Are the results presented within the paper?
Are the results statistically significant and how large is the difference between groups?
Is there evidence of significance fishing (i.e. changing statistical tests to ensure significance)?

Critical appraisal of…the Discussion/Conclusion

Do the authors attempt to contextualise non-significant data in an attempt to portray significance? (e.g. talking about findings which had a trend towards significance as if they were significant).
Do the authors acknowledge limitations in the article?
Are there any conflicts of interests noted?

This is by no means a comprehensive checklist of how to critically appraise a scientific journal article. However, by answering the previous 20 questions based on a detailed reading of an article, you can appraise most articles for their merit, and thus determine whether the results are valid. I have attempted to list the questions based on the sections most commonly present in a journal article, starting at the introduction and progressing to the conclusion. I believe some of these items are weighted heavier than others (i.e. methodological questions vs journal reputation). However, without taking this list through rigorous testing, I cannot assign a weight to them. Maybe one day, you will be able to critically appraise my future paper: How Online Checklists Influence Healthcare Students’ Ability to Critically Appraise Journal Articles.

Feature Image by Arek Socha from Pixabay

Robert Will

No Comments on Critical Appraisal: A Checklist

Hi Ella, I have found a checklist here for before and after study design: https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health-topics/study-quality-assessment-tools and you may also find a checklist from this blog, which has a huge number of tools listed: https://s4be.cochrane.org/blog/2018/01/12/appraising-the-appraisal/

What kind of critical appraisal tool can be used for before and after study design article? Thanks

Hello, I am currently writing a book chapter on critical appraisal skills. This chapter is limited to 1000 words so your simple 20 questions framework would be the perfect format to cite within this text. May I please have your permission to use your checklist with full acknowledgement given to you as author? Many thanks

Thank you Robert, I came across your checklist via the Royal College of Surgeons of England website; https://www.rcseng.ac.uk/library-and-publications/library/blog/dissecting-the-literature-the-importance-of-critical-appraisal/ . I really liked it and I have made reference to it for our students. I really appreciate your checklist and it is still current, thank you.

Hi Kirsten. Thank you so much for letting us know that Robert’s checklist has been used in that article – that’s so good to see. If any of your students have any comments about the blog, then do let us know. If you also note any topics that you would like to see on the website, then we can add this to the list of suggested blogs for students to write about. Thank you again. Emma.

i am really happy with it. thank you very much

A really useful guide for helping you ask questions about the studies you are reviewing BRAVO

Dr.Suryanujella,

Thank you for the comment. I’m glad you find it helpful.

Feel free to use the checklist. S4BE asks that you cite the page when you use it.

I have read your article and found it very useful , crisp with all relevant information.I would like to use it in my presentation with your permission

That’s great thank you very much. I will definitely give that a go.

I find the MEAL writing approach very versatile. You can use it to plan the entire paper and each paragraph within the paper. There are a lot of helpful MEAL resources online. But understanding the acronym can get you started.

M-Main Idea (What are you arguing?) E-Evidence (What does the literature say?) A-Analysis (Why does the literature matter to your argument?) L-Link (Transition to next paragraph or section)

I hope that is somewhat helpful. -Robert

Hi, I am a university student at Portsmouth University, UK. I understand the premise of a critical appraisal however I am unsure how to structure an essay critically appraising a paper. Do you have any pointers to help me get started?

Thank you. I’m glad that you find this helpful.

Very informative & to the point for all medical students

How can I know what is the name of this checklist or tool?

This is a checklist that the author, Robert Will, has designed himself.

Thank you for asking. I am glad you found it helpful. As Emma said, please cite the source when you use it.

Greetings Robert, I am a postgraduate student at QMUL in the UK and I have just read this comprehensive critical appraisal checklist of your. I really appreciate you. if I may ask, can I have it downloaded?

Please feel free to use the information from this blog – if you could please cite the source then that would be much appreciated.

Robert Thank you for your comptrehensive account of critical appraisal. I have just completed a teaching module on critical appraisal as part of a four module Evidence Based Medicine programme for undergraduate Meducal students at RCSI Perdana medical school in Malaysia. If you are agreeable I would like to cite it as a reference in our module.

Anthony, Please feel free to cite my checklist. Thank you for asking. I hope that your students find it helpful. They should also browse around S4BE. There are numerous other helpful articles on this site.

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Tools for Critical Appraisal of Studies

“The purpose of critical appraisal is to determine the scientific merit of a research report and its applicability to clinical decision making.” 1 Conducting a critical appraisal of a study is imperative to any well executed evidence review, but the process can be time consuming and difficult. 2 The critical appraisal process requires “a methodological approach coupled with the right tools and skills to match these methods is essential for finding meaningful results.” 3 In short, it is a method of differentiating good research from bad research.

Critical Appraisal by Study Design (featured tools)

Non-RCTs or Observational Studies
Diagnostic Accuracy
Animal Studies
Qualitative Research
Tool Repository
AMSTAR 2 The original AMSTAR was developed to assess the risk of bias in systematic reviews that included only randomized controlled trials. AMSTAR 2 was published in 2017 and allows researchers to “identify high quality systematic reviews, including those based on non-randomised studies of healthcare interventions.” 4 more... less... AMSTAR 2 (A MeaSurement Tool to Assess systematic Reviews)
ROBIS ROBIS is a tool designed specifically to assess the risk of bias in systematic reviews. “The tool is completed in three phases: (1) assess relevance(optional), (2) identify concerns with the review process, and (3) judge risk of bias in the review. Signaling questions are included to help assess specific concerns about potential biases with the review.” 5 more... less... ROBIS (Risk of Bias in Systematic Reviews)
BMJ Framework for Assessing Systematic Reviews This framework provides a checklist that is used to evaluate the quality of a systematic review.
CASP Checklist for Systematic Reviews This CASP checklist is not a scoring system, but rather a method of appraising systematic reviews by considering: 1. Are the results of the study valid? 2. What are the results? 3. Will the results help locally? more... less... CASP (Critical Appraisal Skills Programme)
CEBM Systematic Reviews Critical Appraisal Sheet The CEBM’s critical appraisal sheets are designed to help you appraise the reliability, importance, and applicability of clinical evidence. more... less... CEBM (Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine)
JBI Critical Appraisal Tools, Checklist for Systematic Reviews JBI Critical Appraisal Tools help you assess the methodological quality of a study and to determine the extent to which study has addressed the possibility of bias in its design, conduct and analysis.
NHLBI Study Quality Assessment of Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses The NHLBI’s quality assessment tools were designed to assist reviewers in focusing on concepts that are key for critical appraisal of the internal validity of a study. more... less... NHLBI (National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute)
RoB 2 RoB 2 “provides a framework for assessing the risk of bias in a single estimate of an intervention effect reported from a randomized trial,” rather than the entire trial. 6 more... less... RoB 2 (revised tool to assess Risk of Bias in randomized trials)
CASP Randomised Controlled Trials Checklist This CASP checklist considers various aspects of an RCT that require critical appraisal: 1. Is the basic study design valid for a randomized controlled trial? 2. Was the study methodologically sound? 3. What are the results? 4. Will the results help locally? more... less... CASP (Critical Appraisal Skills Programme)
CONSORT Statement The CONSORT checklist includes 25 items to determine the quality of randomized controlled trials. “Critical appraisal of the quality of clinical trials is possible only if the design, conduct, and analysis of RCTs are thoroughly and accurately described in the report.” 7 more... less... CONSORT (Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials)
NHLBI Study Quality Assessment of Controlled Intervention Studies The NHLBI’s quality assessment tools were designed to assist reviewers in focusing on concepts that are key for critical appraisal of the internal validity of a study. more... less... NHLBI (National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute)
JBI Critical Appraisal Tools Checklist for Randomized Controlled Trials JBI Critical Appraisal Tools help you assess the methodological quality of a study and to determine the extent to which study has addressed the possibility of bias in its design, conduct and analysis.
ROBINS-I ROBINS-I is a “tool for evaluating risk of bias in estimates of the comparative effectiveness… of interventions from studies that did not use randomization to allocate units… to comparison groups.” 8 more... less... ROBINS-I (Risk Of Bias in Non-randomized Studies – of Interventions)
NOS This tool is used primarily to evaluate and appraise case-control or cohort studies. more... less... NOS (Newcastle-Ottawa Scale)
AXIS Cross-sectional studies are frequently used as an evidence base for diagnostic testing, risk factors for disease, and prevalence studies. “The AXIS tool focuses mainly on the presented [study] methods and results.” 9 more... less... AXIS (Appraisal tool for Cross-Sectional Studies)
NHLBI Study Quality Assessment Tools for Non-Randomized Studies The NHLBI’s quality assessment tools were designed to assist reviewers in focusing on concepts that are key for critical appraisal of the internal validity of a study. • Quality Assessment Tool for Observational Cohort and Cross-Sectional Studies • Quality Assessment of Case-Control Studies • Quality Assessment Tool for Before-After (Pre-Post) Studies With No Control Group • Quality Assessment Tool for Case Series Studies more... less... NHLBI (National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute)
Case Series Studies Quality Appraisal Checklist Developed by the Institute of Health Economics (Canada), the checklist is comprised of 20 questions to assess “the robustness of the evidence of uncontrolled, [case series] studies.” 10
Methodological Quality and Synthesis of Case Series and Case Reports In this paper, Dr. Murad and colleagues “present a framework for appraisal, synthesis and application of evidence derived from case reports and case series.” 11
MINORS The MINORS instrument contains 12 items and was developed for evaluating the quality of observational or non-randomized studies. 12 This tool may be of particular interest to researchers who would like to critically appraise surgical studies. more... less... MINORS (Methodological Index for Non-Randomized Studies)
JBI Critical Appraisal Tools for Non-Randomized Trials JBI Critical Appraisal Tools help you assess the methodological quality of a study and to determine the extent to which study has addressed the possibility of bias in its design, conduct and analysis. • Checklist for Analytical Cross Sectional Studies • Checklist for Case Control Studies • Checklist for Case Reports • Checklist for Case Series • Checklist for Cohort Studies
QUADAS-2 The QUADAS-2 tool “is designed to assess the quality of primary diagnostic accuracy studies… [it] consists of 4 key domains that discuss patient selection, index test, reference standard, and flow of patients through the study and timing of the index tests and reference standard.” 13 more... less... QUADAS-2 (a revised tool for the Quality Assessment of Diagnostic Accuracy Studies)
JBI Critical Appraisal Tools Checklist for Diagnostic Test Accuracy Studies JBI Critical Appraisal Tools help you assess the methodological quality of a study and to determine the extent to which study has addressed the possibility of bias in its design, conduct and analysis.
STARD 2015 The authors of the standards note that “[e]ssential elements of [diagnostic accuracy] study methods are often poorly described and sometimes completely omitted, making both critical appraisal and replication difficult, if not impossible.”10 The Standards for the Reporting of Diagnostic Accuracy Studies was developed “to help… improve completeness and transparency in reporting of diagnostic accuracy studies.” 14 more... less... STARD 2015 (Standards for the Reporting of Diagnostic Accuracy Studies)
CASP Diagnostic Study Checklist This CASP checklist considers various aspects of diagnostic test studies including: 1. Are the results of the study valid? 2. What were the results? 3. Will the results help locally? more... less... CASP (Critical Appraisal Skills Programme)
CEBM Diagnostic Critical Appraisal Sheet The CEBM’s critical appraisal sheets are designed to help you appraise the reliability, importance, and applicability of clinical evidence. more... less... CEBM (Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine)
SYRCLE’s RoB “[I]mplementation of [SYRCLE’s RoB tool] will facilitate and improve critical appraisal of evidence from animal studies. This may… enhance the efficiency of translating animal research into clinical practice and increase awareness of the necessity of improving the methodological quality of animal studies.” 15 more... less... SYRCLE’s RoB (SYstematic Review Center for Laboratory animal Experimentation’s Risk of Bias)
ARRIVE 2.0 “The [ARRIVE 2.0] guidelines are a checklist of information to include in a manuscript to ensure that publications [on in vivo animal studies] contain enough information to add to the knowledge base.” 16 more... less... ARRIVE 2.0 (Animal Research: Reporting of In Vivo Experiments)
Critical Appraisal of Studies Using Laboratory Animal Models This article provides “an approach to critically appraising papers based on the results of laboratory animal experiments,” and discusses various “bias domains” in the literature that critical appraisal can identify. 17
CEBM Critical Appraisal of Qualitative Studies Sheet The CEBM’s critical appraisal sheets are designed to help you appraise the reliability, importance and applicability of clinical evidence. more... less... CEBM (Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine)
CASP Qualitative Studies Checklist This CASP checklist considers various aspects of qualitative research studies including: 1. Are the results of the study valid? 2. What were the results? 3. Will the results help locally? more... less... CASP (Critical Appraisal Skills Programme)
Quality Assessment and Risk of Bias Tool Repository Created by librarians at Duke University, this extensive listing contains over 100 commonly used risk of bias tools that may be sorted by study type.
Latitudes Network A library of risk of bias tools for use in evidence syntheses that provides selection help and training videos.

References & Recommended Reading

1. Kolaski, K., Logan, L. R., & Ioannidis, J. P. (2024). Guidance to best tools and practices for systematic reviews . British Journal of Pharmacology , 181 (1), 180-210

2. Portney LG. Foundations of clinical research : applications to evidence-based practice. Fourth edition. ed. Philadelphia: F A Davis; 2020.

3. Fowkes FG, Fulton PM. Critical appraisal of published research: introductory guidelines. BMJ (Clinical research ed). 1991;302(6785):1136-1140.

4. Singh S. Critical appraisal skills programme. Journal of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapeutics. 2013;4(1):76-77.

5. Shea BJ, Reeves BC, Wells G, et al. AMSTAR 2: a critical appraisal tool for systematic reviews that include randomised or non-randomised studies of healthcare interventions, or both. BMJ (Clinical research ed). 2017;358:j4008.

6. Whiting P, Savovic J, Higgins JPT, et al. ROBIS: A new tool to assess risk of bias in systematic reviews was developed. Journal of clinical epidemiology. 2016;69:225-234.

7. Sterne JAC, Savovic J, Page MJ, et al. RoB 2: a revised tool for assessing risk of bias in randomised trials. BMJ (Clinical research ed). 2019;366:l4898.

8. Moher D, Hopewell S, Schulz KF, et al. CONSORT 2010 Explanation and Elaboration: Updated guidelines for reporting parallel group randomised trials. Journal of clinical epidemiology. 2010;63(8):e1-37.

9. Sterne JA, Hernan MA, Reeves BC, et al. ROBINS-I: a tool for assessing risk of bias in non-randomised studies of interventions. BMJ (Clinical research ed). 2016;355:i4919.

10. Downes MJ, Brennan ML, Williams HC, Dean RS. Development of a critical appraisal tool to assess the quality of cross-sectional studies (AXIS). BMJ open. 2016;6(12):e011458.

11. Guo B, Moga C, Harstall C, Schopflocher D. A principal component analysis is conducted for a case series quality appraisal checklist. Journal of clinical epidemiology. 2016;69:199-207.e192.

12. Murad MH, Sultan S, Haffar S, Bazerbachi F. Methodological quality and synthesis of case series and case reports. BMJ evidence-based medicine. 2018;23(2):60-63.

13. Slim K, Nini E, Forestier D, Kwiatkowski F, Panis Y, Chipponi J. Methodological index for non-randomized studies (MINORS): development and validation of a new instrument. ANZ journal of surgery. 2003;73(9):712-716.

14. Whiting PF, Rutjes AWS, Westwood ME, et al. QUADAS-2: a revised tool for the quality assessment of diagnostic accuracy studies. Annals of internal medicine. 2011;155(8):529-536.

15. Bossuyt PM, Reitsma JB, Bruns DE, et al. STARD 2015: an updated list of essential items for reporting diagnostic accuracy studies. BMJ (Clinical research ed). 2015;351:h5527.

16. Hooijmans CR, Rovers MM, de Vries RBM, Leenaars M, Ritskes-Hoitinga M, Langendam MW. SYRCLE's risk of bias tool for animal studies. BMC medical research methodology. 2014;14:43.

17. Percie du Sert N, Ahluwalia A, Alam S, et al. Reporting animal research: Explanation and elaboration for the ARRIVE guidelines 2.0. PLoS biology. 2020;18(7):e3000411.

18. O'Connor AM, Sargeant JM. Critical appraisal of studies using laboratory animal models. ILAR journal. 2014;55(3):405-417.

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How to write a critical analysis

Unlike the name implies a critical analysis does not necessarily mean that you are only exploring what is wrong with a piece of work. Instead, the purpose of this type of essay is to interact with and understand a text. Here’s what you need to know to create a well-written critical analysis essay.

What is a critical analysis?

A critical analysis examines and evaluates someone else’s work, such as a book, an essay, or an article. It requires two steps: a careful reading of the work and thoughtful analysis of the information presented in the work.

Although this may sound complicated, all you are doing in a critical essay is closely reading an author’s work and providing your opinion on how well the author accomplished their purpose.

Critical analyses are most frequently done in academic settings (such as a class assignment). Writing a critical analysis demonstrates that you are able to read a text and think deeply about it. However, critical thinking skills are vital outside of an educational context as well. You just don’t always have to demonstrate them in essay form.

How to outline and write a critical analysis essay

Writing a critical analysis essay involves two main chunks of work: reading the text you are going to write about and writing an analysis of that text. Both are equally important when writing a critical analysis essay.

Step one: Reading critically

The first step in writing a critical analysis is to carefully study the source you plan to analyze.

If you are writing for a class assignment, your professor may have already given you the topic to analyze in an article, short story, book, or other work. If so, you can focus your note-taking on that topic while reading.

Other times, you may have to develop your own topic to analyze within a piece of work. In this case, you should focus on a few key areas as you read:

What is the author’s intended purpose for the work?
What techniques and language does the author use to achieve this purpose?
How does the author support the thesis?
Who is the author writing for?
Is the author effective at achieving the intended purpose?

Once you have carefully examined the source material, then you are ready to begin planning your critical analysis essay.

Step two: Writing the critical analysis essay

Taking time to organize your ideas before you begin writing can shorten the amount of time that you spend working on your critical analysis essay. As an added bonus, the quality of your essay will likely be higher if you have a plan before writing.

Here’s a rough outline of what should be in your essay. Of course, if your instructor gives you a sample essay or outline, refer to the sample first.

Background Information

Critical Analysis

Here is some additional information on what needs to go into each section:

Background information

In the first paragraph of your essay, include background information on the material that you are critiquing. Include context that helps the reader understand the piece you are analyzing. Be sure to include the title of the piece, the author’s name, and information about when and where it was published.

“Success is counted sweetest” is a poem by Emily Dickinson published in 1864. Dickinson was not widely known as a poet during her lifetime, and this poem is one of the first published while she was alive.

After you have provided background information, state your thesis. The thesis should be your reaction to the work. It also lets your reader know what to expect from the rest of your essay. The points you make in the critical analysis should support the thesis.

Dickinson’s use of metaphor in the poem is unexpected but works well to convey the paradoxical theme that success is most valued by those who never experience success.

The next section should include a summary of the work that you are analyzing. Do not assume that the reader is familiar with the source material. Your summary should show that you understood the text, but it should not include the arguments that you will discuss later in the essay.

Dickinson introduces the theme of success in the first line of the poem. She begins by comparing success to nectar. Then, she uses the extended metaphor of a battle in order to demonstrate that the winner has less understanding of success than the loser.

The next paragraphs will contain your critical analysis. Use as many paragraphs as necessary to support your thesis.

Discuss the areas that you took notes on as you were reading. While a critical analysis should include your opinion, it needs to have evidence from the source material in order to be credible to readers. Be sure to use textual evidence to support your claims, and remember to explain your reasoning.

Dickinson’s comparison of success to nectar seems strange at first. However the first line “success is counted sweetest” brings to mind that this nectar could be bees searching for nectar to make honey. In this first stanza, Dickinson seems to imply that success requires work because bees are usually considered to be hard-working and industrious.

In the next two stanzas, Dickinson expands on the meaning of success. This time she uses the image of a victorious army and a dying man on the vanquished side. Now the idea of success is more than something you value because you have worked hard for it. Dickinson states that the dying man values success even more than the victors because he has given everything and still has not achieved success.

This last section is where you remind the readers of your thesis and make closing remarks to wrap up your essay. Avoid summarizing the main points of your critical analysis unless your essay is so long that readers might have forgotten parts of it.

In “Success is counted sweetest” Dickinson cleverly upends the reader’s usual thoughts about success through her unexpected use of metaphors. The poem may be short, but Dickinson conveys a serious theme in just a few carefully chosen words.

What type of language should be used in a critical analysis essay?

Because critical analysis papers are written in an academic setting, you should use formal language, which means:

No contractions
Avoid first-person pronouns (I, we, me)

Do not include phrases such as “in my opinion” or “I think”. In a critical analysis, the reader already assumes that the claims are your opinions.

Your instructor may have specific guidelines for the writing style to use. If the instructor assigns a style guide for the class, be sure to use the guidelines in the style manual in your writing.

Additional t ips for writing a critical analysis essay

To conclude this article, here are some additional tips for writing a critical analysis essay:

Give yourself plenty of time to read the source material. If you have time, read through the text once to get the gist and a second time to take notes.
Outlining your essay can help you save time. You don’t have to stick exactly to the outline though. You can change it as needed once you start writing.
Spend the bulk of your writing time working on your thesis and critical analysis. The introduction and conclusion are important, but these sections cannot make up for a weak thesis or critical analysis.
Give yourself time between your first draft and your second draft. A day or two away from your essay can make it easier to see what you need to improve.

Frequently Asked Questions about critical analyses

In the introduction of a critical analysis essay, you should give background information on the source that you are analyzing. Be sure to include the author’s name and the title of the work. Your thesis normally goes in the introduction as well.

A critical analysis has four main parts.

Introduction

The focus of a critical analysis should be on the work being analyzed rather than on you. This means that you should avoid using first person unless your instructor tells you to do otherwise. Most formal academic writing is written in third person.

How many paragraphs your critical analysis should have depends on the assignment and will most likely be determined by your instructor. However, in general, your critical analysis paper should have three to six paragraphs, unless otherwise stated.

Your critical analysis ends with your conclusion. You should restate the thesis and make closing remarks, but avoid summarizing the main points of your critical analysis unless your essay is so long that readers might have forgotten parts of it.

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Published: 31 January 2022

The fundamentals of critically appraising an article

Sneha Chotaliya 1

BDJ Student volume 29 , pages 12–13 ( 2022 ) Cite this article

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Sneha Chotaliya

We are often surrounded by an abundance of research and articles, but the quality and validity can vary massively. Not everything will be of a good quality - or even valid. An important part of reading a paper is first assessing the paper. This is a key skill for all healthcare professionals as anything we read can impact or influence our practice. It is also important to stay up to date with the latest research and findings.

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Chambers R, 'Clinical Effectiveness Made Easy', Oxford: Radcliffe Medical Press , 1998

Loney P L, Chambers L W, Bennett K J, Roberts J G and Stratford P W. Critical appraisal of the health research literature: prevalence or incidence of a health problem. Chronic Dis Can 1998; 19 : 170-176.

Brice R. CASP CHECKLISTS - CASP - Critical Appraisal Skills Programme . 2021. Available at: https://casp-uk.net/casp-tools-checklists/ (Accessed 22 July 2021).

White S, Halter M, Hassenkamp A and Mein G. 2021. Critical Appraisal Techniques for Healthcare Literature . St George's, University of London.

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Chotaliya, S. The fundamentals of critically appraising an article. BDJ Student 29 , 12–13 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41406-021-0275-6

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Published : 31 January 2022

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1038/s41406-021-0275-6

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Dissecting the literature: the importance of critical appraisal

08 Dec 2017

Kirsty Morrison

This post was updated in 2023.

Critical appraisal is the process of carefully and systematically examining research to judge its trustworthiness, and its value and relevance in a particular context.

Amanda Burls, What is Critical Appraisal?

Why is critical appraisal needed?

Literature searches using databases like Medline or EMBASE often result in an overwhelming volume of results which can vary in quality. Similarly, those who browse medical literature for the purposes of CPD or in response to a clinical query will know that there are vast amounts of content available. Critical appraisal helps to reduce the burden and allow you to focus on articles that are relevant to the research question, and that can reliably support or refute its claims with high-quality evidence, or identify high-level research relevant to your practice.

Critical appraisal allows us to:

reduce information overload by eliminating irrelevant or weak studies
identify the most relevant papers
distinguish evidence from opinion, assumptions, misreporting, and belief
assess the validity of the study
assess the usefulness and clinical applicability of the study
recognise any potential for bias.

Critical appraisal helps to separate what is significant from what is not. One way we use critical appraisal in the Library is to prioritise the most clinically relevant content for our Current Awareness Updates .

How to critically appraise a paper

There are some general rules to help you, including a range of checklists highlighted at the end of this blog. Some key questions to consider when critically appraising a paper:

Is the study question relevant to my field?
Does the study add anything new to the evidence in my field?
What type of research question is being asked? A well-developed research question usually identifies three components: the group or population of patients, the studied parameter (e.g. a therapy or clinical intervention) and outcomes of interest.
Was the study design appropriate for the research question? You can learn more about different study types and the hierarchy of evidence here .
Did the methodology address important potential sources of bias? Bias can be attributed to chance (e.g. random error) or to the study methods (systematic bias).
Was the study performed according to the original protocol? Deviations from the planned protocol can affect the validity or relevance of a study, e.g. a decrease in the studied population over the course of a randomised controlled trial .
Does the study test a stated hypothesis? Is there a clear statement of what the investigators expect the study to find which can be tested, and confirmed or refuted.
Were the statistical analyses performed correctly? The approach to dealing with missing data, and the statistical techniques that have been applied should be specified. Original data should be presented clearly so that readers can check the statistical accuracy of the paper.
Do the data justify the conclusions? Watch out for definite conclusions based on statistically insignificant results, generalised findings from a small sample size, and statistically significant associations being misinterpreted to imply a cause and effect.
Are there any conflicts of interest? Who has funded the study and can we trust their objectivity? Do the authors have any potential conflicts of interest, and have these been declared?

And an important consideration for surgeons:

Will the results help me manage my patients?

At the end of the appraisal process you should have a better appreciation of how strong the evidence is, and ultimately whether or not you should apply it to your patients.

Further resources:

How to Read a Paper by Trisha Greenhalgh
The Doctor’s Guide to Critical Appraisal by Narinder Kaur Gosall
CASP checklists
CEBM Critical Appraisal Tools
Critical Appraisal: a checklist
Critical Appraisal of a Journal Article (PDF)
Introduction to...Critical appraisal of literature
Reporting guidelines for the main study types

Kirsty Morrison, Information Specialist

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Critical Appraisal: Assessing the Quality of Studies

First Online: 05 August 2020

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Edward Purssell ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3748-0864 3 &
Niall McCrae ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9776-7694 4

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There is great variation in the type and quality of research evidence. Having completed your search and assembled your studies, the next step is to critically appraise the studies to ascertain their quality. Ultimately you will be making a judgement about the overall evidence, but that comes later. You will see throughout this chapter that we make a clear differentiation between the individual studies and what we call the body of evidence , which is all of the studies and anything else that we use to answer the question or to make a recommendation. This chapter deals with only the first of these—the individual studies. Critical appraisal, like everything else in systematic literature reviewing, is a scientific exercise that requires individual judgement, and we describe some tools to help you.

Bias (MeSH)
Credibility
Critical appraisal
Dependability
Reliability
Reproducibility of results (MeSH)
Risk of bias

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Deeks JJ, Higgins JPT, Altman DG (2019) Chapter 10: Analysing data and undertaking meta-analyses. In: Higgins JPT, Thomas J, Chandler J et al (eds) Cochrane handbook for systematic reviews of interventions version 6.0 (updated July 2019). Cochrane, London

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Purssell, E., McCrae, N. (2020). Critical Appraisal: Assessing the Quality of Studies. In: How to Perform a Systematic Literature Review. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-49672-2_6

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What Is a Critical Analysis Essay: Definition

Have you ever had to read a book or watch a movie for school and then write an essay about it? Well, a critical analysis essay is a type of essay where you do just that! So, when wondering what is a critical analysis essay, know that it's a fancy way of saying that you're going to take a closer look at something and analyze it.

So, let's say you're assigned to read a novel for your literature class. A critical analysis essay would require you to examine the characters, plot, themes, and writing style of the book. You would need to evaluate its strengths and weaknesses and provide your own thoughts and opinions on the text.

Similarly, if you're tasked with writing a critical analysis essay on a scientific article, you would need to analyze the methodology, results, and conclusions presented in the article and evaluate its significance and potential impact on the field.

The key to a successful critical analysis essay is to approach the subject matter with an open mind and a willingness to engage with it on a deeper level. By doing so, you can gain a greater appreciation and understanding of the subject matter and develop your own informed opinions and perspectives. Considering this, we bet you want to learn how to write critical analysis essay easily and efficiently, so keep on reading to find out more!

Meanwhile, if you'd rather have your own sample critical analysis essay crafted by professionals from our custom writings , contact us to buy essays online .

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Critical Analysis Essay Topics by Category

If you're looking for an interesting and thought-provoking topic for your critical analysis essay, you've come to the right place! Critical analysis essays can cover many subjects and topics, with endless possibilities. To help you get started, we've compiled a list of critical analysis essay topics by category. We've got you covered whether you're interested in literature, science, social issues, or something else. So, grab a notebook and pen, and get ready to dive deep into your chosen topic. In the following sections, we will provide you with various good critical analysis paper topics to choose from, each with its unique angle and approach.

Critical Analysis Essay Topics on Mass Media

From television and radio to social media and advertising, mass media is everywhere, shaping our perceptions of the world around us. As a result, it's no surprise that critical analysis essays on mass media are a popular choice for students and scholars alike. To help you get started, here are ten critical essay example topics on mass media:

The Influence of Viral Memes on Pop Culture: An In-Depth Analysis.
The Portrayal of Mental Health in Television: Examining Stigmatization and Advocacy.
The Power of Satirical News Shows: Analyzing the Impact of Political Commentary.
Mass Media and Consumer Behavior: Investigating Advertising and Persuasion Techniques.
The Ethics of Deepfake Technology: Implications for Trust and Authenticity in Media.
Media Framing and Public Perception: A Critical Analysis of News Coverage.
The Role of Social Media in Shaping Political Discourse and Activism.
Fake News in the Digital Age: Identifying Disinformation and Its Effects.
The Representation of Gender and Diversity in Hollywood Films: A Critical Examination.
Media Ownership and Its Impact on Journalism and News Reporting: A Comprehensive Study.

Critical Analysis Essay Topics on Sports

Sports are a ubiquitous aspect of our culture, and they have the power to unite and inspire people from all walks of life. Whether you're an athlete, a fan, or just someone who appreciates the beauty of competition, there's no denying the significance of sports in our society. If you're looking for an engaging and thought-provoking topic for your critical analysis essay, sports offer a wealth of possibilities:

The Role of Sports in Diplomacy: Examining International Relations Through Athletic Events.
Sports and Identity: How Athletic Success Shapes National and Cultural Pride.
The Business of Sports: Analyzing the Economics and Commercialization of Athletics.
Athlete Activism: Exploring the Impact of Athletes' Social and Political Engagement.
Sports Fandom and Online Communities: The Impact of Social Media on Fan Engagement.
The Representation of Athletes in the Media: Gender, Race, and Stereotypes.
The Psychology of Sports: Exploring Mental Toughness, Motivation, and Peak Performance.
The Evolution of Sports Equipment and Technology: From Innovation to Regulation.
The Legacy of Sports Legends: Analyzing Their Impact Beyond Athletic Achievement.
Sports and Social Change: How Athletic Movements Shape Societal Attitudes and Policies.

Critical Analysis Essay Topics on Literature and Arts

Literature and arts can inspire, challenge, and transform our perceptions of the world around us. From classic novels to contemporary art, the realm of literature and arts offers many possibilities for critical analysis essays. Here are ten original critic essay example topics on literature and arts:

The Use of Symbolism in Contemporary Poetry: Analyzing Hidden Meanings and Significance.
The Intersection of Art and Identity: How Self-Expression Shapes Artists' Works.
The Role of Nonlinear Narrative in Postmodern Novels: Techniques and Interpretation.
The Influence of Jazz on African American Literature: A Comparative Study.
The Complexity of Visual Storytelling: Graphic Novels and Their Narrative Power.
The Art of Literary Translation: Challenges, Impact, and Interpretation.
The Evolution of Music Videos: From Promotional Tools to a Unique Art Form.
The Literary Techniques of Magical Realism: Exploring Reality and Fantasy.
The Impact of Visual Arts in Advertising: Analyzing the Connection Between Art and Commerce.
Art in Times of Crisis: How Artists Respond to Societal and Political Challenges.

Critical Analysis Essay Topics on Culture

Culture is a dynamic and multifaceted aspect of our society, encompassing everything from language and religion to art and music. As a result, there are countless possibilities for critical analysis essays on culture. Whether you're interested in exploring the complexities of globalization or delving into the nuances of cultural identity, there's a wealth of topics to choose from:

The Influence of K-Pop on Global Youth Culture: A Comparative Study.
Cultural Significance of Street Art in Urban Spaces: Beyond Vandalism.
The Role of Mythology in Shaping Indigenous Cultures and Belief Systems.
Nollywood: Analyzing the Cultural Impact of Nigerian Cinema on the African Diaspora.
The Language of Hip-Hop Lyrics: A Semiotic Analysis of Cultural Expression.
Digital Nomads and Cultural Adaptation: Examining the Subculture of Remote Work.
The Cultural Significance of Tattooing Among Indigenous Tribes in Oceania.
The Art of Culinary Fusion: Analyzing Cross-Cultural Food Trends and Innovation.
The Impact of Cultural Festivals on Local Identity and Economy.
The Influence of Internet Memes on Language and Cultural Evolution.

How to Write a Critical Analysis: Easy Steps

When wondering how to write a critical analysis essay, remember that it can be a challenging but rewarding process. Crafting a critical analysis example requires a careful and thoughtful examination of a text or artwork to assess its strengths and weaknesses and broader implications. The key to success is to approach the task in a systematic and organized manner, breaking it down into two distinct steps: critical reading and critical writing. Here are some tips for each step of the process to help you write a critical essay.

Step 1: Critical Reading

Here are some tips for critical reading that can help you with your critical analysis paper:

Read actively : Don't just read the text passively, but actively engage with it by highlighting or underlining important points, taking notes, and asking questions.
Identify the author's main argument: Figure out what the author is trying to say and what evidence they use to support their argument.
Evaluate the evidence: Determine whether the evidence is reliable, relevant, and sufficient to support the author's argument.
Analyze the author's tone and style: Consider the author's tone and style and how it affects the reader's interpretation of the text.
Identify assumptions: Identify any underlying assumptions the author makes and consider whether they are valid or questionable.
Consider alternative perspectives: Consider alternative perspectives or interpretations of the text and consider how they might affect the author's argument.
Assess the author's credibility : Evaluate the author's credibility by considering their expertise, biases, and motivations.
Consider the context: Consider the historical, social, cultural, and political context in which the text was written and how it affects its meaning.
Pay attention to language: Pay attention to the author's language, including metaphors, symbolism, and other literary devices.
Synthesize your analysis: Use your analysis of the text to develop a well-supported argument in your critical analysis essay.

Step 2: Critical Analysis Writing

Here are some tips for critical analysis writing, with examples:

Start with a strong thesis statement: A strong critical analysis thesis is the foundation of any critical analysis essay. It should clearly state your argument or interpretation of the text. You can also consult us on how to write a thesis statement . Meanwhile, here is a clear example:
Weak thesis statement: 'The author of this article is wrong.'
Strong thesis statement: 'In this article, the author's argument fails to consider the socio-economic factors that contributed to the issue, rendering their analysis incomplete.'
Use evidence to support your argument: Use evidence from the text to support your thesis statement, and make sure to explain how the evidence supports your argument. For example:
Weak argument: 'The author of this article is biased.'
Strong argument: 'The author's use of emotional language and selective evidence suggests a bias towards one particular viewpoint, as they fail to consider counterarguments and present a balanced analysis.'
Analyze the evidence : Analyze the evidence you use by considering its relevance, reliability, and sufficiency. For example:
Weak analysis: 'The author mentions statistics in their argument.'
Strong analysis: 'The author uses statistics to support their argument, but it is important to note that these statistics are outdated and do not take into account recent developments in the field.'
Use quotes and paraphrases effectively: Use quotes and paraphrases to support your argument and properly cite your sources. For example:
Weak use of quotes: 'The author said, 'This is important.'
Strong use of quotes: 'As the author points out, 'This issue is of utmost importance in shaping our understanding of the problem' (p. 25).'
Use clear and concise language: Use clear and concise language to make your argument easy to understand, and avoid jargon or overly complicated language. For example:
Weak language: 'The author's rhetorical devices obfuscate the issue.'
Strong language: 'The author's use of rhetorical devices such as metaphor and hyperbole obscures the key issues at play.'
Address counterarguments: Address potential counterarguments to your argument and explain why your interpretation is more convincing. For example:
Weak argument: 'The author is wrong because they did not consider X.'
Strong argument: 'While the author's analysis is thorough, it overlooks the role of X in shaping the issue. However, by considering this factor, a more nuanced understanding of the problem emerges.'
Consider the audience: Consider your audience during your writing process. Your language and tone should be appropriate for your audience and should reflect the level of knowledge they have about the topic. For example:
Weak language: 'As any knowledgeable reader can see, the author's argument is flawed.'
Strong language: 'Through a critical analysis of the author's argument, it becomes clear that there are gaps in their analysis that require further consideration.'

Master the art of critical analysis with EssayPro . Our team is ready to guide you in dissecting texts, theories, or artworks with depth and sophistication. Let us help you deliver a critical analysis essay that showcases your analytical prowess.

Creating a Detailed Critical Analysis Essay Outline

Creating a detailed outline is essential when writing a critical analysis essay. It helps you organize your thoughts and arguments, ensuring your essay flows logically and coherently. Here is a detailed critical analysis outline from our dissertation writers :

I. Introduction

A. Background information about the text and its author

B. Brief summary of the text

C. Thesis statement that clearly states your argument

II. Analysis of the Text

A. Overview of the text's main themes and ideas

B. Examination of the author's writing style and techniques

C. Analysis of the text's structure and organization

III. Evaluation of the Text

A. Evaluation of the author's argument and evidence

B. Analysis of the author's use of language and rhetorical strategies

C. Assessment of the text's effectiveness and relevance to the topic

IV. Discussion of the Context

A. Exploration of the historical, cultural, and social context of the text

B. Examination of the text's influence on its audience and society

C. Analysis of the text's significance and relevance to the present day

V. Counter Arguments and Responses

A. Identification of potential counterarguments to your argument

B. Refutation of counterarguments and defense of your position

C. Acknowledgement of the limitations and weaknesses of your argument

VI. Conclusion

A. Recap of your argument and main points

B. Evaluation of the text's significance and relevance

C. Final thoughts and recommendations for further research or analysis.

This outline can be adjusted to fit the specific requirements of your essay. Still, it should give you a solid foundation for creating a detailed and well-organized critical analysis essay.

Useful Techniques Used in Literary Criticism

There are several techniques used in literary criticism to analyze and evaluate a work of literature. Here are some of the most common techniques:

Close reading: This technique involves carefully analyzing a text to identify its literary devices, themes, and meanings.
Historical and cultural context: This technique involves examining the historical and cultural context of a work of literature to understand the social, political, and cultural influences that shaped it.
Structural analysis: This technique involves analyzing the structure of a text, including its plot, characters, and narrative techniques, to identify patterns and themes.
Formalism: This technique focuses on the literary elements of a text, such as its language, imagery, and symbolism, to analyze its meaning and significance.
Psychological analysis: This technique examines the psychological and emotional aspects of a text, including the motivations and desires of its characters, to understand the deeper meanings and themes.
Feminist and gender analysis: This technique focuses on the representation of gender and sexuality in a text, including how gender roles and stereotypes are reinforced or challenged.
Marxist and social analysis: This technique examines the social and economic structures portrayed in a text, including issues of class, power, and inequality.

By using these and other techniques, literary critics can offer insightful and nuanced analyses of works of literature, helping readers to understand and appreciate the complexity and richness of the texts.

Sample Critical Analysis Essay

Now that you know how to write a critical analysis, take a look at the critical analysis essay sample provided by our research paper writers and better understand this kind of paper!

Final Words

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What Type Of Language Should Be Used In A Critical Analysis Essay?

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Critical Appraisal of Studies

Critical Appraisal

Critical appraisal is the process of carefully and systematically examining research to judge its trustworthiness, and its value and relevance in a particular context (Burls, 2009). Critical appraisal of studies involves checking the quality, reliability and relevance of the studies you've selected to help answer your review question. Depending on the type of study you are evaluating you may use different evaluation tools. When evaluating studies, some questions to consider are:

Has the study's aim been clearly stated?
Does the sample accurately reflect the population?
Has the sampling method and size been described and justified?
Have exclusions been stated?
Is the control group easily identified?
Is the loss to follow-up detailed?
Can the results be replicated?
Are there confounding factors?
Are the conclusions logical?
Can the results be extrapolated to other populations?

Adapted from: University of Illinois, Chicago Library

Tools for Specific Study Types

Integrative Reviews

Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (CASP) Checklists Appraisal checklists designed for use with Systematic Reviews, Randomized Controlled Trials, Cohort Studies, Case Control Studies, Economic Evaluations, Diagnostic Studies, Qualitative studies and Clinical Prediction Rule.
Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool (MMAT) The MMAT is a critical appraisal tool that is designed for the appraisal stage of systematic mixed studies reviews, i.e., reviews that include qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods studies. It permits to appraise the methodological quality of five categories to studies: qualitative research, randomized controlled trials, non-randomized studies, quantitative descriptive studies, and mixed methods studies. (Hong et al., 2018).

Randomized Controlled Trials

CASP checklist for RCT
CASP Checklists Critical Assessment Skills Programme (CASP) has appraisal checklists designed for use with Systematic Reviews, Randomized Controlled Trials, Cohort Studies, Case Contro l Studies, Economic Evaluations, Diagnostic Studies, Qualitative studies and Clinical Prediction Rule.
JBI Critical Appraisal Tools Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) is an independent, international, not-for-profit researching and development organization based at the University of Adelaide, South Australia. Contains a number of critical appraisal tools including Checklist for Randomized Controlled Trials
RoB 2.0 A revised Cochrane risk of bias tool for randomized trials. Is suitable for individually-randomized, parallel-group, and cluster- randomized trials

Qualitative Studies

CASP Qualitative Studies Checklist Most frequently recommended tool for qualitative study assessment
JBI Critical Appraisal Checklist for Qualitative Research

Systematic Reviews

AMSTAR 2 - A Critical Appraisal Tool for Systematic Reviews (Shea et al., 2017)
BMJ Framework for Assessing Systematic Reviews
CASP Systematic Review Checklist
JBI Checklist for Systematic Reviews
ROBIS A new tool for assessing the risk of bias in systematic reviews (rather than in primary studies). Here you can find the tool itself, information to help you complete a ROBIS assessment, and resources to help you present the results of your ROBIS assessment.

Scoping and Other Review Types

CAT HPPR: A critical appraisal tool to assess the quality of systematic, rapid, and scoping reviews investigating interventions in health promotion and prevention (Heise et al., 2022).
CAT HPPR Critical Appraisal Tool for Health Promotion and Prevention Reviews
CAT HPPR Manual and Instructions Manual and instructions to reviewers for using the Critical Appraisal Tool for Health Promotion and Prevention Reviews (CAT HPPR). 2020.

References:

Buccheri, R. K., & Sharifi, C. (2017). Critical appraisal tools and reporting guidelines for evidence‐basedpPractice. Worldviews on Evidence-Based Nursing, 14( 6), 463–472. https://doi.org/10.1111/wvn.12258

Burls, A. (2009). What is critical appraisal? Retrieved April 21, 2022, from www.whatisseries.co.uk

Downs, S. H., & Black, N. (1998). The feasibility of creating a checklist for the assessment of the methodological quality both of randomised and non-randomised studies of health care interventions. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health (1979) , 52 (6), 377–384. https://doi.org/10.1136/jech.52.6.37 7

Downs and Black Checklist for Clinical Trial Quality Assessment.(2013). In Point-of-Care Testing of International Normalized Ratio for Patients on Oral Anticoagulant Therapy – Project Protocol [Internet] . Canadian Agency for Drugs and Technologies in Health. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK361373/

Heise, T. L., Seidler, A., Girbig, M., Freiberg, A., Alayli, A., Fischer, M., Haß, W., & Zeeb, H. (2022). CAT HPPR: A critical appraisal tool to assess the quality of systematic, rapid, and scoping reviews investigating interventions in health promotion and prevention. BMC Medical Research Methodology , 22 (1), 334–334. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12874-022-01821-4

Hong, Q.N., Fàbregues, S., Bartlett, G., Boardman, F.K., Cargo, M., Dagenais, P., Gagnon, M., Griffiths, F.E., Nicolau, B., O’Cathain, A., Rousseau, M.C., Vedel, I., & Pluye, P. (2018). The Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool (MMAT) version 2018 for information professionals and researchers. Education for Information, 34 (4), 285-291.DOI 10.3233/EFI-180221

Ma, Wang, Y., Yang, Z., Huang, D., Weng, H., & Zeng, X. (2020). Methodological quality (risk of bias) assessment tools for primary and secondary medical studies: what are they and which is better? Military Medical Research, 7 (1), 7.

Motheral, B., Brooks, J., Clark, M. A., Crown, W. H., Davey, P., Hutchins, D., Martin, B. C., & Stang, P. (2003). A checklist for retrospective database studies—Report of the ISPOR task force on retrospective databases. Value in Health , 6 (2), 90–97. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1524-4733.2003.00242.x

Shea, B. J., Reeves, B. C., Wells, G., Thuku, M., Hamel, C., Moran, J., Moher, D., Tugwell, P., Welch, V., Kristjansson, E., & Henry, D. A. (2017). AMSTAR 2: A critical appraisal tool for systematic reviews that include randomised or non-randomised studies of healthcare interventions, or both. BMJ (Clinical research ed.) , 358 , j4008. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.j4008

Tod, D., Booth, A., & Smith, B. (2021). Critical appraisal. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology , 15 (1), 52-72.

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J Clin Diagn Res
v.11(5); 2017 May

Critical Appraisal of Clinical Research

Azzam al-jundi.

1 Professor, Department of Orthodontics, King Saud bin Abdul Aziz University for Health Sciences-College of Dentistry, Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

Salah Sakka

2 Associate Professor, Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Al Farabi Dental College, Riyadh, KSA.

Evidence-based practice is the integration of individual clinical expertise with the best available external clinical evidence from systematic research and patient’s values and expectations into the decision making process for patient care. It is a fundamental skill to be able to identify and appraise the best available evidence in order to integrate it with your own clinical experience and patients values. The aim of this article is to provide a robust and simple process for assessing the credibility of articles and their value to your clinical practice.

Introduction

Decisions related to patient value and care is carefully made following an essential process of integration of the best existing evidence, clinical experience and patient preference. Critical appraisal is the course of action for watchfully and systematically examining research to assess its reliability, value and relevance in order to direct professionals in their vital clinical decision making [ 1 ].

Critical appraisal is essential to:

Combat information overload;
Identify papers that are clinically relevant;
Continuing Professional Development (CPD).

Carrying out Critical Appraisal:

Assessing the research methods used in the study is a prime step in its critical appraisal. This is done using checklists which are specific to the study design.

Standard Common Questions:

What is the research question?
What is the study type (design)?
Selection issues.
What are the outcome factors and how are they measured?
What are the study factors and how are they measured?
What important potential confounders are considered?
What is the statistical method used in the study?
Statistical results.
What conclusions did the authors reach about the research question?
Are ethical issues considered?

The Critical Appraisal starts by double checking the following main sections:

I. Overview of the paper:

The publishing journal and the year
The article title: Does it state key trial objectives?
The author (s) and their institution (s)

The presence of a peer review process in journal acceptance protocols also adds robustness to the assessment criteria for research papers and hence would indicate a reduced likelihood of publication of poor quality research. Other areas to consider may include authors’ declarations of interest and potential market bias. Attention should be paid to any declared funding or the issue of a research grant, in order to check for a conflict of interest [ 2 ].

II. ABSTRACT: Reading the abstract is a quick way of getting to know the article and its purpose, major procedures and methods, main findings, and conclusions.

Aim of the study: It should be well and clearly written.
Materials and Methods: The study design and type of groups, type of randomization process, sample size, gender, age, and procedure rendered to each group and measuring tool(s) should be evidently mentioned.
Results: The measured variables with their statistical analysis and significance.
Conclusion: It must clearly answer the question of interest.

III. Introduction/Background section:

An excellent introduction will thoroughly include references to earlier work related to the area under discussion and express the importance and limitations of what is previously acknowledged [ 2 ].

-Why this study is considered necessary? What is the purpose of this study? Was the purpose identified before the study or a chance result revealed as part of ‘data searching?’

-What has been already achieved and how does this study be at variance?

-Does the scientific approach outline the advantages along with possible drawbacks associated with the intervention or observations?

IV. Methods and Materials section : Full details on how the study was actually carried out should be mentioned. Precise information is given on the study design, the population, the sample size and the interventions presented. All measurements approaches should be clearly stated [ 3 ].

V. Results section : This section should clearly reveal what actually occur to the subjects. The results might contain raw data and explain the statistical analysis. These can be shown in related tables, diagrams and graphs.

VI. Discussion section : This section should include an absolute comparison of what is already identified in the topic of interest and the clinical relevance of what has been newly established. A discussion on a possible related limitations and necessitation for further studies should also be indicated.

Does it summarize the main findings of the study and relate them to any deficiencies in the study design or problems in the conduct of the study? (This is called intention to treat analysis).

Does it address any source of potential bias?
Are interpretations consistent with the results?
How are null findings interpreted?
Does it mention how do the findings of this study relate to previous work in the area?
Can they be generalized (external validity)?
Does it mention their clinical implications/applicability?
What are the results/outcomes/findings applicable to and will they affect a clinical practice?
Does the conclusion answer the study question?
-Is the conclusion convincing?
-Does the paper indicate ethics approval?
-Can you identify potential ethical issues?
-Do the results apply to the population in which you are interested?
-Will you use the results of the study?

Once you have answered the preliminary and key questions and identified the research method used, you can incorporate specific questions related to each method into your appraisal process or checklist.

1-What is the research question?

For a study to gain value, it should address a significant problem within the healthcare and provide new or meaningful results. Useful structure for assessing the problem addressed in the article is the Problem Intervention Comparison Outcome (PICO) method [ 3 ].

P = Patient or problem: Patient/Problem/Population:

It involves identifying if the research has a focused question. What is the chief complaint?

E.g.,: Disease status, previous ailments, current medications etc.,

I = Intervention: Appropriately and clearly stated management strategy e.g.,: new diagnostic test, treatment, adjunctive therapy etc.,

C= Comparison: A suitable control or alternative

E.g.,: specific and limited to one alternative choice.

O= Outcomes: The desired results or patient related consequences have to be identified. e.g.,: eliminating symptoms, improving function, esthetics etc.,

The clinical question determines which study designs are appropriate. There are five broad categories of clinical questions, as shown in [ Table/Fig-1 ].

[Table/Fig-1]:

Categories of clinical questions and the related study designs.

2- What is the study type (design)?

The study design of the research is fundamental to the usefulness of the study.

In a clinical paper the methodology employed to generate the results is fully explained. In general, all questions about the related clinical query, the study design, the subjects and the correlated measures to reduce bias and confounding should be adequately and thoroughly explored and answered.

Participants/Sample Population:

Researchers identify the target population they are interested in. A sample population is therefore taken and results from this sample are then generalized to the target population.

The sample should be representative of the target population from which it came. Knowing the baseline characteristics of the sample population is important because this allows researchers to see how closely the subjects match their own patients [ 4 ].

Sample size calculation (Power calculation): A trial should be large enough to have a high chance of detecting a worthwhile effect if it exists. Statisticians can work out before the trial begins how large the sample size should be in order to have a good chance of detecting a true difference between the intervention and control groups [ 5 ].

Is the sample defined? Human, Animals (type); what population does it represent?
Does it mention eligibility criteria with reasons?
Does it mention where and how the sample were recruited, selected and assessed?
Does it mention where was the study carried out?
Is the sample size justified? Rightly calculated? Is it adequate to detect statistical and clinical significant results?
Does it mention a suitable study design/type?
Is the study type appropriate to the research question?
Is the study adequately controlled? Does it mention type of randomization process? Does it mention the presence of control group or explain lack of it?
Are the samples similar at baseline? Is sample attrition mentioned?
All studies report the number of participants/specimens at the start of a study, together with details of how many of them completed the study and reasons for incomplete follow up if there is any.
Does it mention who was blinded? Are the assessors and participants blind to the interventions received?
Is it mentioned how was the data analysed?
Are any measurements taken likely to be valid?

Researchers use measuring techniques and instruments that have been shown to be valid and reliable.

Validity refers to the extent to which a test measures what it is supposed to measure.

(the extent to which the value obtained represents the object of interest.)

-Soundness, effectiveness of the measuring instrument;
-What does the test measure?
-Does it measure, what it is supposed to be measured?
-How well, how accurately does it measure?

Reliability: In research, the term reliability means “repeatability” or “consistency”

Reliability refers to how consistent a test is on repeated measurements. It is important especially if assessments are made on different occasions and or by different examiners. Studies should state the method for assessing the reliability of any measurements taken and what the intra –examiner reliability was [ 6 ].

3-Selection issues:

The following questions should be raised:

- How were subjects chosen or recruited? If not random, are they representative of the population?
- Types of Blinding (Masking) Single, Double, Triple?
- Is there a control group? How was it chosen?
- How are patients followed up? Who are the dropouts? Why and how many are there?
- Are the independent (predictor) and dependent (outcome) variables in the study clearly identified, defined, and measured?
- Is there a statement about sample size issues or statistical power (especially important in negative studies)?
- If a multicenter study, what quality assurance measures were employed to obtain consistency across sites?
- Are there selection biases?
• In a case-control study, if exercise habits to be compared:
- Are the controls appropriate?
- Were records of cases and controls reviewed blindly?
- How were possible selection biases controlled (Prevalence bias, Admission Rate bias, Volunteer bias, Recall bias, Lead Time bias, Detection bias, etc.,)?
• Cross Sectional Studies:
- Was the sample selected in an appropriate manner (random, convenience, etc.,)?
- Were efforts made to ensure a good response rate or to minimize the occurrence of missing data?
- Were reliability (reproducibility) and validity reported?
• In an intervention study, how were subjects recruited and assigned to groups?
• In a cohort study, how many reached final follow-up?
- Are the subject’s representatives of the population to which the findings are applied?
- Is there evidence of volunteer bias? Was there adequate follow-up time?
- What was the drop-out rate?
- Any shortcoming in the methodology can lead to results that do not reflect the truth. If clinical practice is changed on the basis of these results, patients could be harmed.

Researchers employ a variety of techniques to make the methodology more robust, such as matching, restriction, randomization, and blinding [ 7 ].

Bias is the term used to describe an error at any stage of the study that was not due to chance. Bias leads to results in which there are a systematic deviation from the truth. As bias cannot be measured, researchers need to rely on good research design to minimize bias [ 8 ]. To minimize any bias within a study the sample population should be representative of the population. It is also imperative to consider the sample size in the study and identify if the study is adequately powered to produce statistically significant results, i.e., p-values quoted are <0.05 [ 9 ].

4-What are the outcome factors and how are they measured?

-Are all relevant outcomes assessed?
-Is measurement error an important source of bias?

5-What are the study factors and how are they measured?

-Are all the relevant study factors included in the study?
-Have the factors been measured using appropriate tools?

Data Analysis and Results:

- Were the tests appropriate for the data?

- Are confidence intervals or p-values given?

How strong is the association between intervention and outcome?
How precise is the estimate of the risk?
Does it clearly mention the main finding(s) and does the data support them?
Does it mention the clinical significance of the result?
Is adverse event or lack of it mentioned?
Are all relevant outcomes assessed?
Was the sample size adequate to detect a clinically/socially significant result?
Are the results presented in a way to help in health policy decisions?
Is there measurement error?
Is measurement error an important source of bias?

Confounding Factors:

A confounder has a triangular relationship with both the exposure and the outcome. However, it is not on the causal pathway. It makes it appear as if there is a direct relationship between the exposure and the outcome or it might even mask an association that would otherwise have been present [ 9 ].

6- What important potential confounders are considered?

-Are potential confounders examined and controlled for?
-Is confounding an important source of bias?

7- What is the statistical method in the study?

-Are the statistical methods described appropriate to compare participants for primary and secondary outcomes?
-Are statistical methods specified insufficient detail (If I had access to the raw data, could I reproduce the analysis)?
-Were the tests appropriate for the data?
-Are confidence intervals or p-values given?
-Are results presented as absolute risk reduction as well as relative risk reduction?

Interpretation of p-value:

The p-value refers to the probability that any particular outcome would have arisen by chance. A p-value of less than 1 in 20 (p<0.05) is statistically significant.

When p-value is less than significance level, which is usually 0.05, we often reject the null hypothesis and the result is considered to be statistically significant. Conversely, when p-value is greater than 0.05, we conclude that the result is not statistically significant and the null hypothesis is accepted.

Confidence interval:

Multiple repetition of the same trial would not yield the exact same results every time. However, on average the results would be within a certain range. A 95% confidence interval means that there is a 95% chance that the true size of effect will lie within this range.

8- Statistical results:

-Do statistical tests answer the research question?

Are statistical tests performed and comparisons made (data searching)?

Correct statistical analysis of results is crucial to the reliability of the conclusions drawn from the research paper. Depending on the study design and sample selection method employed, observational or inferential statistical analysis may be carried out on the results of the study.

It is important to identify if this is appropriate for the study [ 9 ].

-Was the sample size adequate to detect a clinically/socially significant result?
-Are the results presented in a way to help in health policy decisions?

Clinical significance:

Statistical significance as shown by p-value is not the same as clinical significance. Statistical significance judges whether treatment effects are explicable as chance findings, whereas clinical significance assesses whether treatment effects are worthwhile in real life. Small improvements that are statistically significant might not result in any meaningful improvement clinically. The following questions should always be on mind:

-If the results are statistically significant, do they also have clinical significance?
-If the results are not statistically significant, was the sample size sufficiently large to detect a meaningful difference or effect?

9- What conclusions did the authors reach about the study question?

Conclusions should ensure that recommendations stated are suitable for the results attained within the capacity of the study. The authors should also concentrate on the limitations in the study and their effects on the outcomes and the proposed suggestions for future studies [ 10 ].

-Are the questions posed in the study adequately addressed?
-Are the conclusions justified by the data?
-Do the authors extrapolate beyond the data?
-Are shortcomings of the study addressed and constructive suggestions given for future research?
-Bibliography/References:

Do the citations follow one of the Council of Biological Editors’ (CBE) standard formats?

10- Are ethical issues considered?

If a study involves human subjects, human tissues, or animals, was approval from appropriate institutional or governmental entities obtained? [ 10 , 11 ].

Critical appraisal of RCTs: Factors to look for:

Allocation (randomization, stratification, confounders).
Follow up of participants (intention to treat).
Data collection (bias).
Sample size (power calculation).
Presentation of results (clear, precise).
Applicability to local population.

[ Table/Fig-2 ] summarizes the guidelines for Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials CONSORT [ 12 ].

[Table/Fig-2]:

Summary of the CONSORT guidelines.

Critical appraisal of systematic reviews: provide an overview of all primary studies on a topic and try to obtain an overall picture of the results.

In a systematic review, all the primary studies identified are critically appraised and only the best ones are selected. A meta-analysis (i.e., a statistical analysis) of the results from selected studies may be included. Factors to look for:

Literature search (did it include published and unpublished materials as well as non-English language studies? Was personal contact with experts sought?).
Quality-control of studies included (type of study; scoring system used to rate studies; analysis performed by at least two experts).
Homogeneity of studies.

[ Table/Fig-3 ] summarizes the guidelines for Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses PRISMA [ 13 ].

[Table/Fig-3]:

Summary of PRISMA guidelines.

Critical appraisal is a fundamental skill in modern practice for assessing the value of clinical researches and providing an indication of their relevance to the profession. It is a skills-set developed throughout a professional career that facilitates this and, through integration with clinical experience and patient preference, permits the practice of evidence based medicine and dentistry. By following a systematic approach, such evidence can be considered and applied to clinical practice.

Financial or other Competing Interests

Introduction

What is critical appraisal.

Critical appraisal evaluates evidence for its:

validity (e.g. has bias been minimised?)
results (what were the findings of the study?)
relevance (are the findings relevant to the patient/population of interest?)

This is achieved through careful examination and evaluation of the evidence, and a number of tools/checklists are available to assist with this process.

Critical appraisal is an essential skill in Evidence Based Practice (see the Evidence-Based Practice in Health Sciences guide for more information).

Why is critical appraisal important?

Ensures a thorough assessment of the research
Recognises the strengths and weaknesses of the research
Develops a better understanding of the research methods used
Provides the ability to relate the published research to your situation
Ensures any bias in the research is identified
Assists in the implementation of effective interventions in clinical practice

Where to start

Look for a research problem or a problem statement (usually in the abstract, title or introduction)
What is the purpose ? Check the abstract
Is it a literature review ?
Is it a hypothesis or research question ?
What is the sample or population of interest?
What is the type of research or study design ?

Journal article example

You can find lots of information on the first page and in the abstract of a journal article, including the type of study, the author's credentials, publication date, and journal title. This will help you to evaluate whether the article will be useful to your research.

Journal article showing details circled in the title and abstract: title of journal, type of study, author's credendtials, research problem, citation showing date.

Next: Study design >>

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What is Critical Appraisal?

Critical Appraisal is the process of carefully and systematically examining research to judge its trustworthiness, and its value and relevance in a particular context. It is an essential skill for evidence-based medicine because it allows people to find and use research evidence reliably and efficiently. All of us would like to enjoy the best possible health we can. To achieve this, we need reliable information about what might harm or help us when we make healthcare decisions.

Why is Critical Appraisal important?

Critical appraisal skills are important as they enable you to assess systematically the trustworthiness, relevance and results of published papers. Where an article is published, or who wrote it should not be an indication of its trustworthiness and relevance.

Randomised Controlled Trials (RCTs) : An experiment that randomises participants into two groups: one that receives the treatment and another that serves as the control. RCTs are often used in healthcare to test the efficacy of different treatments.

Systematic Reviews : A thorough and structured analysis of all relevant studies on a particular research question. These are often used in evidence-based practice to evaluate the effects of health and social interventions.

Cohort Studies : This is an observational study where two or more groups (cohorts) of individuals are followed over time and their outcomes are compared. It's used often in medical research to investigate the potential causes of disease.

Case-Control Studies : This is an observational study where two groups differing in outcome are identified and compared on the basis of some supposed causal attribute. These are often used in epidemiological research.

Cross-Sectional Studies : An observational study that examines the relationship between health outcomes and other variables of interest in a defined population at a single point in time. They're useful for determining prevalence and risk factors.

Qualitative Research : An in-depth analysis of a phenomenon based on unstructured data, such as interviews, observations, or written material. It's often used to gain insights into behaviours, value systems, attitudes, motivations, or culture.

Economic Evaluation : A comparison of two or more alternatives in terms of their costs and consequences. Often used in healthcare decision making to maximise efficiency and equity.

Diagnostic Studies : Evaluates the performance of a diagnostic test in predicting the presence or absence of a disease. It is commonly used to validate the accuracy and utility of a new diagnostic procedure.

Case Series : Describes characteristics of a group of patients with a particular disease or who have undergone a specific procedure. Used in clinical medicine to present preliminary observations.

Case Studies : Detailed examination of a single individual or group. Common in psychology and social sciences, this can provide in-depth understanding of complex phenomena in their real-life context.

Aren’t we already doing it?

To some extent, the answer to this question is “yes”. Evidence-based journals can give us reliable, relevant summaries of recent research; guidelines, protocols, and pathways can synthesise the best evidence and present it in the context of a clinical problem. However, we still need to be able to assess research quality to be able to adapt what we read to what we do.

There are still significant gaps in access to evidence.

The main issues we need to address are:

Health and Social Care provision must be based on sound decisions.

In order to make well-informed and sensible choices, we need evidence that is rigorous in methodology and robust in findings.

What types of questions does a critical appraisal encourage you to ask?

What is the main objective of the research?
Who conducted the research and are they reputable?
How was the research funded? Are there any potential conflicts of interest?
How was the study designed?
Was the sample size large enough to provide accurate results?
Were the participants or subjects selected appropriately?
What data collection methods were used and were they reliable and valid?
Was the data analysed accurately and rigorously?
Were the results and conclusions drawn directly from the data or were there assumptions made?
Can the findings be generalised to the broader population?
How does this research contribute to existing knowledge in this field?
Were ethical standards maintained throughout the study?
Were any potential biases accounted for in the design, data collection or data analysis?
Have the researchers made suggestions for future research based on their findings?
Are the findings of the research replicable?
Are there any implications for policy or practice based on the research findings?
Were all aspects of the research clearly explained and detailed?

How do you critically appraise a paper?

Critically appraising a paper involves examining the quality, validity, and relevance of a published work to identify its strengths and weaknesses.

This allows the reader to judge its trustworthiness and applicability to their area of work or research. Below are general steps for critically appraising a paper:

Decide how trustworthy a piece of research is (Validity)

Determine what the research is telling us (Results)
Weigh up how useful the research will be in your context (Relevance)

You need to understand the research question, do a methodology evaluation, analyse the results, check the conclusion and review the implications and limitations.

That's just a quick summary but we provide a range of in-depth training courses , workshops and train-the-trainer sessions to help you improve your knowledge around how to successfully perform critical appraisals so book onto one today or contact us for more information.

Is Critical Appraisal In Research Different To Front-Line Usage In Nursing, Etc?

Critical appraisal in research is different from front-line usage in nursing.

Critical appraisal in research involves a careful analysis of a study's methodology, results, and conclusions to assess the quality and validity of the study. This helps researchers to determine if the study's findings are robust, reliable and applicable in their own research context. It requires a specific set of skills including understanding of research methodology, statistics, and evidence-based practices.

Front-line usage in nursing refers to the direct application of evidence-based practice and research findings in patient care settings. Nurses need to appraise the evidence critically too but their focus is on the direct implications of the research on patient care and health outcomes. The skills required here would be the ability to understand the clinical implications of research findings, communicate these effectively to patients, and incorporate these into their practice.

Both require critical appraisal but the purpose, context, and skills involved are different. Critical appraisal in research is more about evaluating research for validity and reliability whereas front-line usage in nursing is about effectively applying valid and reliable research findings to improve patient care.

How do you know if you're performing critical appraisals correctly?

Thorough Understanding : You've thoroughly read and understood the research, its aims, methodology, and conclusions. You should also be aware of the limitations or potential bias in the research.

Using a Framework or Checklist : Various frameworks exist for critically appraising research (including CASP’s own!). Using these can provide structure and make sure all key points are considered. By keeping a record of your appraisal you will be able to show your reasoning behind whether you’ve implemented a decision based on research.

Identifying Research Methods : Recognising the research design, methods used, sample size, and how data was collected and analysed are crucial in assessing the research's validity and reliability.

Checking Results and Conclusions : Check if the conclusions drawn from the research are justified by the results and data provided, and if any biases could have influenced these conclusions.

Relevance and applicability : Determine if the research's results and conclusions can be applied to other situations, particularly those relevant to your context or question.

Updating Skills : Continually updating your skills in research methods and statistical analysis will improve your confidence and ability in critically appraising research.

Finally, getting feedback from colleagues or mentors on your critical appraisals can also provide a good check on how well you're doing. They can provide an additional perspective and catch anything you might have missed. If possible, we would always recommend doing appraisals in small groups or pairs, working together is always helpful for another perspective, or if you can – join and take part in a journal club.

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What is the Essay Method for Performance Appraisals?

While some would label it as the “grandfather” of performance appraisal methods, the essay method is still a commonly used appraisal method in a variety of business models. The essay method, sometimes known as the “free-form method,” is a performance review system where a superior creates a written review of the employee’s performance.

These essays are meant to describe and record an employee’s strengths and weaknesses in job performance, identifying problem areas and creating a plan of action to remedy them. Whether the essay is written by the appraiser alone, or in collaboration with the appraisee, essays provide supervisors the opportunity to assess behaviors and performance with greater complexity and attention to detail.

There are many reasons that the essay method--which was one of the first methods used to evaluate performance--is still effective today.

One of the most noteworthy aspects of essay appraisals is their free-form approach to performance reviews. Whereas some employers can feel limited by rigid performance appraisal criteria, the essay method takes a far less structured stance than typical rating scale methods. In so doing, the appraiser is able to examine any relevant issue or attribute of performance that is pertinent to an employee’s job description or overall company growth.

The essay method assumes that not all employee traits and behaviors can be neatly analyzed, dissected, and rated--instead, it allows appraisers to place varied degrees of emphasis on certain qualities, issues, or attributes that are appropriate. Rather than being locked into a fixed system, this open-ended method gives supervisors the freedom of expression and critical thought. For appraisers, there exist special services such as StudyCrumb , which help in writing accurate essays.

When preparing an essay, a supervisor may consider any of the following factors of an employee as they relate to the company and employee relationship: potential and job knowledge, understanding of the company’s policies, relationships with peers and supervisors, planning and organization, and general attitudes and perceptions. This thorough, non-quantitative assessment provides a good deal more information about an employee than most other performance appraisal techniques.

However, as with all performance appraisal methods, there are a few limitations that the essay method suffers from that are worth examining.

One of the major drawbacks of the essay method is its highly subjective nature--they are often subject to bias, and it can be difficult to separate the assessment of the employee from the bias of the evaluator. While the essay can provide a good deal of information about the employee, it tends to tell more about the evaluator than the one being evaluated.

Another element that essays leave out (that other appraisal methods rely heavily on) is comparative results. Instead of utilizing standardized, numeric questions, these appraisals rely only on open-ended questions. While the essay method gives managers the ability to provide detailed and circumstantial information on a specific employee’s performance, it removes the component of comparing performance with other employees. This often makes it difficult for HR to distinguish top performers.

Overall, the appraisal method’s greatest advantage--the freedom of expression for the evaluator--can also serve as its greatest handicap. Even the actual writing of the reviews can upset or distort the process of employee appraisals, as the introduction of inconsistent, unorganized, or poor writing styles can distort and upset the review process. An employee may be unfairly helped or harmed by an evaluator’s writing ability. An evaluator can also find themselves lacking sufficient time to prepare the essay, and can write an essay hurriedly without accurately assessing an employee’s performance.

What is the essay method best used for?

Appraisal by essay is generally most effective in performance reviews for employees with atypical job descriptions or non-numerical goals. While other appraisals work well in analyzing performance for jobs that are subject to goals based on numbers, essays offer a more subjective analysis of performance for employees with managerial or customer service positions.

When analyzing production, the essay method is most effective in combination with another appraisal method. Using a graphic rating scale along with essay appraisals allows one method to focus solely on numbers, while the essay portion can be used to analyze other performance goals.

Doing essay appraisals right

Here are 3 things to strive for in order to set your company up for success in essay performance appraisals:

Consistency.

Keeping a standard for style and length of essay appraisals can make the biggest difference in ensuring that your reviews are effective. Essays that are unstructured and unnecessarily complex can be detrimental to an employee’s rating, as well as using unspecific, flowery language that is not relevant to the employee’s performance. In order to remain efficient and effective, today’s evaluators should focus on making appraisal essays short and specific, ensuring that the entire review reflects the performance of the employee.

The appraiser should also ensure that they are making sufficient time in their schedule to prepare the essay. A busy evaluator may compromise an employee’s performance rating by writing a hurried essay, or running out of time to thoroughly assess employee performance. It’s important for all participants of essay appraisals to take enough time to write a consistent, accurate, and succinct review in order to set employees up for success.

2. Proficiency.

If you’ve chosen to use essay appraisals in your organization, it’s important to ensure that your appraisers possess the ability to write well. Even if an essay contains detailed, circumstantial information, it becomes difficult to extract valuable data from a poorly written essay. To ensure that nothing stands between an HR professional’s ability to assess an employee’s performance, evaluators should be trained as well-equipped writers.

Giving writing assistant tools or tips to supervisors can make all the difference in the accuracy and efficiency of an employee’s performance review.

2. Objectivity.

Subjectivity is both a strength and a weakness in essay appraisals. Not only are essays themselves often biased, but the misinterpretation of essays can even further distance the main evaluator from an accurate portrayal of an employee’s performance. Including objective standards in a performance review results in a more balanced and productive review process, and helps to eliminate the forming of incorrect conclusions about an employee’s behavior and performance.

Organizations often implement this goal by pairing essay appraisals with another appraisal method, such as graphic scale ratings, to draw more accurate conclusions and performance data. In so doing, evaluators can utilize all of the free expression and open-ended characteristics of an essay appraisal, while still maintaining accurate, easily translated results that are effective for the overall organization.

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How To Write a Critical Appraisal
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