citing references on a poster presentation

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APA Citation Style, 7th Edition: Posters & Conference Sessions

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Citing Conference sessions, Poster abstracts, and Poster presentations

Conference sessions, poster abstracts, and poster presentations follow a significantly different format than other types of APA references.

• The author of the work is always listed first.
• Next, the FULL date of the conference is listed in the date area, so if a conference is held over several days, you need to list the date the conference starts, through the date the conference ends.
• Next add the title of the work and put it in italics, then add (in square brackets), whether it's a [Poster session], a [Poster abstract], or a [Conference session] and then add a period.
• In the source area share 1) the name of the conference or organization - or both (comma), 2) the name of the city or town the conference was held (comma), 3) the abbreviation of the state or the region (depending on the country) (comma), 4) the country the conference was held.
• Lastly share the URL of the WORK (not the conference in general) as a live hyperlink. 

Examples: 

Conference session : .

Hinck, J., Brewington, J., & Harding, K. (2018, September 12-14). Nurse educators - Making a difference in self and others to strengthen networks and partnerships [Conference session]. National League for Nursing, Chicago, IL, United States.  https://tinyurl.com/37bx7uku  

In-Text Citation (Paraphrase):

(Hinck, et al., 2018). 

Poster Abstract :

Jackson, C., McCalmont, J., Ward, J. Solanki, E., Seguin, R., & Perry, C. K. (2017, October 10). Mujeres fuertes y corazones saludables: Adaptation of the Strong Women - Healthy Hearts (SWHH) program for rural Latinas using an intervention mapping approach [Poster Abstract]. 2017 Oregon Public Health Association Annual Meeting, Portland, OR, United States.  https://tinyurl.com/y2panrdm  

(Jackson, et al., 2017). 

Poster Presentation :

NOTE: Because the poster presentations of this conference were presented in a journal, there are actually two ways you could cite this particular poster abstract, either way is acceptable in APA .  

Option 1 - Referencing ONLY the poster abstract itself : 

Leckenby, S., & Acklaghi, H. (2017, November 19-23). Is point-of-care troponin enough in decision making process in emergency departments [Poster Presentation]. ACEM ASM 2017 "Impossible is Just a Perspective" Darling Harbour, Sydney, Austalia.   https://tinyurl.com/cpkjbsu5

(Leckenby & Acklaghi, 2017). 

Option 2 - Referencing the poster abstract within the actual journal & supplement that printed the conference abstract : 

Leckenby, S., & Acklaghi, H. (2018). Is point-of-care troponin enough in decision making process in emergency departments [Poster Presentation]. Emergency Medicine Australasia, 30 (S1), 43-44.  https://doi.org/10.1111/1742-6723.12962  

Carrie Forbes, MLS

Page References

Citation information has been adapted from the APA Manual (7th Edition). Please refer to page 332-333 of the APA Manual (7th Edition) for more information.

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Characteristics of References

• Provides the reader with information about who conducted the research, when it was published and the journal that published the work.
• Provides detailed information about author names, article title, journal name, volume, issue and page numbers so that readers can easily find the source of the information.
• Acknowledges the scientist(s) who conducted the research and/or the journal article where the research was originally published.  

The References (or Bibliography) section should list all the sources of information that were used in the poster.   This section appears at the end of the poster.   The References section ( Figs. 2 and 8 ) typically contains all journal articles (i.e., primary sources) but it can also contain secondary sources (e.g., newspapers, documentaries, government reports).   References tell the reader where the original data, information, technique, and/or method can be obtained, who conducted the work and when the paper was published.    

In posters, in-text citations are used to tell the reader where information was obtained.   An in-text citation should appear after every sentence in the poster that describes the work of others.   This includes all sentences that describe discoveries, findings, data, information, experiments, results, techniques, methods, dates, locations, etc.  

In-text citations can be done using either (1) superscript numbers or (2) authors last name, followed by year published.  

• Polar bear cubs were 25% larger when fed a high-protein diet compared to high-sugar diet. 1      
• Polar bear cubs were 25% larger when fed a high-protein diet compared to high-sugar diet (Jones and Smith, 2018).  

The “1” and “Jones and Smith, 2018” both refer to the same journal article:   E.J. Jones and W. A. Smith (2018), Journal of Natural Science, Vol. 53, Issue 12, pages 36-45.   Both types of in-text citations are acceptable for use in posters.   Authors typically choose superscript numbers to save space.      

Formatting References

You have likely been taught about MLA (Modern Language Association of America) or APA (American Psychological Association) formatting and style guide in middle or high school.   Many of you are likely proficient in these styles.   For most posters you likely will not follow the MLA nor APA styles when citing your sources.   There is a practical explanation for why these two styles often are not used in a poster. It is because there are thousands of different professional scientific societies around the world and each society has its own preferred formatting style that they use in publications for their journals and conferences.   Therefore, citation styles will vary depending on where a poster is presented.   In fact, many scientists use software, that, with a click of a button, will transform all of their citations into the proper style and format for any journal or conference.

Nonetheless, we provide 15 examples below of how one could cite primary sources (examples 1-5 below) and secondary sources (examples 6-15 below) of information in a scientific poster.  

Figure 8. References List

Citing Primary Sources

Peer-reviewed journal articles are considered primary sources.   Patents and Published Technical Reports from Government Agencies and Universities are also considered primary sources of information.   Five examples of how to cite primary sources are numbered below 1-5.  

1. Journal Article in Print:   Most journals are printed on paper others are entirely available online.   Authors Names. (Year Published in parenthesis). Article Title.   Journal Name, Volume Number (Issue Number in parenthesis): Page Numbers.  

1A. Journal Article with one or two authors:

McMurran, M. and Christopher, G. (2009). Bayes factors increases criminal sentence recommendations. Legal & Criminological Psychology, 14(1):101-107.

1B. Journal Article with more than two authors:  

Post, E., et al. (2009). Genome studies of quorum sensing organisms. Science, 325(5946):1355-1358.

2. Online Journal Article:   These journals are electronic and not printed on paper.   Authors Names. (Year Published in parenthesis). Title of article. Journal name. Volume number and or page numbers.   Include complete URL link in full or DOI if known.    

Dionne, M.S. and Schneider, D.S. (2002). Adaptive mutability in targeted microRNA infections. Genome Biol. 3:10.3559. http://genomebiology.com/2002/3/4/reviews/1010  

3. Government Technical Report in Print: Author names or name of organization. (Year Published in parenthesis). Report title.   Report Number. Name of government agency that published report, Place of publication.  

Smith, G.I. and Chen Y.P. (2018). Growth stages and tolerable fire intervals for Georgia’s native vegetation data sets. Report no. 247. U.S. Department of Interior. New York, NY, USA.

4. Government Technical Report Published Online: Author names or name of organization. (Year Published in parenthesis). Report title.   Report Number. Name of government agency that published report. Place of publication.   Date retrieved followed by complete URL link in full or DOI if known.  

Spandone, H.K. et al. (2017). Energy futures for Midwestern wind farms. Report no. C2.4715.12. U.S. Department of Energy. Washington D.C., USA.   Retrieved on February 15, 2017 from https://www.energy.gov/science-innovation/energy-sources/renewable-energy/wind

5. Patent : Author names. Date in parenthesis. Title of patented item, technique, method or process. Patent number.

Odell, J.C. (1970, April). Process for batch culturing. U.S. patent 484,363,770.

Citing Secondary Sources

Secondary sources report on and interpret results that have been presented in primary sources.   Secondary sources include books, documentaries, magazines, newspapers, podcasts, webpages from government agencies and universities.   Ten examples of how to cite secondary sources are numbered below 6-15.      

6. Book Chapter : Authors names. (Date of publication in parenthesis). Chapter title, page numbers. Editors of book, Book Title, Place of publication.   Name of publisher.  

Forman, M.S., and Valsamakis, A. (2003). Specimen collection, transport, and processing: virology, p. 1227-1241. Murray, P.R., et al. (Eds.), Manual of clinical microbiology, 8th ed, Washington, D.C. Penguin Press.  

Anderegg, D. (2007). Nerds: Who they are and why we need more of them. New York, NY. Jeremy P. Tarcher, Penguin Press.  

8. Magazine Article in Print :

Road map to a great deal. (2009, October). Consumer Reports, 74(10), 44-47.

9. Magazine Article Published Online :

Taibbi, M. (2009, September 3). Sick and wrong. Rolling Stone, 1086, 58-65. Retrieved on February 22, 2020 from http://www.rollingstone.com  

10. Newspaper Article in Print:

Lucchetti, A. & Craig, S. (2009, September 11). Morgan Stanley taps new boss. The Wall Street Journal, pp. A1, A16.  

11. Newspaper Article Published Online :

Moran, S. (2009, September 7). If you don’t snooze, you lose: Most Americans aren’t getting enough sleep. And for both adults and students, there are health consequences. Star Tribune. Retrieved on August 6, 2019 from http://www.startribune.com /  

12. Podcast :

Nature (Producer). (2009, July 16). Moon gazing in the Southern hemisphere, Audio podcast. Retrieved on November 5,2009, from http://www.nature.com/nature/podcast/index-2009-07-16.html  

13. Documentary, Video or Movie :

Donner, R. & Lee, S. (Producers), & Hood, G. (Director). (2009). X-Men Origins: Wolverine [DVD]. USA: Twentieth Century-Fox Film Corporation.  

14. Personal Web Page : In most instances a web page is not used as a reference in a poster.  

Wilson, E.O. (1999, September). Biological Diversity: The Oldest Human Heritage, New York State Museum, Albany. Retrieved on July 12, 2020 from https://eowilsonfoundation.org/e-o-wilson/  

15. Web Page of Organization or Group of Authors : In most instances, a webpage is not used as a reference in a poster.  

National Museum of American History. (2006, July 7). National museum of American history displays recent hip-hop acquisitions. Retrieved from https://americanhistory.si.edu  

Scientific Posters: A Learner's Guide Copyright © 2020 by Ella Weaver; Kylienne A. Shaul; Henry Griffy; and Brian H. Lower is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Chapter 12 papers and poster sessions presented at meetings.

Created: October 10, 2007 ; Last Update: August 5, 2020 .

• Sample Citation and Introduction
• Citation Rules with Examples

Chapter 3 Conference Publications

• Sample Citation and Introduction to Citing Papers and Poster Sessions Presented at Meetings

The general format for a reference to an unpublished conference paper or poster session, including punctuation:

- for a paper:

- for a poster session:

• Examples of Citations to Papers and Poster Sessions Presented at Meetings

Papers and poster sessions presented at meetings include both items that were presented but never published and items for which any subsequent publication is unknown. If subsequent publication is known, cite the published form rather than the meeting paper or poster session.

Begin the reference with information on the author(s) and title of the paper or poster session; use the same format as that used for conference papers. See Chapter 3 Conference Publications for details. Use the phrases "Paper presented at:" and "Poster session presented at:" to connect author and title information with meeting information.

Although author affiliation is an optional part of a citation, including it in references to unpublished papers and poster sessions is very helpful to the reader because compilations of papers and poster sessions can be difficult to locate.

Examples provided in this chapter are primarily from material distributed at various conferences. No attempt was made to ascertain whether or not subsequent publication occurred, as would normally be done before citation.

Continue to Citation Rules with Examples for Papers and Poster Sessions Presented at Meetings .

Continue to Examples of Citations to Papers and Poster Sessions Presented at Meetings .

• Citation Rules with Examples for Papers and Poster Sessions Presented at Meetings

Components/elements are listed in the order they should appear in a reference. An R after the component name means that it is required in the citation; an O after the name means it is optional.

Author (R) | Author Affiliation (O) | Title (R) | Connective Phrase (R) | Conference Proceedings (R) | Language (R) | Notes (O)

Author of Paper or Poster Presented (required)

General rules for author.

• List names in the order they appear in the text
• Enter surname (family or last name) first for each author
• Capitalize surnames and enter spaces within surnames as they appear in the document cited on the assumption that the author approved the form used. For example: Van Der Horn or van der Horn; De Wolf or de Wolf or DeWolf.
• Convert given (first) names and middle names to initials, for a maximum of two initials following each surname
• Give all authors, regardless of the number
• Separate author names from each other by a comma and a space
• End author information with a period

Specific Rules for Author

• Surnames with hyphens and other punctuation in them
• Other surname rules
• Given names containing punctuation, a prefix, a preposition, or particle
• Degrees, titles, and honors before or after a personal name
• Designations of rank in a family, such as Jr and III
• Names in non-roman alphabets (Cyrillic, Greek, Arabic, Hebrew, Korean) or character-based languages (Chinese, Japanese)
• Options for author names

Surnames with hyphens and other punctuation in them.

Other surname rules.

Given names containing punctuation, a prefix, a preposition, or particle.

Degrees, titles, and honors before or after a personal name.

Designations of rank in a family, such as Jr and III.

Names in non-roman alphabets (Cyrillic, Greek, Arabic, Hebrew, Korean) or character-based languages (Chinese, Japanese).

Options for author names.

Examples for Author

1. standard paper presented with a separate name for the conference, 2. standard paper presented without a separate name for the conference, 3. standard poster presented with a separate name for the conference, 4. standard poster presented without a separate name for the conference, 5. paper/poster author with optional full name, 6. paper/poster with optional limit to the first six authors, 7. paper/poster author with designation of rank within a family, 8. paper/poster author with a prefix or particle in the surname, 9. paper/poster author with compound surname, 10. paper/poster with both a person and an organization as author, author affiliation for paper or poster presented (optional), general rules for author affiliation.

• Enter the affiliation of all authors or only the first author
• Begin with the department and name of the institution, followed by city and state/Canadian province/country
• Use commas to separate parts of the affiliation
• Place the address in parentheses, such as (Department of Psychology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA)
• Separate the affiliation from its author by a space
• Follow the affiliation with a comma placed outside the closing parenthesis, unless it is the affiliation of the last author, then use a period

Specific Rules for Author Affiliation

• Abbreviations in affiliations
• E-mail address included
• Organizational names for affiliations not in English
• Names for cities and countries not in English

Abbreviations in affiliations.

E-mail address included.

Organizational names for affiliations not in English.

Names for cities and countries not in English.

Examples for Author Affiliation

11. paper/poster with author affiliation, 12. paper/poster with author affiliation including e-mail address, title of paper or poster presented (required), general rules for title.

• Enter the title of a paper or poster as it appears in the original document
• Capitalize only the first word of a title, proper nouns, proper adjectives, acronyms, and initialisms
• Use a colon followed by a space to separate a title from a subtitle, unless another form of punctuation (such as a question mark, period, or an exclamation point) is already present
• Follow non-English titles with a translation whenever possible; place the translation in square brackets
• End a title with a period unless a question mark or exclamation point already ends it

Specific Rules for Title

• Titles not in English
• Titles containing a Greek letter, chemical formula, or other special character

Titles not in English.

Titles containing a Greek letter, chemical formula, or another special character.

Examples for Title

13. paper/poster title containing a greek letter or other special character, 14. paper/poster in a language other than english, connective phrase for paper or poster presented (required), general rule for connective phrase.

• Use the words "Paper presented at" or "Poster session presented at" followed by a colon and a space to connect information about the paper or poster with information on the conference proceedings

Examples for Connective Phrase

Conference proceedings for paper or poster presented (required).

Follow the instructions in Chapter 3 to enter proceedings citation information

Examples for Conference Proceedings

15. paper/poster with optional specific location of the conference added, language for paper or poster presented (required), general rules for language.

• Give the language of the paper or poster if not English
• Capitalize the language name
• Follow the language name with a period

Examples for Language

Notes for paper or poster presented (optional), general rules for notes.

• Notes is a collective term for any useful information given after the citation itself
• Complete sentences are not required

Specific Rules for Notes

• Sponsorship note
• Other types of material to include in notes

Sponsorship note.

Other types of material to include in notes.

Examples for Notes

16. paper/poster with sponsorship note.

• 17. Paper/poster with other supplemental note

Patrias K. Computer-compatible writing and editing. Paper presented at: Interacting with the digital environment: modern scientific publishing. 46th Annual Meeting of the Council of Science Editors; 2003 May 3-6; Pittsburgh, PA.

Bernhardt A, Weiss C, Breuer J, Kumpf M, Sieverding L. The clinical relevance of an elevated lactate level after surgery for congenital heart disease. Paper presented at: Myocardial cell damage and myocardial protection. 3rd International Symposium on the Pathophysiology of Cardiopulmonary Bypass; 2000 Dec 16; Aachen, Germany.

Hu X, Gao Z, Xu F, Liu N. A novel approach to harvesting lymphatic endothelial cells from human foreskin dermis. Paper presented at: 8th TESI Annual Meeting; 2005 Oct 22-25; Shanghai, China.

Thabet A. Clinical value of two serial pulmonary embolism-protocol CT studies performed within ten days. Paper presented at: Annual Scientific Meeting and Postgraduate Course of the American Society of Emergency Radiology; 2006 Sep 27-30; Washington, DC.

Chasman J, Kaplan RF. The effects of occupation on preserved cognitive functioning in dementia. Poster session presented at: Excellence in clinical practice. 4th Annual Conference of the American Academy of Clinical Neuropsychology; 2006 Jun 15-17; Philadelphia, PA.

Charles L, Gordner R. Analysis of MedlinePlus en Espanol customer service requests. Poster session presented at: Futuro magnifico! Celebrating our diversity. MLA `05: Medical Library Association Annual Meeting; 2005 May 14-19; San Antonio, TX.

Muto A, Funakubo K. Efficacy of transarterial embolization using NBCA-LPD for acute arterial bleeding in patients with coagulopathy. Poster session presented at: Annual Scientific Meeting and Postgraduate Course of the American Society of Emergency Radiology; 2006 Sep 27-30; Washington, DC.

Rao RM, Lord GM, Choe H, Lichtman AH, Luscinskas FW, Glimcher LH. The transcription T-bet is required for optimal proinflammatory trafficking of CD4+ T cells. Poster session presented at: 25th European Workshop for Rheumatology Research; 2005 Feb 24-27; Glasgow, UK.

Rosenberg, Steven A. Human cancer immunotherapy: progress and problems. Paper presented at: Cancer Vaccines 2005: Barriers, Endpoints & Opportunities; 2005 Oct 5-7; New York, NY.

Cronin, James T.; Haynes, Kyle J. Parasitoid and host movement and population dynamics in a heterogeneous prairie landscape. Paper presented at: 13th International Entomophagous Insects Workshop; 2003 Jul 27-31; Tucson, AZ.

Boggi U, Del Chiaro M, Croce C, Gremmo F, Sgambelluri AF, Cappelli C, et al. Mesenteric portal vein resection during pancreatectomy for ductal adenocarcinoma of the pancreas: is it worthwhile? Paper presented at: 29th National Congress of the Italian Association for the Study of the Pancreas (AISP); 2005 Sep 15-17; Bologna, Italy.

Hubert JM, Renoult E, Chammas M Jr, Mourey E, Feuillu B, Frimat L, Cormier L, Prevot L, Hestin D, Kessler M. Purely laparoscopic robotic (Da Vinci®) live donor nephrectomy: experience in 37 cases. Poster session presented at: 24th Annual World Congress of Endourology; 2006 Aug 17-20; Cleveland, OH.

Sarna A, Pujari S, Sengar AK, Garg R, Katke S, van Dam J. Adherence to antiretroviral therapy (ART) and its principal determinants in HIV-infected adults in India. Poster session presented at: NIMH/IAPAC International Conference on HIV Treatment Adherence; 2006 Mar 8-10; Jersey City, NJ.

Van Assche FA. The relation of EBCOG with scientific organisations in Europe. Paper presented at: 9th Congress of the European Society of Contraception; 2006 May 3-6; Istanbul, Turkey.

Fettouh HI, Morsy HA, El Shenoufy A, Agabo H, Fettouh IA. Laparoscopic right donor nephrectomy using non-absorbable locking clips to control the renal vein. Poster session presented at: 24th Annual World Congress of Endourology; 2006 Aug 17-20; Cleveland, OH.

Joseph MA, Harlow SD, LaRosa JH. Ethnic differences in menstrual cycle length and variability in midlife women: The Study of Women's Health across the Nation (SWAN). Poster session presented at: 2nd Women's Health NIH Interdisciplinary Research Symposium; 2005 Oct 20; Bethesda, MD.

Dell'Accio F, De Bari C, El Tawil NM, Barone F, Mitsiadis TA, O'Dowd J, Pitzalis C. Activation of WNT and BMP signaling in adult human articular cartilage following mechanical injury. Paper presented at: 25th European Workshop for Rheumatology Research; 2005 Feb 24-27; Glasgow, UK.

Prakken BJ, de Kleer I. Autoimmunity or immune deficiency? On the role and function of regulatory T cells in chronic arthritis. Paper presented at: 25th European Workshop for Rheumatology Research; 2005 Feb 24-27; Glasgow, UK.

Martin M, Del Cacho E, Lopez E, Tuset M, Codina C, Miro JM, Ribas J. Adverse side effects and nonadherence to antiretroviral therapy. Poster session presented at: NIMH/IAPAC International Conference on HIV Treatment Adherence; 2006 Mar 8-10; Jersey City, NJ.

Bryan-Rest LL. The "clear sinus sign" revisited in the multislice CT ERA. Paper presented at: Annual Scientific Meeting and Postgraduate Course of the American Society of Emergency Radiology; 2006 Sep 27-30; Washington, DC.

Ruiz Mondejar R, Donate MJ, Pastor H, Hernandez I, Lorenzo J, Virseda JA, Gimenez J. Laparoscopic adrenalectomy, an initial experience of 14 cases in a Spanish general hospital. Poster session presented at: 24th Annual World Congress of Endourology; 2006 Aug 17-20; Cleveland, OH.

Atkinson RP; ARCHeR Trial Collaborators. Final 1-year composite endpoint results for the ARCHeR Trials: ACCULINK for revascularization of carotids in high-risk patients. Paper presented at: 129th Annual Meeting of the American Neurological Association; 2004 Oct 3-6; Toronto, ON.

Thabet A (Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA). Clinical value of two serial pulmonary embolism-protocol CT studies performed within ten days. Paper presented at: Annual Scientific Meeting and Postgraduate Course of the American Society of Emergency Radiology; 2006 Sep 27-30; Washington, DC.

Barron D (Leeds Teaching Hospitals, Leeds, UK), Enion DS (Blackburn Royal Infirmary, Blackburn, UK), Bollen SR (Blackburn Royal Infirmary, Blackburn, UK). Femoro-tibial dislocation and the radiologist. Poster session presented at: Annual Scientific Meeting and Postgraduate Course of the American Society of Emergency Radiology; 2006 Sep 27-30; Washington, DC.

Patrias K (National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, MD. [email protected]). Computer-compatible writing and editing. Paper presented at: Interacting with the digital environment: modern scientific publishing. 46th Annual Meeting of the Council of Science Editors; 2003 May 3-6; Pittsburgh, PA.

Greek letters may be written out if special fonts are not available

Wang H, Unadkat JD, Mao Q. Regulation of BCRP expression by progesterone and 17β -estradiol. Poster session presented at: 2nd Women's Health NIH Interdisciplinary Research Symposium; 2005 Oct 20; Bethesda, MD.

Wang H, Unadkat JD, Mao Q. Regulation of BCRP expression by progesterone and 17beta -estradiol. Poster session presented at: 2nd Women's Health NIH Interdisciplinary Research Symposium; 2005 Oct 20; Bethesda, MD.

Superscripts or subscripts may be enclosed within parentheses if fonts are not available

Bradford I, Mackie A, McCauley E, Cadigan P, Cook A. Pre-operative diagnosis and staging of symptomatic breast disease using 99m technitium scintimammography. Paper presented at: Symposium Mammographicum 2000; 2000 Oct 4-6; York, UK.

Bradford I, Mackie A, McCauley E, Cadigan P, Cook A. Pre-operative diagnosis and staging of symptomatic breast disease using (99m) technitium scintimammography. Paper presented at: Symposium Mammographicum 2000; 2000 Oct 4-6; York, UK.

Price AG, Lockhart JC, Mc Lean JS, Ferrell WR. Proinflammatory role for AT 1 receptors in the rat synovium. Poster session presented at: 25th European Workshop for Rheumatology Research; 2005 Feb 24-27; Glasgow, UK.

Price AG, Lockhart JC, Mc Lean JS, Ferrell WR. Proinflammatory role for AT(1) receptors in the rat synovium. Poster session presented at: 25th European Workshop for Rheumatology Research; 2005 Feb 24-27; Glasgow, UK.

Villagra F (Hospitales Zarzuela y Monte Principe, Madrid, Spain), Aroca A, Gomez R, Cazzaniga M, Larraya FG, Rodriguez M, Herraiz JI, Romera G, Soler V, Simo S, Arjona D. Cirugia de la coartacion de aorta (COA) asociada a defectos septales ventriculares (DSV) significativos (COA + DSV). Paper presented at: 1st Congreso Nacional de Cardiologia Pediatrica; 2003 May 23-24; Seville, Spain. Spanish.

Beganyi N (Fovarosi Onkormanyzat Uzsoki utcai Korhaz, Fovarosi Onkoradiologiai Kozpont, Budapest, Hungary). Mezoillesztesi technikak rosszindulatu fej-nyaki daganatok sugarkezeleseben. Paper presented at: A Magyar Sugarterapias Tarsasag Kongresszusa; 2005 Oct 13-15; Kaposvar, Hungary. Hungarian.

Wu HH. [Care of rheumatoid arthritis treated with acupuncture]. Paper presented at: [5th National Symposium of Acupuncture Anesthesia and Acupuncture Analgesia]; 1994 Sep 20-24; Wuhan, China. Chinese.

with translation

Villagra F (Hospitales Zarzuela y Monte Principe, Madrid, Spain), Aroca A, Gomez R, Cazzaniga M, Larraya FG, Rodriguez M, Herraiz JI, Romera G, Soler V, Simo S, Arjona D. Cirugia de la coartacion de aorta (COA) asociada a defectos septales ventriculares (DSV) significativos (COA + DSV) [Surgery for coarctation of the aorta (COA) associated with significant septal ventricular defect]. Paper presented at: 1st Congreso Nacional de Cardiologia Pediatrica [1st National Congress of Pediatric Cardiology]; 2003 May 23-24; Seville, Spain. Spanish.

Beganyi N (Fovarosi Onkormanyzat Uzsoki utcai Korhaz, Fovarosi Onkoradiologiai Kozpont, Budapest, Hungary). Mezpillesztesi technikak rosszindulatu fej-nyaki daganatok sugarkezeleseben [Field-matched techniques of radiotherapy for head and neck tumors]. Paper presented at: A Magyar Sugarterapias Tarsasag Kongresszusa [Congress of the Hungarian Radiotherapy Society]; 2005 Oct 13-15; Kaposvar, Hungary. Hungarian.

Hilbelink DR, Hu X. Use of a point-to-point method to morph image of the Visible Human Project. Paper presented at: 3rd Visible Human Project Conference; 2000 Oct 5-6; National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD.

Rosenberg SA. Human cancer immunotherapy: progress and problems. Paper presented at: Cancer Vaccines 2005: Barriers, Endpoints & Opportunities; 2005 Oct 5-7; New York, NY. Conference sponsored by the Cancer Research Institute, New York.

Rookus MA, Brohet RM, Andrieu N, Antroniou AC, Chang-Claude J, Easton DF, Peock S, Nogues C, van Leeuwen FE, Goldgar DE. Oral contraceptives and breast cancer risk in the International BRCA1/2 Carrier Cohort Study (IBCCS). Paper presented at: 3rd International Symposium on the Molecular Biology of Breast Cancer; 2005 Jun 22-26; Molde, Norway. Main conference sponsors were Affymetrix, Agilent Technologies, Applied Biosystems, AstraZeneca, Novartis Oncology, Pfizer, and Roche Diagnostics.

17. Paper/Poster with other supplemental note

Hu X, Gao Z, Xu F, Liu N. A novel approach to harvesting lymphatic endothelial cells from human foreskin dermis. Paper presented at: 8th TESI Annual Meeting; 2005 Oct 22-25; Shanghai, China. TESI = Tissue Engineering Society International.

18. Paper/Poster for a Cancelled Conference

Joubert, D. J. (2020, May 10–15). Best Practices for Dealing with Biomedical Data [Conference session canceled]. 12th Annual Congress of Data Scientist, Paris, France.

• Cite this Page Patrias K, author; Wendling D, editor. Citing Medicine: The NLM Style Guide for Authors, Editors, and Publishers [Internet]. 2nd edition. Bethesda (MD): National Library of Medicine (US); 2007-. Chapter 12, Papers and Poster Sessions Presented at Meetings. 2007 Oct 10 [Updated 2020 Aug 5].
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• RIT Libraries
• How to AMA Cite
• Posters, presentations

The 11th edition of the AMA Manual of style was created by the American Medical Association for the health, medical and scientific fields. This is a quick visual guide only. You must consult Chapter 3 in the online AMA manual for detailed explanations.

• In-text citing with superscripts
• Reference List Format
• Online Journal format
• More than 6 authors format
• Entire Book format
• Book Chapter format
• Citing Websites
• Govt report, social media, personal communications, etc.
• Package Inserts

Presentations

For further information go to ama manual 3.13.9 meeting presentations and other unpublished material..

References to unpublished material may include articles or abstracts that have been presented at a society meeting and published as part of the meeting proceedings or materials.

3.13.9.1 Items Presented at a Meeting.

UPDATE:  Guidance has been added to chapter  3.13.9.1 , Items Presented at a Meeting, to provide an example of how to cite materials from a virtual or hybrid meeting. This addition was made  May 26, 2022 .

Oral or poster presentations follow these formats. Note that example 4 is a virtual meeting. Hybrid meetings can list the location, the meeting URL, both, or neither depending on what information is available and how the author viewed the content.

1.  Pasternak B. Carvedilol vs metoprolol succinate and risk of mortality in patients with heart failure: national cohort study. Paper presented at: European Society of Cardiology Congress; August 31, 2014; Barcelona, Spain.

2.  Minocchieri S, Berry CA, Pillow J. Nebulized surfactant for treatment of respiratory distress in the first hours of life: the CureNeb study. Abstract presented at: Annual Meeting of the Pediatric Academic Society; May 6, 2013; Washington, DC. Session 3500.

3.  Nevidomskyte D, Meissner MH, Tran N, Murray S, Farrokhi E. Influence of gender on abdominal aortic aneurysm repair in the community. Poster presented at: Vascular Annual Meeting; June 5-7, 2014; Boston, MA.

4.  McNamee JJ, Gillies MA, Barrett NA, et al; for the REST Investigators. The REST Trial: ultra-low tidal volume ventilation & extracorporeal CO2 removal. Presented at: Critical Care Reviews; October 4, 2021.  https://criticalcarereviews.com/meetings/eccr21

Once these presentations are published, they take the form of reference to a book, journal, or other medium in which they are ultimately published, as in example 5 (see  3.12.1 , References to Books, Complete Data, and  3.11.1 , References to Journal Articles, Complete Data):

4.  Huang G-M, Huang K-Y, Lee T-Y, Tzu-Ya Weng J. An interpretable rule-based diagnostic classification of diabetic nephropathy among type 2 diabetes patients.  BMC Bioinformatics.  2015;16(suppl 1):S5. Selected articles from the Thirteenth Asia Pacific Bioinformatics Conference (APBC 2015). doi:10.1186/1471-2105-16-S1-S5

In example 4, the entire journal supplement is dedicated to publishing articles from a meeting.

5.  Resnick ML. The effect of affect: decision making in the emotional context of health care. In:  Proceedings of the 2012 Symposium on Human Factors and Ergonomics in Health Care: Bridging the Gap . Human Factors and Ergonomics Society; 2012:39-44.

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• Nov 14, 2023

How to effectively incorporate citations into your scientific poster

Imagine this: You're fervently collating your latest research into a visually compelling scientific poster. You’ve written your attention-grabbing title , picked a cohesive colour scheme , and planned a logical layout for your content. ✨

Suddenly, you encounter a problem — what do you do about citations and references? 🤔

You have so many “essential” papers, your poster is sure to look cluttered. So, should you include them?

It’s a divisive subject! A recent poll we conducted on LinkedIn revealed a striking split among our audience: 60% believed yes, posters should have references, while the other 40% thought no.

We believe references and citations on scientific posters are optional, not mandatory! But if you choose to include them, we have 3 simple tips to create a clean, reader-friendly and award-winning design . 🔬

The problem with citations and references

We understand that references can demonstrate credibility and integrity, and provide a thread for those interested to pull at for additional information.

However, it's also true that they can turn your poster into a hot mess if not handled properly. 🫣

Disrupt the flow of text. 📝

Fragment your sentences. 💔

Clutter your poster reducing negative space. 🫨

Decrease readability. 😵‍💫

And reduce visual appeal. 🙅🏽‍♀️

The challenge of including citations without compromising readability and aesthetics is real. AND we get it! Formatting citations and references can be a nightmare at the best of times!

And this task only becomes that much harder when you apply it to a scientific poster, with limited space.

Tip 1: Choose your in-text citation style wisely

Unlike a journal article, the referencing style for a scientific conference poster is often not dictated. So the choice is up to you!

And what a difference it can make. Let's take a look.👇

Avoid (author, date) in-text citation styles for a scientific poster.

While (author, date) citation styles are common, they can easily clutter and disrupt the smooth flow of text on your scientific poster!

Some common styles are:

APA (American Psychological Association)

Harvard referencing

MLA (Modern Language Association)

And the list goes on.

Don’t get us wrong, these styles certainly have their place. In fact, they are often required for journal submissions and University assessments. But here is the problem, they take up too much space! So we recommend you steer clear of all (author, date) in-text citation styles for scientific posters.

Use footnotes, endnotes or a numbered citation style instead!

Just like a well-placed puzzle piece 🧩 footnotes, endnotes and numbered citations seamlessly integrate into the text, offering the necessary source information without overloading the text. ✨

So, what’s the difference between a footnote, endnote and numbered citation, you ask?

Well when it comes to a scientific poster a footnote and an endnote are indistinguishable. A footnote appears at the bottom of the page containing the sentence to which it refers. Whilst endnotes are lists at the end of the document , similar to a reference list or bibliography.

Since a scientific poster is only one page, both terms can be used interchangeably.

A numbered citation style, such as Vancouver referencing, has the same principle. And can either be written in line with the text within rounded brackets (1) or using superscript¹.

As you can see, that small little superscript number does not overwhelm the sentence, drastically increase the amount of text or clutter the poster. However it does still provide appropriate recognition to previous work and give both you and the reader essential sources to refer to, if needed.

We recommend to use footnotes, endnotes or a numbered citation style, for your scientific poster.

Tip 2: Use only 3-4 essential references

This may be the most important tip! We recommend limiting the number of references to a maximum of 3 to 4, focusing on the most impactful and relevant sources to your research. 🔬

There are two main ways to do this:

Reduce the amount of content on your poster! ✅ Distil your introduction, methods and conclusion down to the core points and avoid introducing too many new concepts. This makes your poster more accessible and automatically decreases the number of references required. Talk about win win!

Reduce the number of references per finding! ✅ In contrast to a manuscript or a literature review, where you cite every single paper that has came to the same conclusion, instead just cite the first original paper, or the most impactful to your work. This will limit the number of necessary citations and references.

Tip 3: Format your reference list to be as concise as possible

Unfortunately, your reference list can get long—wayy too long—taking up valuable real estate on your poster if you are not careful. 🙃

Here are our top tips to minimise your reference list:

Reduce the number of references We said it before, and we’ll say it again! Limit yourself to 3 or 4 necessary references. This will, as you guessed, give you more space in your reference list.

Keep text small As long as it’s readable the text of your reference list can be smaller than your body text, if needed.

Stick to the essentials Format your references to be as concise as possible and include only the necessary information, such as:

✍🏻 First author

📗 Journal details

So, there you have it! Creating a clean, clutter-free poster with appropriate citations is entirely achievable. 🙌 The key lies in selecting the right style to seamlessly incorporate them into your scientific poster, reserving citations for only the absolutely essential references and formatting your reference list to be super-duper concise.

Still feel like you want some extra help?

We’ve only just scratched the surface on what makes a clean and clutter-free poster!

Here at Animate Your Science, we’ve developed a whole online course: How to Design an Award-Winning Scientific Poster to take you through the key design principles of designing a poster. With nothing but positive reviews from academics all over the world, we think you will love our award-winning formula too.

You can go at your own pace, with only 3 hours of learning across 33 video lessons, you can arm yourself with the skills and knowledge to create your own captivating scientific posters. As a bonus, we also include 8 templates & downloads for you! 🤩

Learn more about our online scientific poster here or contact our team today to maximise your research poster’s impact. ✨

Related Posts

How to Design an Award-Winning Scientific Conference Poster

Best examples of scientific posters

How to deliver an engaging scientific poster presentation: Dos and Don’ts!

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AMA Style (11th ed): Citing Your Sources

• Reference List
• References Within Your Paper
• Manuscript styling
• Videos and tutorials

Basic rules for all AMA citations

Anonymous works:

If there is no named author, follow the citation style for the item, and omit the author name field.  If the item is really authored by a person going by the name Anonymous, use the word "Anonymous" as if it were a complete name of the author, and then use the appropriate style.

Author names in all references:

For materials with 1-6 authors or editors, list all author or editor names.

For materials with 7 or more authors or editors, list the first three, then abbreviate with et al. 

Capitalization of titles in reference list:

For journal article titles and book chapters: capitalize the first letter of the first word, proper names, names of trials or study groups, and abbreviations. For titles of books and government documents, capitalize the first letter of each major word, but not articles, prepositions of less than 3 letters, conjunctions, or infinitives.

(note: No guidance is provided regarding capitalization for titles of conference materials, titles of journals, or other titles used in AMA citations.)

Titles of journals :

Use PubMed journal abbreviations. You can find these by using the citing tool within PubMed, or search the NLM Catalog for journal titles to locate the preferred abbreviation. If no abbreviation is found in PubMed or the NLM Catalog, consult section 13.10 of the AMA Manual of Style for standard abbreviations for individual words used in a title.

Non-scholarly or non-peer-reviewed materials appearing in journals (editorials, letters to the editor, comments, interviews, etc.):

Unlike prior editions of AMA style, the 11th edition has removed the suggestion to indicate special types of materials within journals. Cite all materials published in journals using the article style.

Use of Artificial Intelligence (A.I.):

"Nonhuman artificial intelligence, language models, machine learning, or similar technologies cannot be listed as authors because these technologies do not qualify for authorship." (quotation from AMA Manual, section 5.1.12). According to a strict reading of the Manual, AI programs should never appear in a reference list as an author or creator of content. Instead, AMA suggest that writers place an acknowledgement into the acknowledgement section of the manuscript or describe how AI was used in the Methods section of the manuscript. The primary goal of the AMA Manual of Style is to share the official JAMA (Journal of the American Medical Association) guidance for formatting manuscripts for JAMA, so this is helpful in this context. However, it is difficult to put into place in coursework, where assignments typically do not include either an acknowledgements or Methods section. When writing for a class, review  the syllabus or  speak with the faculty member to determine if you are allowed to use AI tools, then use the guidance on this page to appropriately describe use of AI in your written assignments.

How to cite information when there is no guidance on this website:

This website attempts to summarize over 500 pages of content from the AMA Manual and cannot cover all. Read the AMA Manual of Style, section 3, to find guidance for citing many other types of publications. If there is no guidance in the Manual on your specific type of publication-- which there may be, the Manual does not include everything-- adapt an existing AMA citation style.

General format: Author AA, Author BB, Author CC. Title of article. Abbreviated Title of Journal. Year of publication;volume(issue):complete page numbers or e-locator. DOI (if not provided, omit and replace with an accessed date and a URL)

Note that there is no period at the end of the DOI or URL in online journal article citations.

Print journal article:

Towfighi A, Markovic D, Ovbiagele B. Utility of Framingham coronary disease risk score for predicting cardiac risk after stroke.  Stroke. 2012;43(11):2942-2947.

Journal article viewed online with DOI available:

Towfighi A, Markovic D, Ovbiagele B. Utility of Framingham coronary disease risk score for predicting cardiac risk after stroke. Stroke . 2012;43(11):2942-2947. doi: 10.1161/STROKEAHA.112.668319

Journal article viewed online, but the journal does not use DOI:

Ng L, Karunasinghe N, Benjamin CS, Ferguson LR. Beyond PSA: are new prostate cancer biomarkers of potential value to New Zealand doctors? N Z Med J. 2012;125(1353). Accessed April 15, 2020. https://www.nzma.org.nz/journal-articles/beyond-psa-are-new-prostate-cancer-biomarkers-of-potential-value-to-new-zealand-doctors/

Artificial Intelligence (A.I.)

"Nonhuman artificial intelligence, language models, machine learning, or similar technologies cannot be listed as authors because these technologies do not qualify for authorship." (quotation from AMA Manual, section 5.1.12). No AI programs should ever appear in the numbered reference list. AMA suggests that writers place an acknowledgement into the acknowledgement section of the manuscript or describe how AI was used in the Methods section of the manuscript. This advice is difficult to put into place in coursework, where assignments typically do not include either an acknowledgements or Methods section. When writing for a class, review  the syllabus or  speak with the faculty member to determine if you are allowed to use AI tools, then use this guide to get ideas for how to acknowledge the source.

"Section 5.2.1.1 Acknowledgment of Use of Artificial Intelligence and Language Models in Writing and Editing

Authors should report the use of artificial intelligence, language models, machine learning, or similar technologies to create content or assist with writing or editing of manuscripts in the Acknowledgment section or the Methods section if this is part of formal research design or methods. This should include a description of the content that was created or edited and the name of the language model or tool, version and extension numbers, and manufacturer. (Note: this does not include basic tools for checking grammar, spelling, references, etc.)."

Strict interpretation of this for publication in a journal:

In 1-5 sentences, describe what you used AI to do in the manuscript, with enough information to explain the actual model used. Place this in the Methods section if the AI content was important to the methods. Otherwise, place in the Acknowledgements section. The AMA Manual does not provide any examples. Here are two examples created by a USC librarian that attempt to fulfill the AMA rules:

"On August 3, 2023, I used AI to summarize five research papers, to help me determine which idea was least studied and focus my topics for this essay. I used ChatGPT, model 3.5, made by OpenAI, hosted at https://chat.openai.com/."

"I used Bard, release 2023.07.13, made by Google and hosted at https://bard.google.com/, to edit my manuscript. I uploaded my original writing and asked Bard to reduce the word count and make the language more formal. I also used Bard to determine which of the data points I had collected would be the most useful for including as figures, and used its advice to create figure 1 and table 2."

Potential ways to acknowledge use of AI tools in a written document for a course:

There is no guidance on this from the AMA Manual. As typical with this style, when no guidance exists, try to follow the basic rules of the style while respecting the underlying goal of any citation system: to acknowledge the use of other's ideas, thoughts, and opinions. While AI might not be a person, it’s still not you, so its ideas and work needs to be acknowledged. Based  on this, here are some options that might work:

- While your assignment may not require you to include a formal Methods section, you could decide to include one anyway. You could describe all the methods used to create this assignment: searching for literature, using modeling software, collaboratively editing with a colleague, etc., alongside how you used AI, and which model you used.

- Add a few sentences about your use of AI and the model (as recommended by AMA) into another section of the assignment. If you used AI to generate ideas, perhaps this acknowledge would fit into the introduction. If you used AI to edit the paper, this might be acknowledged in the conclusion. 

- AMA style requires a numbered reference list. You could add an unnumbered bullet point to the start or end of your reference list that acknowledges the use(s) of AI in your assignment and provides the model number as instructed by AMA.

Books and chapters

General format: Author AA, Author BB, Author CC. Title of book . Edition number (if beyond first). Publisher name; year of publication. To indicate online access, add the word Accessed and the date you accessed the item, then the URL.

While some books and book chapters may have assigned DOIs, book citations do not include DOIs, only URLs and accessed dates. If a book has editors instead of or in addition to authors, their names are indicated with "eds." after the author field names.

Print book:

Wasserman K, Hansen JE, Sue DY, et al . Principles of Exercise Testing and Interpretation: Including Pathophysiology and Clinical Applications . 5th ed. Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott William and Wilkins; 2012. 

Entire edited print book:

Alldredge BK, Corelli RL, Ernst ME, et al., eds. Koda-Kimble and Young’s Applied Therapeutics: The Clinical Use of Drugs. 10th ed. Lippincott Williams and Wilkins; 2013.

Chapter within an edited book in print:

Relling MV, Giacomini KM. Pharmacogenomics. In: Brunton LL, Chabner BA, Knollmann BC, eds. Goodman and Gilman’s The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics . 12th ed.  McGraw-Hill; 2011: 145-168.

Book viewed online:

Suchmacher M, Geller M. Practical Biostatistics. Elsevier; 2012. Accessed November 5, 2012. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/book/9780124157941

Edited book viewed online :

Brunton LL, Blumenthal DK, Murri N, Hilal-Danden R, Knollmann BC, eds. Goodman and Gilman’s The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics . 12th ed. McGraw-Hill; 2011. Accessed November 4, 2012. https://www.accesspharmacy.com/resourceToc.aspx?resourceID=28

Chapter within an edited book viewed online:

Relling MV, Giacomini KM. Chapter 7. Pharmacogenomics. In : Brunton LL, Blumenthal DK, Murri N, Hilal-Danden R, Knollmann BC, eds. Goodman and Gilman’s The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics . 12th ed. McGraw-Hill; 2011. Accessed October 4, 2012. https://www.accesspharmacy.com/content.aspx?aID=16659580

Conference presentations

If materials presented at a conference are published elsewhere as a book, issue of a journal, or other medium, AMA instructs you to cite them using that reference style. Only use this style for materials not formally published as part of another publication.

General format: Author AA, Author BB, Author CC. Title of poster.  Poster presented at: Name of conference; Month, Day Year; City, State abbreviation.

Pasternak B. Carvedilol vs metoprolol succinate and risk of mortality in patients with heart failure: national cohort study. Paper presented at: European Society of Cardiology Congress; August 31, 2014; Barcelona, Spain. Morales M, Zhou X. Health practices of immigrant women: indigenous knowledge in an urban environment. Paper presented at: 78th Association for Information Science and Technology Annual Meeting; November 6-10, 2015; St Louis, MO. Accessed March 15, 2016. https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.5555/2857070.2857108

• If the conference is held outside the US, replace "City, State" with City, Country.
• The manual instructs you to use this to cite any type of presentation occurring at a conference, using any special name the conference chose to use. To cite a poster, a presentation, a keynote address, a panel, a lecture, etc., replace the word 'paper' in the phrase  "Paper presented at."
• Add the Accessed date and the DOI (preferred) or the accessed date and URL (if DOI not available) for materials you viewed online.

Government or agency reports

3.13.2 Special Materials: Government or Agency Reports provides this format for citing reports issued by a department or agency of a government.

(1) name of author (if given); (2) title of bulletin in italics; (3) name of issuing bureau, agency, department, or other governmental division; (4) date of publication; (5) page numbers (if specified); (6) publication number (if any); (7) series number (if given); (8) online accessed date (if applicable); and (9) web address (if applicable).

3.15.5 Electronic References:Government/Organization Reports provides this guidance for citing Government/Organization reports: "These reports are treated much like electronic journal and book references: use journal style for articles and book style for monographs."

• There is no guidance provided in the Manual for how to differentiate between "reports issued by a department or agency of a government" or a "government/organization report," and so there is no way to determine which of these is "more correct." Be consistent in your choices for citation in your document and within content: if you cite two articles from MMWR, use the same style for each.
• While some online-issued government reports include DOIs, AMA style requires the accessed date and URL.
• The example in the Manual for Government or Agency Reports includes semicolons between each field; the worked examples in the Manual show semicolons, colons, periods, and commas between fields, and there is no explanation for how or why to use each diacritical mark.. In creating examples, the diacritical marks used in the Manual were used as guides.

MMRW is a journal that publishes reports from the US CDC. Based on the rules of AMA Style, you could choose to cite reports from MMWR as a Government Report or a Journal Article. Here is the same report in both styles:

Selik RM, Mokotoff ED, Branson B, Owen SM, Whitmore S, Hall HI. Revised Surveillance Case Definition for HIV Infection- United States, 2014 . Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2014;1-11: Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. Accessed January 5, 2019. https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/pdf/rr/rr6303.pdf

Selik RM, Mokotoff ED, Branson B, Owen SM, Whitmore S, Hall HI. Revised Surveillance Case Definition for HIV Infection- United States, 2014. MMWR. 2014;63(3):1-11. Accessed January 5, 2019. https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/pdf/rr/rr6303.pdf

The Government Accountability Office is a federal office charged with assessing the function of federal government. They publish reports in the form of monographs. Based on the rules of AMA Style, you could choose to cite reports from this office as a Government Report or Monograph style:

Covid-19:Federal Efforts Could be Strengthened by Timely and Concerted Actions . United States Government Accountability Office. September 21, 2020. GAO-20-701. Accessed January 5, 2021. https://www.gao.gov/assets/710/709934.pdf

United States Government Accountability Office. Covid-19:Federal Efforts Could be Strengthened by Timely and Concerted Actions. Government Publication Office; 2020. Accessed January 5, 2021. https://www.gao.gov/assets/710/709934.pdf

In citing data from a website, include the following elements, if available, in the order shown:

■ Authors’ surnames and initials, if given, or name of the group who made the site

■ Title of the specific item cited. If none is given, use the name of the organization responsible for the site.

■ Name of the website

■ [Date published]

■ Updated [date]

■ Accessed [date]

■ URL (verify that the link still works as close as possible to publication)

There is no guidance in the Manual on how to separate elements (using periods, commas, semicolons, etc.); the example above is directly copied from the Manual. The examples below use the diacritical marks as shown in one example in the Manual, separating each field with a period.

Warfarin. Drug Information Online: Drugs.com. September 1, 2012. Updated January 23, 2020. Accessed April 15, 2020. https://www.drugs.com/cons/warfarin.html

DrugBank Online. Acetaminophen. DrugBank Online. June 13, 2005. Updated January 5, 2021. Accessed January 5, 2021. https://go.drugbank.com/drugs/DB00316

Additional citation types

Package insert s and prescribing information

Name of drug. Type of material. Company Name; year of publication. To indicate online access, add the accessed date and URL.

Lamasil. Package insert. Sandoz Pharmaceutics Corporation; 1993.

Lovenox. Prescribing information. s anofi - aventis U.S. LLC. Accessed April 15, 2020. https://products.sanofi.us/Lovenox/Lovenox.pdf

Drug Monographs . AMA style does not provide rules for citing drug monographs. These are suggested by the Norris Library and were created by adapting the book and website styles, as these contain similar pieces of information.

Print drug monographs

Author AA. Title of monograph being cited . Editor AA, ed. Title of book . Edition (if beyond first). Publisher name; year of publication.

Online drug monographs

Title of monograph. Title of book of monographs . Title of compendia where book is found (only include if different than book title). Pub lished date. Updated date. Accessed date. URL

Lisinopril. McEvoy GK, ed. AHFS Drug I nformation 2014 . American Society of Health - System Pharmacists, Inc.; 2014.

Lisinopril. AHFS DI (Adult and Pediatric) . Lexicomp. Updated March 11, 2016. Accessed May 11, 2016. https://online.lexi.com/lco/action/doc/retrieve/docid /complete_ashp /414040

Inventor names, inventor; assignee company, assignee. Title of patent. Patent issued agency and number. Date patent was grant ed.

Abram AZ, Fuchsuber L, inventors; Stiefel Research Australia, assignee. Foamable suspension gel. US Patent 8,158,109. April 17, 2012.

Note: this example is for a patent that was granted by the US Patent Office. To cite a patent issued by a different patent office, use this same style but replace the words "US Patent" with the issuing body: WIPO Patent.   You may instead need to cite a patent application. Use the same style, but replace the words "US Patent" with "US Patent Application."

Personal communications:

AMA Style states that personal communications such as phone calls, emails, conversations, etc. are not included in the reference list. However, you should cite these materials parenthetically within the text. Provide the name and highest academic degree of the author, type of communication, and date sent. If this would compromise patient anonymity, replace the name with a title and remove the day of communication.

Individuals on this new experimental drug should not take aspirin. (Sara P. Norris, M.D., email communication, November 3, 2012.)

For all five patients I have seen with this rare disorder, I have prescribed Interferon. (Physician at LAC + USC Healthcare Network, phone call, October 2012).

Common questions about AMA

What is a DOI?:

A DOI is a Digital Object Identifier. It is a series of letters and numbers that identifies a specific online item. Depending on the publisher, DOIs may be registered through international clearinghouses and function as web links or may not. AMA style allows you to choose to display DOIs in references in two ways, with or without the https://.  doi:10.1001/jama.2017.13737 and  https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2017.13737 are both acceptable, and used interchangeably throughout the Manual when a DOI is included in a reference. When you discuss a DOI in writing, capital letters are used to denote that this is an abbreviation. When using a DOI in a citation, AMA Style requires all lowercase: doi.

Including words/phrases like "Paper presented at", "Date Accessed," "Date Updated," etc. in the citations: AMA Style sometimes requires the use of these "helper phrases" in the reference; in other cases, they are used in examples to show you where to place the information and will be deleted in your final completed citation. AMA Style is not particularly consistent nor logical in its choices to include or exclude "helper phrases" in citations. Examine both the example citation format and the worked examples citing a specific item to determine what to include.

Use Online or Print style?

AMA Style requires you to cite the version of an item you read. An article might be available online and in a print journal. If you read the online copy, cite it using the online citation format. If you read the print item, use the print format.

The URL is incredibly long-- do I need to include the whole thing? AMA Style's main preference is for you to include the entire and functional URL. However, if a URL is very long and breaks across lines, you may remove portions of the lengthy URL as long as the reader would reasonably be able to access the item from the short URL and information from the citation itself.

Here is an example of when and how to edit URLs:

is a citation to a drug monograph appearing in the book AHFS DI (Adult and Pediatric) available on the online database Lexicomp. The URL provided by Lexicomp for this monograph is actually much longer (it is https://online-lexi-com.libproxy1.usc.edu/lco/action/doc/retrieve/docid/complete_ashp/414040?cesid=aNQswQkZlPy&searchUrl=%2Flco%2Faction%2Fsearch%3Fq%3Dlisinopril%26t%3Dname%26va%3Dlisinopril). If you paste the short URL provided in this citation into your browser, you will arrive at the table of contents of the book AHFS DI (Adult and Pediatric) and can then look for the monograph described in this citation (Lisinopril).

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Scholarly Publication and Posters

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What and how to cite

Citing your poster in your cv.

When doing research, you are often building on the work of others and will sometimes take an idea, fact or quotation from someone else's work such as a book or article. If you are including such ideas/facts/quotations on your poster, you must cite your sources to give credit to other researchers and writers and so others can trace your research or retrieve the source material. The same is true for other kinds of sources such as pictures or other graphics that may be incorporated into the design of your poster.

If you have a handout to accompany your poster, you may list your references on that. If not, you should list them in small type at the bottom of the poster.

Different meeting sponsors/organizations may have differing styles for formatting citations. Use the style required in the abstract/poster guidelines or your research advisor

• Citation Management Visit the Citation Management Guide for more information on how to cite in APA, AMA, etc. style and how to manage citations.

Posters presented at meetings include both items that were only presented in this way or those which were followed by a publication. If you do follow a poster with a publication, cite that subsequent work on your CV rather than the meeting poster.

Regardless of the style you follow, elements for the citation will be the same: Author name(s), title of the poster, title of the conference/meeting, date, location. The conference may also have a descriptive "name" as well as a title.

In APA Style

Contributor, A. A., Contributor, B. B., Contributor, C. C., & Contributor, D. D. (Year, Month Day).  Title of contribution  [Description of contribution]. Title of Symposium/Conference, Location. URL (optional)

Matson, E. (2018, November 5).  Drones and autonomous vehicles: The latest new technology to come with potential threat  [Poster presentation]. Dawn or Doom 2018 Conference, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States.

Pearson, J. (2018, September 27-30).  Fat talk and its effects on state-based body image in women  [Poster presentation]. Australian Psychological Society Congress, Sydney, NSW, Australia. http://bit.ly/2XGSThP 

[ Purdue OWL ]

In AMA Style

Author AA, Author BB, Author CC. Title of poster. Poster presented at: Name of conference; Month, Day Year; City, State abbreviation.

Smyth ME, Caurdy-Bess L. Legal aid for children: a medical-legal partnership supported by CATCH funding. Poster presented at: 2010 Medical-Legal Partnership Summit; March, 2010; Arlington, VA.

Pasternak B. Carvedilol vs metoprolol succinate and risk of mortality in patients with heart failure: national cohort study. Paper presented at: European Society of Cardiology Congress; August 31, 2014; Barcelona, Spain.

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• Creating an Academic Poster: Tips and Tricks

Citing Your Sources

• Academic Poster: Basic Components
• Orientation and Size
• Editing and Organizing Content
• Colour and Contrast
• Typefaces and Font Sizes
• Graphs, Charts, and Images
• Poster Templates
• As with research papers, it is important to give credit to sources referred to in an academic poster, i.e. books, articles, newspapers, websites, images, etc.
• Refer to the citation guides from the link below for examples of how to cite different types of sources in different styles.
• Generally speaking, choose the citation style for the discipline your poster represents. For example, with a science poster you might use CSE style; for the disciplines of Education or Social Work, APA; for History, Chicago style, etc.
• Important: If you have any doubts about which citation style to use, consult with your faculty supervisor.

Citation Guides

• TRU Citation Guides by Shane Neifer Last Updated Nov 23, 2022 1270 views this year

Best Practices for Citing Images: SFU Guide

This guide from SFU shows some best practices for citing images in APA, MLA, and CSE styles.

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• A Research Guide
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• Citation Basics

Useful Tips How to Cite a Presentation

How to cite a conference presentation – a short explanation, how to cite a presentation in apa style.

• In-text citations
• Reference List

How to compile a reference list

• The author’s or presenter’s name should be written starting with the surname then the initial of the first name separated by a comma then end with a period. If there is another name, write the first initial of the second name after the first. For example, “Brown, PK.”
• This should be followed by year it was presented or published online. The year should be written in round brackets. If you are not sure of the year, then ignore it and replace with the date you accessed the presentation online. For example, “Brown PK. (2017)”
• State the presentation title. This should be done in italics. After which the format of the presentation should be written in square brackets.
• If you accessed the presentation online, you should include the phrase Retrieved from before adding the website.

How to Cite a Poster Presentation in AMA

How to cite a presentation in mla.

• Use footnotes and endnotes
• Writing the name of the author or presenter
• Add information about the lecture or conference
• Include the digital medium used

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Answered By: Hacherl Research & Writing Studio Last Updated: Apr 27, 2020     Views: 170995

The APA website provides guidance on citing poster presentations here:  https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/references/examples/conference-presentation-references

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• APA citations and formatting

APA Citation Style, 7th edition: Conferences

• General Style Guidelines
• One Author or Editor
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• Article or Chapter in an Edited Book
• Article in a Reference Book
• Edition other than the First
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About Citing Sources

For each type of source in this guide, both the general form and an example will be provided.

The following format will be used:

In-Text Citation (Paraphrase) - entry that appears in the body of your paper when you express the ideas of a researcher or author using your own words.  For more tips on paraphrasing check out The OWL at Purdue .

In-Text Citation (Quotation) - entry that appears in the body of your paper after a direct quote.

References - entry that appears at the end of your paper.

Information on citing and several of the examples were drawn from the APA Manual (7th ed.) .

Conference Sessions, Papers, and Posters

Note: Conference sessions, papers, and posters all follow the same citation style. The only change is in the brackets following the title of the contribution, denoting the format. Use the description provided by the conference, e.g. [Poster presentation], [Key-note address], [Conference session], etc.

General Format

In-Text Citation (Paraphrase):

(Presenter Surname, Year)

In-Text Citation (Quotation):

References:

Presenter Surname, First Initial. Second Initial. (Year, Month Day-Day). Presentation title [Format]. Conference Name, Location. DOI or URL of website.

Tip: Include the full run of the conference in the date section, not just the day of the presentation.

(Pearson, 2018)

Pearson, J. (2018, September 27-30). Fat talk and its effects on state-based body image in women [Poster presentation]. Australian Psychological Society Congress, Sydney, NSW, Australia. http://bit.ly/2XGSThP 

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Posters and Presentations: Referencing

• Designing your poster
• Presenting your poster
• Referencing
• Using online images

• Referencing your poster Click here to download a PDF version of the Referencing Your Poster document

Referencing on your poster

It is important to gain clarification from your lecturer about their expectations around referencing on your poster.

Read your assessment instructions carefully, including the marking criteria - which may give you tips and hints for how your poster should be presented and referenced.

Make sure to leave enough space to account for your in-text references and reference list on any poster you design. Generally, a reference list is presented in a box on the poster itself, or is the final slide in a Powerpoint presentation.

As always your in-text citations and reference list need to be formatted properly according to the style for your discipline.

• Referencing Guide This guide will help you identify and use the correct referencing style to acknowledge the information sources you use in your writing.

Citing in Orals

Most referencing style guides are designed for written works, so it is difficult to find advice on how to cite your sources when you are speaking in an oral presentation.

Paraphrasing: For the words you speak, if an "in-text" citation would be needed you will need to mention the authors in the sentence: "As Thompson and DePaul mentioned in 2020, children will learn to…"

Quoting: Draw attention to the direct quote with your words: "Wang et al. stated, and I quote, 'little can be done.'" "As Winston Stuart said, 'this is only the first step.'"

Some disciplines (for example, law) have specific conventions for the kind of oral presentation you are delivering. Check with your lecturer to see if there are conventions you should be following.

• Further examples of citing in orals If you need further explanation and examples on citing in orals, look at this quick FAQ.
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Purdue Online Writing Lab Purdue OWL® College of Liberal Arts

APA Classroom Poster

Welcome to the Purdue OWL

This page is brought to you by the OWL at Purdue University. When printing this page, you must include the entire legal notice.

Copyright ©1995-2018 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, reproduced, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed without permission. Use of this site constitutes acceptance of our terms and conditions of fair use.

Note:  This page reflects the latest version of the APA Publication Manual (i.e., APA 7), which released in October 2019. The equivalent resource for the older APA 6 style  can be found here .

The APA poster available via the links below is a printable file you may download and print for use in classrooms and writing centers, or as a personal reference. Please keep in mind that, as a print-quality resource (120 dpi), the poster file is large, so it may take a while to download. You may adjust the print size of the poster from your print menu. Without adjustment, the poster is approximately 27 x 36 inches.

Because the poster is quite large, standard printers cannot print the full-size poster. If you do not have access to a printer that can print large documents, contact a local print shop to print the poster. The Purdue OWL cannot grant requests to print and mail posters.

If you do not have access to a print shop to print the poster, please print the other APA pages available in this section individually, as these are formatted for printing on standard 8.5 x 11 inch paper. Go to resource you would like to print, scroll down to the bottom of the page, and click "Full Resource for Printing."

Also please note that this poster only contains basic APA guidelines. For detailed instructions, please browse the complete OWL APA resources.  Here is a good starting place .

The Purdue OWL APA Classroom Poster was originally developed by Kate Bouwens for the Purdue Professional Writing - Purdue OWL Internship class, English 490, in spring 2009. It was updated to reflect the APA 7 guidelines in winter 2019 by Rachel Atherton.

For your convenience, the poster is now available both as a .jpg and as a .png file. The .jpg file is larger and higher-quality. As such, it may require longer to download.

Purdue OWL APA Classroom Poster (.JPG) 

Purdue OWL APA Classroom Poster (.PNG) 

Poster Design: Tips for Creating a Successful Poster

• Basic Poster Components
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Giving Credit

Citation styles.

• Poster Examples & Critiques
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• Student Scholar Symposium and Faculty Research Showcase

Just like research papers, it is important to give credit to where you find information for your academic posters .  Those sources of information can be books, articles, newspapers, website, personal interviews, etc.... 

Generally speaking, choose the citation style for the discipline that your poster is representing.  For example, if your poster is a science poster, use CSE style.  If your poster is in Education or Social Work, use APA.  If your poster is in History, use Chicago.

If you have any doubts about which citation style to use, consult with your faculty supervisor or the conference organizers.

The following UWF Library guides will help you with your citations:

• APA Citation Style
• Chicago Notes-Bibliography Citation Style
• MLA Citation Style
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Creating a Research Poster

• Citing Images
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In your Works Cited, you'll want to include as much of the information below as you can:

• Artist’s name or username, surname first
• Title of the work, in italics
• Date of creation
• Institution or city in in which the work is located
• Website or database, in italics
• Medium of publication
• Date of access

The citation will typically look like this:

Artist or user name.  Title.  Date the image was created.  Museum, City.  Web.  Database name or title of site.  Date of access.

Chicago Style

In your Bibliography, you'll want to include as much of the information below as you can:

• Artist's name or username
• Title or brief description
• The word "image" in paranetheses
• URL of website where the image was originally shown, in brackets

Artist's name.  Title or description (image).  Available from: Website or database.  <URL>.  (Accessed on date). 

This free online bibliography and citation maker will create citations for you in MLA, APA, and Chicago/Turabian styles. Click on the "All 58 options" tab and choose digital image. It will then ask you to fill out as much information as you know, and will format your citation for you. 

Below are examples of citations, done in MLA and Chicago style, respectively.

Ernst, Max.  L'Ange du Foyer.  (1937).  Private Collection.  Web.  Google Image Search.  April 1 2010.

Jean Droit. Debout dans la tranchee que l'aurore eclaire, le soldat reve a la victoire et a son foyer (Image).  Available from: Illinois Harvest.  <http://images.library.uiuc.edu:8081/u?/wwposters,0>.  (April 1 2010).

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ESOL 0373 - Byrom - Spring 2024: Home

Use this page to follow along during the class presentation on April 4, 2024

Citation Help

The following tools from ACC Library Services offer explanations and help about citations -- why we cite sources and how to cite sources:

Academic Honesty/Plagiarism

A brief tutorial about why we cite sources, and the basics of how to do it

Evaluating Information

A brief tutorial on how to evaluate information sources

MLA Documentation - a page showing how to construct MLA citations, with examples showing how to cite sources in the text of a paper

Citing Sources & Plagiarism - a more in-depth guide explaining the concepts of citation and plagiarism, and showing how to use database tools for citation

Database Example - MasterFILE Complete

• MasterFILE Complete This link opens in a new window more... less... Articles on most topics including business, health, education, science, and social issues.

Some hints for searching:

Database Example- Gale in Context: Opposing Viewpoints

• Gale in Context: Opposing Viewpoints This link opens in a new window more... less... Articles with pro and con viewpoints from reference works, magazines, academic journals, newspapers, primary source documents, and government and organizational statistics.

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• Acute proximal weakness and paraesthesiae
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• http://orcid.org/0000-0001-5643-7971 Lucia Maure Blesa 1 ,
• http://orcid.org/0000-0002-4165-5551 Daniel López de Mota Sánchez 1 ,
• http://orcid.org/0009-0001-4150-4665 Olalla Álvarez-Toledo 2 ,
• Elena Montes Fernandez 3 ,
• Montserrat Morales Conejo 4 ,
• http://orcid.org/0009-0007-7763-9434 Teresa Díaz-Cardona 5 ,
• http://orcid.org/0000-0002-5652-516X Laura Olivie Garcia 1 ,
• http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1108-2318 Ivana Zamarbide Capdepon 1 ,
• http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1625-055X Antonio Herranz Bárcenas 1
• 1 Neurology , Hospital Universitario Fundacion Jimenez Diaz , Madrid , Spain
• 2 Internal Medicine Department , Hospital FREMAP Majadahonda , Madrid , Spain
• 3 Neurophysiology Department , Hospital Universitario Fundación Jiménez Díaz , Madrid , Spain
• 4 Internal Medicine Department , Hospital Universitario Doce de Octubre , Madrid , Comunidad de Madrid , Spain
• 5 Rehabilitation Centre , Hospital FREMAP Majadahona , Madrid , Spain
• Correspondence to Dr Lucia Maure Blesa, Neurology, Fundación Jiménez Díaz, Madrid, Spain; luciamaure.lm{at}gmail.com

https://doi.org/10.1136/pn-2023-004082

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• GUILLAIN-BARRE SYNDROME

Case presentation

A man in his mid-50s was admitted to hospital after falling and fracturing his L2 and L4 vertebrae. He had a history of intestinal occlusion 20 years before that had resolved with conservative treatment in his country of origin, Peru. CT scan of head, abdomen and pelvis were normal.

He promptly became haemodynamically unstable, developing hypotension (blood pressure 70/40 mm Hg), tachycardia (pulse 134 bpm) and fever (38.7°C), requiring intensive care unit admission for 3 days. An exploratory laparotomy found nothing pathological. His hyponatraemia (119 mmol/L) continued.

Two weeks after discharge from the intensive care unit, he developed numbness of his proximal lower limbs and trunk, progressing after 2 days to proximal weakness of all four limbs, with loss of deep tendon reflexes. He had no sphincter disturbance, facial numbness or weakness, no diplopia or other cranial nerves abnormalities. There was no fever or other features of infection. MR scan of brain showed no acute intracranial pathology and MR scan of spine showed only a fracture of the upper plate of L2.

He was admitted into the neurology department. On examination, he had a tachycardia (100 bpm). There was proximal muscle weakness, with moderate resistance in both arms and only movement against gravity in both legs. Reflexes were reduced in the upper limbs but absent in the lower limbs. He had hypoaesthesia of the trunk and proximal limbs, but no sensory level.

Questions for consideration

What are the most likely diagnoses and what tests would you perform to confirm it?

Diagnostic assessment

With his progressive symptoms of ascending sensory and motor problems affecting the limbs and trunk, with lost tendon reflexes, normal neuroimaging, we suspected Guillain-Barré syndrome.

Table 1 shows his relevant investigation results.

• View inline

Table results

Given the EMG findings and the mild cerebrospinal fluid albuminocytological dissociation, we suspected an axonal form of Guillain-Barré syndrome, and planned his first plasma exchange session.

Only 48 hours after admission into neurology, he developed significant haemodynamic instability (tachycardia 120 bpm and hypotension of 90/60 mmHg) with respiratory distress manifesting as excessive inspiratory muscle use, marked paradoxical breathing and inability to handle secretions or to cough. He required orotracheal intubation and readmission to the intensive care unit. His motor symptoms worsened slowly such that his proximal muscles showed only visible contraction, his distal arms moved against gravity and his distal legs moved against moderate resistance. The sensory alteration and global areflexia persisted.

There was no clinical improvement despite four sessions of plasma exchange on alternate days.

Given his clinical evolution and lack of treatment response, what other diagnosis and/or clinical management would you consider?

Differential diagnosis

Given the lack of improvement and atypical features including proximal sensorimotor distribution and prominent dysautonomia, we considered other causes of weakness after discharge from the intensive care unit 1 and paralytic Guillain-Barré syndrome mimics 2 3 :

Other causes of acute neuropathy:

Thiamine deficiency : although typically with a distal impairment, and rarely causing respiratory muscle weakness (and despite no history of chronic alcohol use), this was possible given the perioperative fasting before clinical onset.

Vasculitic neuropathy : this typically presents with multifocal involvement and focal pain in the area of weakness, and so seemed unlikely. Nevertheless, an autoimmunity panel and chest X-ray were arranged and were normal. Nerve biopsy was considered but postponed.

Malignancy or oncological treatments such as immunotherapy : there was no history of these.

Autoimmune nodopathies , particularly the IgG1 or IgG3 pan-neurofascinopathy, were considered possible.

Toxic and metabolic causes. After excluding more prevalent causes, we considered mainly acute intermittent porphyria and toxic causes such as lead 4 and arsenic poisoning, especially given the prior gastrointestinal symptoms and multisystem involvement.

Refsum’s disease is rare and typically accompanied by cerebellar ataxia and retinitis pigmentosa but was also considered.

Other non-neuropathic causes: traumatic and vascular myelopathy were excluded out by MR scan and MR angiogram of spine. Acute anterior horn cell infections, neuromuscular-plaque disorders and muscle disorders seemed unlikely with this clinical presentation and laboratory results.

Given the prior symptoms of prodromal confusion, abdominal pain, dysautonomia with persistent hyponatraemia, predominant proximal motor involvement and the ‘bathing-suit’ distribution of sensory symptoms, we suspected acute intermittent porphyria.

Question for consideration

When should neurologists suspect acute intermittent porphyria?

How would you diagnose and treat this patient?

Treatment and follow up

Acute intermittent porphyria is a disorder of haem synthesis caused by an inherited partial deficiency in the third enzyme in this synthetic pathway, porphobilinogen deaminase, 5 also known as hydroxymethylbilane synthase ( figure 1 ). This autosomal dominant condition leads to the accumulation of certain precursor chemicals including porphobilinogen and delta-aminolevulinic acid (ALA), presumed to be neurotoxic. Acute attacks can be triggered by inducing ALA synthase-1, the rate-limiting enzyme step, thus causing hepatic overproduction of porphyrin precursors. The pathogenesis is probably mediated through both the neurotoxicity of these precursors and the neuronal reduction in haem proteins.

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Biochemical synthesis pathway of haem in the liver. A series of eight enzymatic processes lead to the intracellular haem synthesis. A main enzyme is ALA synthase-1, whose induction by different drugs or feeding states may lead to overproduction of haem precursors; in acute intermittent porphyria, given the defect in PBGD enzymatic function, these haem precursors may accumulate and cause a clinical attack. ALA synthase-1 is partly inhibited by negative feedback (in green) regulation by haem, and is the therapeutic target of girosivan (in green). Enzymes are in blue, haem precursors in black, AIP in red. AIP, acute intermittent porphyria; ALA, aminolevulinic acid. Created by L Maure with Biorender.com.

Inducers of ALA synthase-1 include certain medications 6 particularly those that induce the cytochrome P-450 enzyme system. Inducing these enzymes depletes haem by increasing its breakdown, diverting its precursors to enzyme synthesis and increasing metabolic demands for haem; the haem depletion in turn induces ALA synthase-1. Other common inducers are alcohol, hormonal imbalance (progesterone), other causes of iron deficiency and dieting, including most hypocaloric nutrition given at regular hospitalisation or, as in this case, peri-operative fasting.

The porphyrias comprise a group of eight disorders of haem synthesis ( figure 1 ), 5 each resulting from a specific enzyme defect in the biosynthesis pathway, and leading to the accumulation of haem intermediates. 7 Acute intermittent porphyria is the acute type most often encountered in clinical practice. While most commonly affecting young woman (80%–90%), it can males and females of all ages.

Neurological symptoms often involve direct central nervous system injury, manifesting as seizures (20%), encephalopathy or neuropsychiatric features, but can also present as a motor-predominant axonal neuropathy. 8 Acute intermittent porphyria should be considered in people with atypical Guillain-Barré syndrome.

Porphyric neuropathy predominantly affects the proximal limbs, especially the upper limbs and is often asymmetrical. Typically, there is associated pain or paraesthesia in a bathing suit distribution involving the torso and proximal limbs. Patients may have a history of abdominal disturbances with non-informative diagnostic workups, prodromal anxiety, confusion or psychosis, prominent dysautonomia and hyponatraemia. All these features again stress the importance of considering porphyria among the differential diagnosis of Guillain-Barré syndrome ( table 2 ).

Differences and similarities between Guillain-Barré syndrome and acute intermittent porphyria

Once clinically suspected, as in this case, acute intermittent porphyria is established from the presentation with a compatible acute clinical syndrome and elevated excretion of urinary porphobilinogen during the attack:

The Hoesch test is a qualitative test that is positive at urinary porphobilinogen concentrations of >9 mg/L. The test requires mixing Ehrlich’s reagent (20 g of p-dimethylaminobenzaldehyde in 1000 mL of 6N hydrochloric acid) with 2–3 drops of the patient’s urine. It is important to protect it from light as porphobilinogen exposed to light can oxidise into porphobilin, giving the urine a darker aspect. The reaction between Ehrlich’s reagent in acid solution and porphobilinogen forms a pink colour ( figure 2 ).

Positive Hoesch test (described in section 4). The pink colour of the urine is formed by the reaction of porphobilinogen and Erlich’s reagent.

Another recommended diagnostic tool is a quantified measure of porphobilinogen . Porphobilinogen increases substantially during an attack to 10–150 times the upper limit of the normal (or 20–300 mg per gram of creatine—normal 0–2). The test can be performed in a random sample with the result normalised per gram of urine creatine; a 24-hour urine collection is not required. Patients with increased urinary porphobilinogen then require further investigations. Note however, that porphobilinogen concentrations can normalise between attacks.

This patient’s porphyrins in a 24 hours urine sample, showed an elevated coproporphyrin 946.49 µg/24 hours (normal ≤150), uroporphyrin 426.60 µg/24 hours (normal ≤50). A spot urine sample showed a positive Hoesch test 9 ( figure 2 ), thus establishing elevated pathogenic concentrations of porphobilinogen in urine.

He had normal blood concentrations of fractionated porphyrins, protoporphyrin IX as well as faecal coproporphyrins, uroporphyrins and protoporphyrins. We excluded lead intoxication, 4 even though this was unlikely.

A suspected acute attack 10 should be treated immediately to prevent the hepatic overproduction of haem precursors. This includes infusing haem preparations, eliminating precipitating factors, high loading with carbohydrate—since dextrose inhibits ALA synthase-1—and giving supportive treatment. Also recommended are (if needed) antiemetics, analgesics and antiseizure medication (levetiracetam or gabapentin). There are promising results in preventing attacks and reducing the frequency and severity of symptoms using gyvosiran, a small interfering RNA therapy that specifically targets ALA synthase-1. 11 We started intravenous glucose and haemin infusions (4 mg/kg for 4 days), and stopped any potential precipitants.

The patient’s respiratory and dysautonomic symptoms gradually improved, and he was discharged from intensive care 10 days after starting specific treatment. His sensory symptoms quickly recovered; however, his motor improvement was slower, with persisting tetraparesis a month after discharge from the intensive care unit. He was admitted into a rehabilitation centre and re-evaluated 3 months later, at which time he could walk without assistance, but with residual upper limb weakness. With continued carbohydrate loading and avoiding porphyrinogenic triggers, he has had no new attacks since.

Acute intermittent porphyria has a variable prognosis. Although the weakness completely resolves in most patients over about 12 months, some do not fully recover. Potential issues (with screening implications) include hypertension, renal insufficiency, chronic pain, depression and an increased risk of hepatocellular carcinoma. It is also important to consider genetic assessment of family members at risk.

A genetic test finally confirmed that this patient had a known pathogenic heterozygotic mutation in hydroxymethylbilane synthase, also known as porphobilinogen deaminase ( figure 2 ), the c.331>A variant, causing his acute intermittent porphyria.

Some types of porphyria may have a higher prevalence than is generally assumed, and neurologists need to maintain a high index of clinical suspicion to diagnose this often treatable disease.

Common errors that might lead clinicians to miss the diagnosis include:

Ignoring clues in the history that may be key clinical information, such as previous gastrointestinal symptoms.

Dismissing symptoms at onset such as mild confusion or pain, and wrongly attributing this to medication side effects or psychosomatic causes.

Overlooking possible triggers before neurological symptom onset.

In this case, two additional unusual features delayed our diagnosis in the first few days, namely the patient’s age and sex, serving as a reminder that porphyria is not exclusive to one demographic. Another unusual feature was the prominent hypotension, given that acute intermittent porphyria more often leads to hypertension. 5

The diagnosis of acute intermittent porphyria is challenging and clinicians must be aware of its varied clinical presentations to avoid its fatal consequences. The prognosis correlates with the time to diagnosis of an acute attack and time to starting treatment. Clinicians clearly need to maintain a high threshold of suspicion, and to include porphyric neuropathy in the differential diagnosis of Guillain-Barré syndrome.

Acute Intermittent porphyria is a rare but treatable cause of predominantly axonal neuropathy; its diagnosis requires a high index of clinical suspicion.

In an acute neuropathy, key clinical information that might suggest acute intermittent porphyria includes abdominal pain (previous or present), mild-to-severe central nervous system involvement including altered affect, confusion and/or seizures, and a predominantly proximal motor neuropathy with bathing-suit distribution of sensory change.

Acute intermittent porphyria is confirmed with a quantified analysis of porphobilinogen, and managed by avoiding precipitant medications and starting intravenous haem as soon as possible.

Further reading

Bissell DM, Anderson KE, Bonkovsky HL. Porphyria. N Engl J Med. 31 de agosto de 2017;377(9):862–72.

Kazamel M, Desnick RJ, Quigley JG. Porphyric Neuropathy: Pathophysiology, Diagnosis, and Updated Management. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep. 7 de octubre de 2020;20(12):56. 9.

Gandhi Mehta RK, Caress JB, Rudnick SR, Bonkovsky HL. Porphyric neuropathy. Muscle Nerve. agosto de 2021;64(2):140–52.

Data availability statement

All data relevant to the study are included in the article or uploaded as supplementary information.

Ethics statements

Patient consent for publication.

Consent obtained directly from patient(s).

Ethics approval

Not applicable.

• Wijdicks EFM ,
• Kravale I , et al
• Bissell DM ,
• Anderson KE ,
• Bonkovsky HL
• ↵ The drug database [ Internet ]. 2024 Available : https://www.drugs-porphyria.org/
• Kazamel M ,
• Desnick RJ ,
• Gandhi Mehta RK ,
• Caress JB ,
• Rudnick SR , et al
• Frykholm BC ,
• Pischik E ,
• Kauppinen R
• Balwani M ,
• Ventura P , et al

Contributors LMB attended clinically the patient, collected the data, wrote and edited the draft. DLdMS attended clinically to the patient and helped editing the draft. OA-T, EMF, TD-C, LOG, IZ helped collecting the data and editing the draft. MMC helped in genetic diagnosis. AH was in charge of the patient during hospitalisation and helped collect data and edit the draft.

Funding The authors have not declared a specific grant for this research from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

Competing interests None declared.

Provenance and peer review Not commissioned; externally peer reviewed by Jon Walters, Swansea, UK.

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• ACP Best Practice No 165 A C Deacon et al., Journal of Clinical Pathology, 2001
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