global atmospheric circulation homework

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Global Atmospheric Circulation is the movement of air around the planet. It explains how thermal energy and storm systems move over the Earth's surface.

Without the Earth’s rotation, tilt relative to the sun, and surface water, global circulation would be simple. With the Sun directly over the equator, the ground and atmosphere there would heat up more than the rest of the planet. This region would become very hot, with hot air rising into the upper atmosphere. This would create a constant belt of low pressure around the equator. That warm air would then move directly north toward the poles, where it would become very cold and sink, creating a large area of high pressure. The temperature and pressure difference would return the now-cold air south to the equator (above right), creating a simple global circulation.

 Learning Lesson:   Toasty Wind

However, the Earth’s tilt means that the Sun is not always directly over the equator, and thus the exact location where the most solar radiation is received  is constantly shifting. The Earth’s rotation results in an easterly-movement of air, called the Coriolis effect (this is described in more detail in the next section, The Jet Stream ). The uneven distribution of water and land around the globe further breaks up the uniformity of air movement, with larger amounts of land in the Northern Hemisphere creating semi-permanent highs and lows. As a result, the actual global pattern of atmospheric circulation is much more complicated than a direct flow between the equator and poles.

Instead of one large circulation in each hemisphere, there are three circulations in each:

• Hadley cell – At low latitudes, air moves toward the equator, where it is heated and rises vertically. In the upper atmosphere, air moves poleward. This forms a convection cell that covers tropical and sub-tropical climates. This cell is named for English physicist and meteorologist George Hadley, who proposed the single circulation for each hemisphere in 1735.
• Ferrel cell – In this mid-latitude atmospheric circulation cell, air near the surface flows poleward and eastward, while air higher in the atmosphere moves equatorward and westward. Proposed by William Ferrell in 1856, it was the first to account for westerly winds between 35° and 60° N/S, which are caused by friction, not heat differences at the equator and poles.
• Polar cell – At higher latitudes, air rises and travels toward the poles. Once over the poles, the air sinks, forming areas of high atmospheric pressure called the polar highs. At the surface, air moves outward from the polar highs, creating east-blowing surface winds called polar easterlies. It is the smallest and weakest of the cells.

These cells describe circulations in both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres, although the difference in landmasses result in varying degrees of uniformity.

Between each of these circulation cells are surface-level bands of high and low pressure. The high pressure band is located at about 30° N/S latitude and at each pole. Low pressure bands are found at the equator and 50°-60° N/S.

Usually, fair and dry/hot weather is associated with high pressure, while rainy and stormy weather is associated with low pressure. You can see the results of these circulations on a globe. Look at the number of deserts located along the 30°N/S latitude around the world (including the American Southwest and Mexico, northern Africa, and Australia). Then look at the region between 50°and 60° N/S latitude (including Canada, Alaska, the British Isles, and Russia in the Northern Hemisphere). These latitudes, especially on the west coast of continents, tend to have more precipitation due to more storms moving around the Earth.

Understanding Global Change

Discover why the climate and environment changes, your place in the Earth system, and paths to a resilient future.

Atmospheric circulation

From the gentlest of breezes to the raging winds of a category five hurricane, the atmosphere is constantly in motion. The energy for all that movement comes from sunlight that is absorbed and re-radiated by the surface of the Earth and the rotation of the Earth. Atmospheric circulation, along with ocean circulation , distributes heat across the entire surface of the Earth, bringing us our daily weather and shaping regional climates.

On this page:

What is atmospheric circulation, earth system models about atmospheric circulation, how human activities influence atmospheric circulation, explore the earth system, investigate, links to learn more.

For the classroom:

• Teaching Resources

Global Change Infographic

Atmospheric circulation occurs in the atmosphere, and is an essential part of How the Earth System Works.  Click the image on the left to open the Understanding Global Change Infographic . Locate the atmospheric circulation icon and identify other Earth system processes and phenomena that cause changes to, or are affected by, atmospheric circulation.

Illustration adapted from weather.gov global circulations and jet stream pages

Solar radiation that reaches the Earth passes through the atmosphere and is either absorbed or reflected by the atmosphere and Earth’s surface. Most of this absorption happens on Earth’s surfaces, which increases the temperature of both land and water. A small amount of heat in the first few centimeters of the atmosphere is transferred from the surface by conduction, the process of molecules colliding and transferring energy. Because air molecules are farther apart than they are in liquids or solids, they do not collide as frequently as in liquids and solids, and air is a poor conductor of heat. Most heat is transferred in the atmosphere by radiation and convection.

Sunlight absorbed by Earth’s surfaces is re-radiated as heat, warming the atmosphere from the bottom up. This heat is absorbed and re-radiated by greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, resulting in the greenhouse effect . Warmed air expands and becomes less dense than cool air, so warmed air near the surface of the Earth rises up. Cooler air from above sinks, and air moves horizontally to replace the rising warm air, which we experience as wind over the surface of the Earth. This transfer of heat because of density differences in air is called convection. The major patterns in atmospheric circulation around the tropics (from around latitudes of 30 o N to 30 o S) are the result of convection that occurs because areas around the equator receive more sunlight than higher latitudes (see absorption and reflection of sunlight ). These air masses, called the Hadley Cell,  rise near the equator and travel north and south, transporting heat and water towards the poles.

Patterns of air movement are further complicated because of Earth’s spin. Air moving from the equator towards the poles does not travel in a straight line, but is deflected because of the Coriolis effect (to learn more see links below), adding to the complexity of atmospheric circulation patterns. Additionally, the uneven distribution of continents and oceans and the presence of mountain ranges make the details of atmospheric circulation patterns far more complicated than the three cell model (shown above).

Variation in the amount of solar radiation absorbed, and the amount of heat re-radiating from Earth’s land and oceans results in temperature differences in air over different types of terrain. For example, sea breezes occur because land heats up and cools down faster than water , so that the land is warmer during the day and breezes flow from the sea inland, but the ocean is warmer than land at night, so the wind blows from land to sea.

Atmospheric circulation transports heat over the surface of the Earth that affects the water cycle, including the formation of clouds and precipitation events. The movement of air masses brings us our daily weather, and long-term patterns in circulation determine regional climate and ecosystems. Surface ocean currents patterns result from wind pushing on the surface of the water, and these currents also transport heat across the globe. Changes in the amount and distribution of heat in the Earth system due to an enhanced greenhouse effect from human activities is altering atmospheric and ocean circulation patterns that, in turn, alter environments around the globe.

This model shows some of the cause and effect relationships among components of the Earth system related to atmospheric circulation. While this model does not depict the circulation patterns that results from uneven heating of the Earth’s surface (as shown above), it summarizes the key concepts involved in explaining this process. Hover over the icons for brief explanations; click on the icons to learn more about each topic. Download the Earth system models on this page.

This model shows some of the additional phenomena that alter atmospheric circulation patterns over millions of years, including the distribution of continents and oceans and mountain building. Changes in atmospheric circulation also transports heat that drives the water cycle, including cloud formation and precipitation patterns. In turn, the energy absorbed and released in the water cycle also contributes to atmospheric circulation. While this model does not depict the uneven heating of the Earth’s surface that results in atmospheric circulation, it summarizes the key concepts involved in explaining this global process.

The Earth system model below includes some of the ways that human activities affect atmospheric circulation by adding greenhouse gases to the atmosphere and increasing Earth’s average temperature. Because the Arctic region is especially sensitive to overall warming compared to lower latitudes, the temperature gradient between the mid-latitudes and the pole is being reduced. This increases waviness in the north polar jet stream. As the atmosphere continues to warm, scientists expect to see much deeper north-south waves, which will cause changes in the jet stream. This could result in  weather , both stormy and clear, persisting for much longer than would be considered normal over any particular area. Hover over or click on the icons to learn more about these human causes of change and how they influence atmospheric circulation.

Click the icons and bolded terms (e.g. re-radiation of heat, airborne particles, etc.) on this page to learn more about these process and phenomena. Alternatively, explore the  Understanding Global Change Infographic  and find new topics that are of interest and/or locally relevant to you.

To learn more about teaching the absorption and reflection of sunlight, visit the  Teaching Resources  page.

Learn more in these real-world examples, and challenge yourself to  construct a model  that explains the Earth system relationships.

• Ozone depletion: Uncovering the hidden hazard of hairspray
• National Weather Service: Global Circulations
• National Weather Service: The Jet Stream
• National Center for Atmospheric Research: Conduction
• National Center for Atmospheric Research: A Global Look at Moving Air: Atmospheric Circulation
• NOAA: Weather Systems and Patterns
• NOAA: What are sea breezes and why do they occur?

This page has three main parts.

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• Optional Activity: Circulation in the atmosphere - a map and cross section based jigsaw

Philip Resor (Wesleyan University) Allison Dunn (Worcester State University) Bob MacKay (Clark College)

Learn more »

Science and Engineering Practices

Constructing Explanations and Designing Solutions: Apply scientific ideas, principles, and/or evidence to construct, revise and/or use an explanation for real- world phenomena, examples, or events. MS-P6.4:

Analyzing and Interpreting Data: Use graphical displays (e.g., maps, charts, graphs, and/or tables) of large data sets to identify temporal and spatial relationships. MS-P4.2:

Analyzing and Interpreting Data: Analyze and interpret data to provide evidence for phenomena. MS-P4.4:

Cross Cutting Concepts

Patterns: Graphs, charts, and images can be used to identify patterns in data. MS-C1.4:

Patterns: Patterns can be used to identify cause and effect relationships. MS-C1.3:

Patterns: Different patterns may be observed at each of the scales at which a system is studied and can provide evidence for causality in explanations of phenomena HS-C1.1:

Energy and Matter: Energy drives the cycling of matter within and between systems. HS-C5.4:

Disciplinary Core Ideas

Weather and Climate : Weather and climate are influenced by interactions involving sunlight, the ocean, the atmosphere, ice, landforms, and living things. These interactions vary with latitude, altitude, and local and regional geography, all of which can affect oceanic and atmospheric flow patterns. MS-ESS2.D1:

Performance Expectations

Earth's Systems: Develop a model based on evidence of Earth’s interior to describe the cycling of matter by thermal convection. HS-ESS2-3:

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In this optional activity, students analyze maps of wind patterns from three levels in the atmosphere in order to infer global atmospheric circulation patterns and their role in balancing the radiation budget they established in Units 4 and 5. The main activity is a jigsaw in which students explore a single map on their own prior to class, confer with their classmates in specialty groups, and then synthesize atmospheric circulation for an assigned latitudinal zone. In these synthesis groups, students create maps and cross-section concept sketches to use in a full class discussion at the end of class. A follow-up assignment asks students to infer the relationship between global atmospheric circulation patterns and precipitation and then predict possible consequences of changes in these patterns due to global warming.

Expand for more detail and links to related resources

Activity Classification and Connections to Related Resources Collapse

Grade level, readiness for online use.

Learning Goals

By the end of the unit, students will be able to:

• Explain how atmospheric circulation acts to balance the global heat budget.
• Analyze maps of global wind fields to infer patterns of atmospheric circulation.
• Attribute global circulation patterns to variations in the global heat budget observed in Units 4 and 5 (e.g. latitudinal gradients, land/sea differences).
• Predict how changes in the atmospheric circulation system might impact human society.

Context for Use

This optional activity introduces students to patterns of atmospheric circulation through a student-centered data-rich activity. This activity is built around a map and cross-section based jigsaw where students explore how radiation imbalances discovered in Units 4 and 5 are redistributed (balanced) through atmospheric circulation.

Students are asked to make their initial map interpretations prior to class in order to facilitate completion of the remainder of the activity in a 50-minute period.

The activity could be completed by classes of almost all sizes. For classes with fewer than 9 students you may wish to focus on a single hemisphere and/or group latitudinal bands when forming synthesis groups. For larger classes there will be multiple specialty groups interpreting the same data maps and multiple groups interpreting the same latitudinal bands.

This unit could be used in combination with Units 4 and 5 , replacing Part 2 of Unit 5 and adding one additional 50-minute period, or as a stand-alone activity as long as students are familiar with the Earth's energy balance.

Description and Teaching Materials

Introduction

In this activity students analyze data from the National Centers for Environmental Prediction - National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NCEP-NCAR) Reanalysis project. These data are presented in a series of maps:

• NCEP_NCAR January atmosphere maps (Acrobat (PDF) 4.1MB Jul15 15)

A student handout helps guide the students through the activity:

• Student handout atmosphere jigsaw (Microsoft Word 2007 (.docx) 137kB Nov18 16) , also available as a PDF (Acrobat (PDF) 119kB Nov18 16)

The activity is introduced with a class discussion of Earth's radiation balance, regional climate, and their impact on human activities.

In Part 1, students work in small specialty groups to interpret a map of the wind field from one altitude (pressure level) of the atmosphere. Students are asked to interpret the data in the context of the material they have learned in the first five units of Earth's Thermostat. They are asked to create a concept sketch in map form using the Atmosphere jigsaw specialty group basemap (Microsoft Word 2007 (.docx) 1.1MB Nov18 16) (also available as a PDF (Acrobat (PDF) 1.1MB Nov18 16) ).

In Part 2, students regroup into synthesis groups where they first explain their specialty map to the group and then work together to create concept sketches that integrate a map and cross section ( Atmosphere jigsaw synthesis group base (Microsoft Word 2007 (.docx) 1.1MB Nov18 16) , also available as a PDF (Acrobat (PDF) 1.2MB Nov18 16) ) to illustrate atmospheric circulation and its relationship to the global radiation budget for their assigned latitudinal zone.

The associated Slides for optional activity (PowerPoint 2007 (.pptx) 21.1MB Nov8 16) can be used to introduce the activity, guide the students through each task, and as an outline for a final in-class discussion. Specific slides for each of these tasks are listed in the detailed description below.

In class you will need

• Chalkboard or whiteboard for final discussion
• Copies of Student handout atmosphere jigsaw (Microsoft Word 2007 (.docx) 137kB Nov18 16) (or PDF (Acrobat (PDF) 119kB Nov18 16) ), Atmosphere jigsaw specialty group basemap (Microsoft Word 2007 (.docx) 1.1MB Nov18 16) (or PDF (Acrobat (PDF) 1.1MB Nov18 16) ), and Atmosphere jigsaw synthesis group base (Microsoft Word 2007 (.docx) 1.1MB Nov18 16) (or PDF (Acrobat (PDF) 1.2MB Nov18 16) ) for each student.
• Copies of NCEP_NCAR January atmosphere maps (Acrobat (PDF) 4.1MB Jul15 15) ] for each synthesis group. Ideally, maps should be printed at 11"x17" size on high-quality paper so that students can clearly see the data and infer patterns.
• Slides for optional activity (PowerPoint 2007 (.pptx) 21.1MB Nov8 16) to introduce, guide, and synthesize the activity.

Prior to class

Introduction (15 minutes total)

15 minutes: Slides 1-12 Slides for optional activity (PowerPoint 2007 (.pptx) 21.1MB Nov8 16) provide an introduction to the activity including a think-pair-share activity comparing radiation balance to regional climate, learning objectives for the activity, review slides of the global energy balance, atmospheric layers, and heat transfer, and an introduction to atmospheric data collection and analysis. This introduction should occur during the class period prior to completing the jigsaw activity (for instructors teaching this activity in conjunction with Units 4 and 5 of Earth's Thermostat module this introduction can replace Part 2 of Unit 5).

Ask students to review and analyze their altitude group map prior to class in order to facilitate completion of the activity in a 50-minute period. Questions 1-4 in the student handout (specialty task 1, page 2 of the Student handout atmosphere jigsaw (Microsoft Word 2007 (.docx) 137kB Nov18 16) or Student handout atmosphere jigsaw - pdf (Acrobat (PDF) 119kB Nov18 16) ) help guide the students as they independently interpret their specialty group map. Students can begin this work in class if time permits.

In order to provide students with adequate time for preparation the following items should be completed at least one class meeting prior to the in-class activity.

• Each student will need to be assigned to an altitude (surface horizontal wind, 5.5 km vertical wind, 12 km horizontal wind) and latitude group (0-30 o N , 0-30 o S , 30-60 o S). Perhaps the easiest way to do this is by printing slips of paper with the assignments to handout in class along with the assignment materials. Example student assignments (Excel 2007 (.xlsx) 38kB Nov18 16) provides and example for a class of 18 students. Altitude groups of 2-4 students are optimal so that all group members can see the map and be involved in the discussion. For larger classes create multiple groups of each altitude. Divide the students as equally as possible between the altitudes. Latitude groups should ideally consist of three members, one from each altitude assigned to a specific latitude zone and hemisphere. If your class numbers do not permit this you will have to make some groups with duplicate specialists. For small classes you will probably want to assign all students to a single hemisphere or have them look at both hemispheres. You may need to do a little shuffling of assignments before you start if some students are absent. Data from latitude 30-60 o N are used as an illustration in class so that this band is omitted from the student group assignments. The polar regions are also omitted as polar circulation is difficult to discern from the data, but can be discussed after completion of the activity.
• Each student will also need a copy of Student handout atmosphere jigsaw (Microsoft Word 2007 (.docx) 137kB Nov18 16) (or PDF (Acrobat (PDF) 119kB Nov18 16) ), Atmosphere jigsaw specialty group basemap (Microsoft Word 2007 (.docx) 1.1MB Nov18 16) (or PDF (Acrobat (PDF) 1.1MB Nov18 16) ) and their assigned map from NCEP_NCAR January atmosphere maps (Acrobat (PDF) 4.1MB Jul15 15) . Maps can be provided either in printed or through access to the digital files.

Lay out maps with group names before class. Provide one copy of the map for each student so that they can take it with them when they re-form into Latitudinal synthesis groups. As students enter the classroom have them sit at the appropriate location for their altitude group. For larger classes you will probably want to have some help with this!

Part 1: Altitude Specialty Groups (15 minutes total)

15 minutes: Students meet with their altitude groups and compare their answers to the guiding questions (specialty task 1, page 2 of the Student handout atmosphere jigsaw (Microsoft Word 2007 (.docx) 137kB Nov18 16) or PDF (Acrobat (PDF) 119kB Nov18 16) ). The questions on the handout are designed to guide them as they look for patterns and infer processes in their data. Student specialty groups should then work together to create a concept sketch that on the Atmosphere jigsaw specialty group basemap (Microsoft Word 2007 (.docx) 1.1MB Nov18 16) that illustrates the major patterns they see in their data and how these patterns might relate to the global heat budget and heat transport (specialty task 2, page 3 of the Student handout atmosphere jigsaw (Microsoft Word 2007 (.docx) 137kB Nov18 16) or PDF (Acrobat (PDF) 119kB Nov18 16) ). The instructor (and TAs for larger classes) should walk the room at this time to check on group progress, answer questions, and encourage students to look closely and think deeply about their data. By the end of this time all groups should be prepared to discuss their data with their classmates in latitudinal synthesis groups. See Slides for optional activity (PowerPoint 2007 (.pptx) 21.1MB Nov8 16) Slide 12.

Part 2: Atmospheric Circulation Synthesis (35 minutes total)

5 minutes: Students rearrange into their latitudinal synthesis groups and briefly present their altitude group map and concept sketch to the other members of their group (synthesis task 1, page 4 of the Student handout atmosphere jigsaw (Microsoft Word 2007 (.docx) 137kB Nov18 16) or PDF (Acrobat (PDF) 119kB Nov18 16) ). Slides for optional activity (PowerPoint 2007 (.pptx) 21.1MB Nov8 16) Slide 13.

5 minutes: Slides 14-16 introduce the details of synthesizing the data in map and cross section view. Slides 15 and 16 walk through the interpretation and cross-section plotting for one latitude band (30-60 o N). The slide notes include a number of leading questions that the instructor may use to guide the students through the process.

15 minutes: Students work with their groups to synthesize their specialty group observations into a concept sketch on Atmosphere jigsaw synthesis group base (Microsoft Word 2007 (.docx) 1.1MB Nov18 16) or PDF (Acrobat (PDF) 1.2MB Nov18 16) that illustrates atmospheric circulation and associated heat transport in their assigned latitudinal zone (synthesis task 2, page 4 of the Student handout atmosphere jigsaw (Microsoft Word 2007 (.docx) 137kB Nov18 16) or PDF (Acrobat (PDF) 119kB Nov18 16) ).

Slides for optional activity (PowerPoint 2007 (.pptx) 21.1MB Nov8 16) Slide 17 . The instructor (and TAs for larger classes) should walk the room at this time to check on group progress, answer questions, and encourage students to look closely and think deeply about their data. By the end of this time all groups should be prepared to discuss their data and interpretation with the whole class.

10 minutes: Summary discussion. The instructor will guide a whole-class discussion of Earth's atmospheric circulation calling on student specialty groups to illustrate the various points.

Slides for optional activity (PowerPoint 2007 (.pptx) 21.1MB Nov8 16)

• Slides 18-29 summarize the data and idealized circulation patterns for each of the suggested latitudinal bands (2 slides). Depending on class size you may not use all of the slide pairs. The first slide for each latitudinal band, labeled discussion, presents the data. You can call on student groups while showing this slide and have them explain their observations and interpretations. If you have a document camera or have students work on overheads they can present their concept sketches directly. If not, you may want to have students contribute toward a synthesis sketch on the chalk board that includes a sketch map and cross section.
• Slides 30-31 provide a synthesis, including zonal averages for altitudinal wind components.
• Slide 32 illustrates the Coriolis effect .

For thought

Questions 5-8 on the student handout (Microsoft Word 2007 (.docx) 137kB Nov18 16) (also available as a PDF (Acrobat (PDF) 119kB Nov18 16) ) ask students to analyze global precipitation in the context of the atmospheric circulation patterns they have identified and to predict the effects of a widening tropical circulation (Hadley) cell on regional climates and human societies. These questions could be discussed in class if time permits or assigned as homework.

Slides for optional activity (PowerPoint 2007 (.pptx) 21.1MB Nov8 16) Slides 33-35 present these questions as well and could be used to lead an in-class discussion or to introduce the homework assignment. Students will need access to January Precipitation Map (Acrobat (PDF) 2.2MB Jul15 15) to answer these questions at home.

Teaching Notes and Tips

In order to complete the jigsaw activity in a single 50-minute class period students should be introduced to the activity, given their group assignments, a copy of the student handouts, and access to the appropriate specialty group map (either in print or digital form) prior to class. For instructors teaching this optional activity as part of Earth's Thermostat module this introduction can occur in place of the part 2 discussion at the end of Unit 5.

Specialty group seating should be clearly marked so that groups sit together when entering the classroom. Specialty group meetings will serve as a time for students to compare and improve their interpretations prior to joining their synthesis groups.

By roaming the room while student groups are working, instructors can monitor progress, answer questions and clear up any student misconceptions.

The activity slide set is set up to help guide the activity and final discussion. The relevant slide numbers for each portion of the unit are noted in the appropriate piece of the Description and Teaching Materials above. Notes associated with each slide also provide points for discussion. If possible, student maps, graphs, and sketches should be used in place of Slides 21, 23, and 25 to encourage student participation in the final discussion.

Learning outcomes for the activity:

Explain how atmospheric circulation acts to balance the global heat budget. Assessed by student worksheet, concept sketch, and atmospheric cross section. Analyze maps of global wind fields to infer patterns of atmospheric circulation. Assessed by student worksheet, concept sketch, and atmospheric cross section. Attribute global circulation patterns to variations in the global heat budget observed in unit 4 (e.g. latitudinal gradients, land/sea differences). Assessed by student worksheet, concept sketch, and atmospheric cross section. Predict how changes in the atmospheric circulation system might impact human society. Assessed by questions 5-8 of student handout assigned as a take-home exercise or in-class discussion.

Although students work in groups they are expected to complete their own worksheet, map-based concept sketch, and annotated graph. Rubrics are provided for each of these components in the file Worksheet answer key and rubrics (Microsoft Word 2007 (.docx) 143kB Nov18 16) or PDF (Acrobat (PDF) 129kB Nov18 16) . The rubric for grading the student worksheet is included for instructors who choose to collect and grade the handout questions. In this case it should be added to the student worksheet as well.

References and Resources

• Reanalyses.org provides an overview of reanalysis as well as links to many reanalysis websites.
• The climate data guide https://climatedataguide.ucar.edu/climate-data/ncep-ncar-r1-overview provides an overview of the NCEP-NOAA reanalysis.
• NCEP-NOAA data can be visualized and downloaded from http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/psd/data/gridded/data.ncep.reanalysis.html .
• NOAA's National Centers for Environmental Information https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/data-access has extensive links to weather and climate data (including reanalysis data https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/data-access/model-data/model-datasets/reanalysis ). The various pages include background information and images.

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• Instructor Materials: Module Overview
• Unit 1: Energy, Space, and Earth's Effective Temperature
• Unit 2: Earth's Atmosphere and Its Influence on Temperature
• Unit 3: Energy Flows and Feedback Processes
• Unit 4: Balancing the Radiation Budget: A Jigsaw Exploration of the Global Climate System (Part 1)
• Unit 5: Balancing the Radiation Budget: A Jigsaw Exploration of the Global Climate System (Part 2)
• Unit 6: Capstone: A modern catastrophic volcanic eruption?
• Student Materials

Teaching Themes

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Global atmospheric circulation made SIMPLE

Do you want to learn more about global atmospheric circulation? Then you have come to the right place! Read on to learn all about how atmosphere circulation works and why it is so important…

What is global atmospheric circulation?

Global atmospheric circulation refers to the large-scale movement of air in the Earth’s atmosphere, driven by a variety of factors such as solar radiation, Earth’s rotation, and the distribution of land and water on the planet’s surface.

This system is responsible for the formation of weather patterns and climates around the world and is critical to the planet’s overall climate balance.

The movement of air in the atmosphere is affected by a variety of forces, including temperature differences between different parts of the planet, the Coriolis effect caused by Earth’s rotation, and pressure gradients created by the uneven heating of the Earth’s surface.

This intricate system of movements and interactions is constantly changing and adapting to new environmental conditions , and plays a vital role in shaping our planet’s weather and climate.

What causes global atmospheric circulation?

Now lets take a look at exactly what causes global atmospheric circulation in a bit more detail…

To begin, the equator receives more solar radiation than the poles due to the angle of the sun’s rays, which causes warm air to rise and cool air to sink. This creates a pressure gradient, with low pressure at the equator and high pressure at the poles. As warm air rises at the equator, it moves towards the poles, where it cools and sinks back towards the Earth’s surface. This creates large-scale convection cells in the atmosphere, known as Hadley cells, which are responsible for driving global atmospheric circulation.

The rotation of the Earth also creates the Coriolis effect that I mentioned earlier. This causes air to deflect to the right in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere. This effect helps to create the westerly winds and trade winds that circulate around the planet and is a key factor in shaping global atmospheric circulation.

What are the three types of atmospheric circulation?

Now lets look at the three types of atmospheric circulation in a bit more depth:

Hadley cell circulation

This is the largest and most well-known of the three circulation systems. It is responsible for moving heat from the equator towards the poles and involves warm air rising at the equator and sinking at the subtropics. This causes the trade winds to blow towards the equator and the westerlies to blow towards the poles.

Ferrel cell circulation

This circulation system is located between the Hadley cells and the polar cells. It is a smaller system that is driven by the flow of air between the two larger systems. The Ferrel cell is responsible for the westerly winds that blow towards the poles in the mid-latitudes.

Polar cell circulation

The smallest of the three circulation systems, the polar cells are located at the poles and are responsible for the cold polar air sinking and flowing back towards the mid-latitudes, completing the circulation cycle. The polar cells are also responsible for the polar easterlies that blow towards the equator.

What are the two main forces that drive atmospheric circulation?

When studying global atmospheric circulation, it is important to recognise that there are two main forces in play. Lets look at what these are:

Thermal energy

This refers to the unequal heating of the Earth’s surface by the sun. The equator receives more solar radiation than the poles, which causes warm air to rise and cool air to sink. This creates a temperature gradient that drives the movement of air in the atmosphere, creating large-scale convection cells such as the Hadley cells and the polar cells.

Coriolis effect

This is a result of the Earth’s rotation, which causes moving objects to deflect to the right in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere.

The Coriolis effect is responsible for shaping the direction and speed of the winds that move across the Earth’s surface, and plays a key role in driving atmospheric circulation patterns such as the trade winds and the westerlies. The combination of thermal energy and the Coriolis effect work together to create the complex and dynamic system of atmospheric circulation that we observe on Earth.

What are the 3 factors that influence atmospheric circulation?

The three main factors that influence atmospheric circulation are:

Unequal heating of the Earth’s surface

The amount of solar radiation received by different parts of the Earth’s surface varies depending on the angle of the sun’s rays. The equator receives more solar radiation than the poles, which creates a temperature gradient that drives the movement of air in the atmosphere.

Earth’s rotation

As I previously explained, the rotation of the Earth creates the Coriolis effect, which causes moving objects to deflect to the right in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere. This effect plays a key role in shaping the direction and speed of the winds that move across the Earth’s surface.

Distribution of land and water

Land and water absorb and release heat at different rates, which creates temperature gradients that drive atmospheric circulation.

The presence of large land masses, such as the continents of North America and Eurasia, can create blockages in the atmospheric circulation, leading to the formation of high and low-pressure systems and changes in weather patterns.

The distribution of oceans and seas also plays a role in atmospheric circulation, with ocean currents affecting the temperature and moisture content of the air above them.

How does global atmospheric circulation affect climate?

Global atmospheric circulation plays a major role in shaping the Earth’s climate by transporting heat and moisture around the planet. The distribution of temperature and moisture in the atmosphere, as well as the direction and strength of winds, are all influenced by atmospheric circulation patterns.

For example, the Hadley cells play a key role in shaping the tropics and subtropics, where warm and moist air rises and cools to form clouds and precipitation. This can lead to the formation of rainforests in areas such as the Amazon and the Congo Basin.

The Ferrel cells and the polar cells, on the other hand, are responsible for the formation of mid-latitude weather patterns and the movement of storms across the planet. The westerlies, which are a product of the Ferrel cells, can bring storms and precipitation to regions such as the Pacific Northwest in North America and the western coast of Europe.

Changes in global atmospheric circulation patterns can have a significant impact on climate, as seen with phenomena such as El Niño and La Niña, which affect the circulation of warm water in the Pacific Ocean and can lead to changes in weather patterns around the world. Climate change can also influence atmospheric circulation patterns, leading to shifts in temperature and precipitation regimes and potentially impacting the functioning of ecosystems and human societies.

What would happen if there was no atmospheric circulation?

If there was no atmospheric circulation, the Earth’s climate would be significantly different and potentially uninhabitable for many forms of life.

Atmospheric circulation plays a key role in distributing heat and moisture around the planet. Without it, the equator would become much hotter, while the poles would become much colder. This would create extreme temperature gradients, with very little mixing of air between different latitudes.

As a result, weather patterns would be very different from what we observe today. The absence of atmospheric circulation would likely lead to the formation of large areas of high pressure over the poles, with very little precipitation or cloud cover. Conversely, the equatorial regions would experience intense heat and moisture, leading to the formation of large rainforests and potentially extreme weather events such as hurricanes and typhoons.

Without atmospheric circulation, the planet would also lack the winds that drive ocean currents , leading to changes in ocean temperature and circulation patterns. This could have major impacts on marine ecosystems and the distribution of nutrients and food sources for many marine species.

Where is atmospheric pressure greatest?

Atmospheric pressure is greatest at sea level and decreases with increasing altitude. This is because the weight of the air above a given point in the atmosphere is greatest at the Earth’s surface, due to the gravitational pull of the Earth on the air molecules. As you move higher in the atmosphere, there is less air above you and therefore less weight pressing down on you, leading to a decrease in atmospheric pressure.

Atmospheric pressure can also vary depending on location and weather conditions. For example, high-pressure systems are areas where the atmospheric pressure is higher than the surrounding areas, while low-pressure systems are areas where the atmospheric pressure is lower. These systems can affect weather patterns and wind direction, with air flowing from high-pressure areas towards low-pressure areas.

In general, atmospheric pressure is highest at the Earth’s surface and decreases with increasing altitude. However, there are many factors that can affect atmospheric pressure at a given location, including temperature, humidity, and wind patterns.

How does atmospheric circulation affect air pollution?

Atmospheric circulation can have a significant impact on air pollution by influencing the distribution and transport of pollutants in the atmosphere. Pollutants such as particulate matter, nitrogen oxides, and sulphur dioxide can be emitted from various sources such as vehicles, power plants, and industrial activities.

The movement of air masses due to atmospheric circulation patterns can cause these pollutants to be transported over long distances, potentially impacting air quality in regions far away from the original sources of pollution. For example, pollution from cities and industrial areas can be transported by winds and affect rural areas or even neighbouring countries.

Atmospheric circulation can also impact the vertical distribution of pollutants in the atmosphere. During times of high pressure and stable atmospheric conditions, pollutants can become trapped near the Earth’s surface, leading to the formation of smog and other types of air pollution . Conversely, during times of low pressure and unstable atmospheric conditions, pollutants can be lifted higher into the atmosphere and dispersed over a wider area.

In addition, climate change can affect atmospheric circulation patterns, potentially leading to changes in the distribution and transport of pollutants. For example, changes in wind patterns due to climate change could impact the transport of air pollution across the globe.

Key facts about global atmospheric circulation

There is no question that global atmospheric circulation is an extremely important and very interesting topic to learn about. So now that we have a broad understanding of global atmospheric circulation, lets highlight some of the key facts.

• Global atmospheric circulation is driven by the uneven heating of the Earth’s surface by the Sun, which creates temperature and pressure differences that cause air to move.
• There are three main types of atmospheric circulation: Hadley cells, Ferrel cells, and Polar cells.
• Hadley cells are the largest and most important atmospheric circulation cells, and are responsible for the trade winds in the tropics.
• Atmospheric circulation plays a key role in distributing heat and moisture around the planet, and is responsible for the formation of many of the Earth’s weather patterns.
• Changes in atmospheric circulation patterns can have significant impacts on global climate, and can lead to extreme weather events such as hurricanes, droughts, and floods.

The jet stream is a high-altitude wind pattern that is driven by global atmospheric circulation, and can have significant impacts on weather patterns in regions far from its origin.

• Atmospheric circulation is influenced by a range of factors, including temperature, pressure, and the Earth’s rotation.

Climate change is expected to have significant impacts on global atmospheric circulation patterns, potentially leading to changes in weather patterns and climate extremes.

• Global atmospheric circulation is a complex and dynamic system, and ongoing research is helping to improve our understanding of its mechanisms and impacts.
• Atmospheric circulation is a fundamental component of the Earth’s climate system and plays a critical role in shaping the planet’s environment and supporting life on Earth.

FAQs on global atmospheric circulation

To round up this article about global atmospheric circulation I will answer sone of the most common questions on this topic.

Global atmospheric circulation is the movement of air around the Earth caused by differences in temperature and pressure, and is driven by the uneven heating of the Earth’s surface by the Sun.

Global atmospheric circulation is caused by differences in temperature and pressure that create areas of high and low pressure, which in turn cause air to move from one location to another.

The three types of atmospheric circulation are Hadley cells, Ferrel cells, and Polar cells.

What is a Hadley cell?

A Hadley cell is a large-scale atmospheric circulation pattern that transports warm, moist air from the tropics towards the poles.

What is the jet stream?

Global atmospheric circulation plays a key role in distributing heat and moisture around the planet, and is responsible for the formation of many of the Earth’s weather patterns. Changes in atmospheric circulation patterns can have significant impacts on global climate, and can lead to extreme weather events such as hurricanes, droughts, and floods.

What factors influence atmospheric circulation?

Atmospheric circulation is influenced by a range of factors, including temperature, pressure, the Earth’s rotation, and the distribution of land and water on the planet.

How does atmospheric circulation impact air pollution?

Atmospheric circulation can have a significant impact on air pollution by influencing the distribution and transport of pollutants in the atmosphere.

What are the potential impacts of climate change on atmospheric circulation?

Why is understanding global atmospheric circulation important?

Understanding global atmospheric circulation is important for predicting and managing weather patterns, assessing the impacts of climate change, and protecting human health and safety.

Global atmospheric circulation: To conclude

As you can see, global atmospheric circulation is very important to our world health and has links to many parts of of the world in terms of weather, pollution, etc.

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4.7: Global Scale Circulation

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The circulation of air over the earth is largely due to the unequal heating of the surface.  The global circulation of pressure and wind plays an integral role in the heat balance of the earth, as well as creating global ocean currents. The global circulation of the atmosphere transfers warm air from low latitudes towards high latitudes, and cold air from high latitudes towards low latitudes. This exchange keeps low latitude regions where there is a net gain of energy through the year from continually heating up and high latitudes from continual cooling due to a net loss of energy (see latitudinal variation in the radiation balance). Wind is thus a solution to a temperature problem!

Geographers often use a  three-cell model  to describe the basic features of Earth's global patterns of wind and pressure. The basic assumptions of the model are:

an Earth of uniform surface composition; and

the unequal receipt of insolation yields a temperature gradient between the equator and the poles

With these conditions on a rotating Earth, three circulation cells between the equator and the poles are predicted, the  Hadley Cell  between the equator and latitude 30 o , the  mid-latitude  or  Ferrel Cell  between latitudes 30 o  and 60 o , and the  polar cell  between  latitude 60 o  and 90 o .

Idealized surface pressure and wind

The equatorial region of the Earth experiences a net gain of energy over the course of a year. The intense heating found in low latitudes is due to high sun angles and nearly equal day length throughout the year. The heat gained by the earth surface is transferred into the air via radiation and sensible heat transfer. Condensing water vapor adds latent heat to the surrounding air as well. The heated air gains buoyancy and easily rises into the wet tropical atmosphere. The convective rise of air promotes a broad area of low pressure that straddles the equator called the  equatorial trough .  The Equatorial trough is also known as the  Inter-tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) .

As air rises above the surface it diverges near the top of the troposphere (remember: that's at the tropopause) and moves poleward. Advancing toward the pole the air begins to converge between about 25 and 35 degrees north and south latitude. You can easily demonstrate why this occurs by placing your fingers on the lines of longitude printed on a globe. Move your hand poleward keeping your fingers on the longitude lines. Notice how your fingers converge as your hand moves poleward. A similar thing happens to the air. Upper air convergence and radiational cooling cause the air to subside in the subtropics. As the air reaches the surface, atmospheric pressure increases forming the  subtropical highs . The subtropical highs have a significant impact on the climate of the earth as well as a being a force behind the major ocean currents.  Subsidence towards the surface prevents the uplift of air needed to produce large scale condensation, cloud formation and precipitation. In addition, compressional heating of the air as it descends causes a drop in the relative humidity of the air. The location of majors deserts like the Sahara Desert, coincides with the presence of the subtropical highs. Yes, you see Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\): the global circulation explains why deserts are where they are!

As the air subsides toward the surface it diverges outward from the center of the subtropical highs. At the subtropical highs themselves, the winds are generally light and variable. The "horse latitudes" as called by Spanish sailors was a region were ships where often calmed for days on end. To conserve water, the Spanish conquistadors would throw horses into the sea. In the Northern hemisphere the air is turned to the right of its path as it moves outward. Equatorward of the subtropical high, the pressure gradient between the high at 30 o  N and the low over the equator creates the  northeast trade winds . In the southern hemisphere, the air is turned to the left of its path as it diverges from the subtropical high creating the southeast trades.

At the equator, convergence occurs between the northeast tradewinds of the northern hemisphere and the southeast trade winds of the southern hemisphere creating the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone. The converging of northern and southern tradewinds form a zone of calms and weak winds with no prevailing wind direction called the "doldrums" between about 5 o  north and south latitude. Old sailing ships often remained calmed for days on end awaiting the winds to pick up.

In the Northern Hemisphere, on the poleward side of the subtropical highs the air heads poleward but is turned to create a westerly wind pattern (i.e. winds from the west) between 30 o  N and 60 o  N in the Northern hemisphere. This wind belt is known as the  westerlies . A similar westerly belt of winds can be found between the 30 o  and 60 o  S in the southern hemisphere.

Finally, the loss of energy at the poles creates very cold air that subsides towards the surface. This creates a dome of high pressure called the  polar high . North of the equator, air moving equatorward from this high pressure is turned in an easterly direction creating the  polar easterlies . The polar easterlies collide with the westerly wind belt at about 60 N and S creating a broad belt of low pressure called the  subpolar low . This is a zone of storms and migrating high and low pressure systems, the topic of the "Weather Systems" module.

The global wind and pressure belts are extremely important elements of the Earth's climate system. To a great extent, they determine the geographical pattern of precipitation. Low pressure systems promote moist conditions while high pressure tends to suppress precipitation. Global air masses ride within the global winds belts bringing moisture and precipitation or scorching hot temperature. The relationships between the global wind and pressure belts and the geographical distribution of precipitation is discussed in the "Atmospheric Moisture" and "Climate Systems" chapters.

Global Pressure Patterns,  Precipitation, and Climate

Global pressure systems play a direct role in the geographic distribution of precipitation. This influence is especially apparent in the relationship between pressure patterns and the distribution of precipitation and climate in Africa. For the most part, there is a horizontal pattern of climates stretching from the equator to poleward of 30 o  N related to the location of the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), the semi-permanent Sub-Tropical High (STH), and cyclones of the midlatitudes.

Starting at the equator are the rainiest climates on earth, the tropical rain forest (Af) and tropical monsoon (Am). The tropical rain forest is noted to for its high, year-round rain fall that often exceeds 2540 mm (100 inches) in a year. The copious rainfall is a product of the warm moist air masses that converge into the low pressure belt that straddles the equator and uplifted by convection. The monsoon climate in Africa, like the Asian monsoon, has a notable dry period during the low sun season. The dry period is due to the presence of the subsiding air of the subtropical high, while the wet season is due to the presence of the ITCZ and moisture-bearing trade winds along the coast.

Poleward of the monsoon and rain forest climates is the Tropical Wet/Dry climate (Aw) often called the "Savanna" climate. Like the monsoon climate, precipitation is seasonal though the Tropical Wet/Dry climate receives much less on an annual basis. During the low sun season, it is dominated by the STH producing extremely dry conditions. The savanna climate is considered a transitional climate between the rainy tropical and dry tropical climates.

The Tropical Steppe climate (BS) is dominated by the STH for much of the year, though it does receive brief high-sun season rains as the ITCZ migrates into this region. The Tropical Steppe climate is considered a semi-arid climate with enough precipitation to support drought resistant grasses but not for trees. Poleward of the steppe is the Tropical Desert Climate (BW). The tropical desert climate is the driest on Earth that in some locations has virtually no measurable precipitation on an annual basis. The extreme aridity is due in part to the year-round dominance of the subtropical high.

At about 30 o  north latitude we encounter another zone of tropical steppe climate. Though the climatic conditions are the same, the seasonal dominance of pressure systems has reversed. During the high sun season the STH moves into this region to create dry conditions. During the winter, cyclones spawned in the midlatitudes slip into the steppe climate to bring sporadic and brief rain showers. 

Finally, we reach the Mediterranean Sea where we find the Dry Summer Subtropical Climate (Cs), or sometimes called the "Mediterranean Climate". Like the steppe climate on its equatorward border, it has a dry summer/wet winter precipitation regime. However, the region receives more precipitation on an annual basis than its neighboring steppe climate.

To learn more about the effects of atmospheric circulation on our environment, proceed by: "Digging Deeper: Air Quality and Pressure Systems" or continue to the next topic.

Digging Deeper: Air Quality and Pressure System

Regions susceptible to air pollution problems result from the interaction of climatic and topographic conditions in the presence of pollution sources. Air pollution is especially prominent where high pressure dominates. Subsiding motions within an anticyclone suppress air trying to rise off the surface. Adiabatic warming of subsiding air creates a  subsidence inversion  which acts as a cap to upwardly moving air. Pollution problems dissipate when a low pressure system replaces a retreating anticyclone.

Los Angeles, CA is a perfect case study for the effect of climate and topography on air pollution. Topographically, Los Angeles sits in a basin with the San Gabriel Mountains to the east of the city. During the summer the subtropical high pressure cell over the eastern Pacific has migrated to its northern most limit and expanded in size. The subsiding air of the subtropical high is compressed as it descends through the atmosphere, creating a warm layer of air aloft. In addition, adiabatic heating lowers the relative humidity, preventing the development of clouds. The cloudless skies enable much insolation to reach the surface.

At the surface, air cooled by the cold California current comes ashore on cool sea breezes. The dense cool air sinks into the basin as it comes onto land. The mountains to the east prevent air from moving out of the vicinity of the basin. With cool air at the surface and the warm layer aloft, inversion conditions take hold. The inversion limits the height to which pollutants generated by industrial activities and motor vehicles are moved. Under cloudless skies, insolation initiates photochemical reactions in the urban atmosphere to create the infamous smog problem that Los Angeles has.

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How extratropical ocean-atmosphere interactions can contribute to the variability of jet streams in the Northern Hemisphere

Researchers highlight the newfound significance of communication between atmosphere and oceans.

The interaction between the oceans and the atmosphere plays a vital role in shaping the Earth's climate. Changing sea surface temperatures can heat or cool the atmosphere, and changes in the atmosphere can do the same to the ocean surface. This exchange in energy is known as "ocean-atmosphere coupling."

Now, researchers from Kyushu University have revealed that this ocean-atmosphere coupling enhances teleconnection patterns -- when climate conditions change across vast regions of the globe -- in the Northern Hemisphere. In their recent study, the team modelled the effect of ocean coupling on atmospheric circulation patterns, finding that extratropical ocean-atmosphere coupling causes more meandering jet streams, which are linked to extreme weather events.

Ocean-atmosphere coupling is most powerful in the tropics, where the coupling is responsible for the well-known "El Niño-Southern Oscillation" in the equatorial Pacific Ocean. The El Niño-Southern Oscillation, in turn, remotely leads to a meandering jet stream in the mid-latitudes through the formation of large-scale atmospheric circulation patterns, i.e., teleconnection patterns.

Outside the tropics, in the mid-latitudes, the impact of ocean-atmosphere coupling on teleconnection patterns is less understood. Nevertheless, its significance in the cause of extreme weather events cannot be ignored, especially in the eye of the climate crisis.

In a study published in the journal Communications Earth & Environment , a team of researchers led by Assistant Professor Masato Mori from Kyushu University's Research Institute for Applied Mechanics, in collaboration with the University of Tokyo, Toyama University, and the Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology, shed new light on the phenomenon.

"Because extreme weather events are more likely to occur when fluctuations in the jet streams are large -- as in when the magnitude of the teleconnection pattern is large -- it is important to understand the mechanisms that form and maintain said teleconnection pattern," explains Mori.

To investigate the role of the extratropical ocean-atmosphere coupling, the researchers conducted two simulations: a coupled run, which considered the interaction between the extratropical ocean and the atmosphere, and an uncoupled run, which neglected the interaction between the two components. The simulations examined the impact of ocean-atmosphere coupling on teleconnection patterns during the Northern Hemisphere's wintertime: December to February. The effect of the coupling on atmospheric circulation patterns were evaluated through atmospheric variables, such as air pressure and temperature.

In their simulations, the researchers observed significant changes in the atmospheric variables, especially in the North Pacific, subpolar North Atlantic, and northern Eurasia around the Barents-Kara Sea regions off the coast of Siberia. These changes indicated shifts in teleconnection patterns compared to simulations without such an interaction.

"Extratropical coupling selectively enhances the variance of three principal modes of variability, explaining 13%, 11%, and 10% of the total variance of Pacific/North American, North Atlantic Oscillation, and Warm-Arctic Cold-Eurasian patterns, respectively," says Mori.

In the coupled run, heat exchange between the ocean and the atmosphere reduced the air-sea thermal difference. As a result, less heat is released from the oceans and into the atmosphere, leading to increased kinetic energy and a more meandering jet stream. Conversely, when the oceans are uncoupled, the sea surface temperature does not respond to atmospheric fluctuations. The larger temperature differences cause more heat to be released, resulting in a less meandering jet stream.

"The present study quantifies the coupling effect based on large ensemble simulations of a state-of-the-art fully coupled model. Moreover, it reveals how coupling selectively enhances multiple principal modes of variability, not only thermodynamically but also dynamically," concludes Mori.

Notably, the researchers point out that the simulation could have underestimated the coupling effect owing to model bias and issues with simulation design. Nevertheless, new knowledge on the effects of ocean-atmosphere coupling in the Northern Hemisphere could contribute to improving climate projections in the face of the climate crisis through the improvement of climate models.

• Global Warming
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Materials provided by Kyushu University . Note: Content may be edited for style and length.

Journal Reference :

• Masato Mori, Yu Kosaka, Bunmei Taguchi, Hiroki Tokinaga, Hiroaki Tatebe, Hisashi Nakamura. Northern Hemisphere winter atmospheric teleconnections are intensified by extratropical ocean-atmosphere coupling . Communications Earth & Environment , 2024; 5 (1) DOI: 10.1038/s43247-024-01282-1

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