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Research Paper Introduction – Writing Guide and Examples

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Research Paper Introduction

Research paper introduction is the first section of a research paper that provides an overview of the study, its purpose, and the research question (s) or hypothesis (es) being investigated. It typically includes background information about the topic, a review of previous research in the field, and a statement of the research objectives. The introduction is intended to provide the reader with a clear understanding of the research problem, why it is important, and how the study will contribute to existing knowledge in the field. It also sets the tone for the rest of the paper and helps to establish the author’s credibility and expertise on the subject.

How to Write Research Paper Introduction

Writing an introduction for a research paper can be challenging because it sets the tone for the entire paper. Here are some steps to follow to help you write an effective research paper introduction:

• Start with a hook : Begin your introduction with an attention-grabbing statement, a question, or a surprising fact that will make the reader interested in reading further.
• Provide background information: After the hook, provide background information on the topic. This information should give the reader a general idea of what the topic is about and why it is important.
• State the research problem: Clearly state the research problem or question that the paper addresses. This should be done in a concise and straightforward manner.
• State the research objectives: After stating the research problem, clearly state the research objectives. This will give the reader an idea of what the paper aims to achieve.
• Provide a brief overview of the paper: At the end of the introduction, provide a brief overview of the paper. This should include a summary of the main points that will be discussed in the paper.
• Revise and refine: Finally, revise and refine your introduction to ensure that it is clear, concise, and engaging.

Structure of Research Paper Introduction

The following is a typical structure for a research paper introduction:

• Background Information: This section provides an overview of the topic of the research paper, including relevant background information and any previous research that has been done on the topic. It helps to give the reader a sense of the context for the study.
• Problem Statement: This section identifies the specific problem or issue that the research paper is addressing. It should be clear and concise, and it should articulate the gap in knowledge that the study aims to fill.
• Research Question/Hypothesis : This section states the research question or hypothesis that the study aims to answer. It should be specific and focused, and it should clearly connect to the problem statement.
• Significance of the Study: This section explains why the research is important and what the potential implications of the study are. It should highlight the contribution that the research makes to the field.
• Methodology: This section describes the research methods that were used to conduct the study. It should be detailed enough to allow the reader to understand how the study was conducted and to evaluate the validity of the results.
• Organization of the Paper : This section provides a brief overview of the structure of the research paper. It should give the reader a sense of what to expect in each section of the paper.

Research Paper Introduction Examples

Research Paper Introduction Examples could be:

Example 1: In recent years, the use of artificial intelligence (AI) has become increasingly prevalent in various industries, including healthcare. AI algorithms are being developed to assist with medical diagnoses, treatment recommendations, and patient monitoring. However, as the use of AI in healthcare grows, ethical concerns regarding privacy, bias, and accountability have emerged. This paper aims to explore the ethical implications of AI in healthcare and propose recommendations for addressing these concerns.

Example 2: Climate change is one of the most pressing issues facing our planet today. The increasing concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere has resulted in rising temperatures, changing weather patterns, and other environmental impacts. In this paper, we will review the scientific evidence on climate change, discuss the potential consequences of inaction, and propose solutions for mitigating its effects.

Example 3: The rise of social media has transformed the way we communicate and interact with each other. While social media platforms offer many benefits, including increased connectivity and access to information, they also present numerous challenges. In this paper, we will examine the impact of social media on mental health, privacy, and democracy, and propose solutions for addressing these issues.

Example 4: The use of renewable energy sources has become increasingly important in the face of climate change and environmental degradation. While renewable energy technologies offer many benefits, including reduced greenhouse gas emissions and energy independence, they also present numerous challenges. In this paper, we will assess the current state of renewable energy technology, discuss the economic and political barriers to its adoption, and propose solutions for promoting the widespread use of renewable energy.

Purpose of Research Paper Introduction

The introduction section of a research paper serves several important purposes, including:

• Providing context: The introduction should give readers a general understanding of the topic, including its background, significance, and relevance to the field.
• Presenting the research question or problem: The introduction should clearly state the research question or problem that the paper aims to address. This helps readers understand the purpose of the study and what the author hopes to accomplish.
• Reviewing the literature: The introduction should summarize the current state of knowledge on the topic, highlighting the gaps and limitations in existing research. This shows readers why the study is important and necessary.
• Outlining the scope and objectives of the study: The introduction should describe the scope and objectives of the study, including what aspects of the topic will be covered, what data will be collected, and what methods will be used.
• Previewing the main findings and conclusions : The introduction should provide a brief overview of the main findings and conclusions that the study will present. This helps readers anticipate what they can expect to learn from the paper.

When to Write Research Paper Introduction

The introduction of a research paper is typically written after the research has been conducted and the data has been analyzed. This is because the introduction should provide an overview of the research problem, the purpose of the study, and the research questions or hypotheses that will be investigated.

Once you have a clear understanding of the research problem and the questions that you want to explore, you can begin to write the introduction. It’s important to keep in mind that the introduction should be written in a way that engages the reader and provides a clear rationale for the study. It should also provide context for the research by reviewing relevant literature and explaining how the study fits into the larger field of research.

Advantages of Research Paper Introduction

The introduction of a research paper has several advantages, including:

• Establishing the purpose of the research: The introduction provides an overview of the research problem, question, or hypothesis, and the objectives of the study. This helps to clarify the purpose of the research and provide a roadmap for the reader to follow.
• Providing background information: The introduction also provides background information on the topic, including a review of relevant literature and research. This helps the reader understand the context of the study and how it fits into the broader field of research.
• Demonstrating the significance of the research: The introduction also explains why the research is important and relevant. This helps the reader understand the value of the study and why it is worth reading.
• Setting expectations: The introduction sets the tone for the rest of the paper and prepares the reader for what is to come. This helps the reader understand what to expect and how to approach the paper.
• Grabbing the reader’s attention: A well-written introduction can grab the reader’s attention and make them interested in reading further. This is important because it can help to keep the reader engaged and motivated to read the rest of the paper.
• Creating a strong first impression: The introduction is the first part of the research paper that the reader will see, and it can create a strong first impression. A well-written introduction can make the reader more likely to take the research seriously and view it as credible.
• Establishing the author’s credibility: The introduction can also establish the author’s credibility as a researcher. By providing a clear and thorough overview of the research problem and relevant literature, the author can demonstrate their expertise and knowledge in the field.
• Providing a structure for the paper: The introduction can also provide a structure for the rest of the paper. By outlining the main sections and sub-sections of the paper, the introduction can help the reader navigate the paper and find the information they are looking for.

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How to Write a Research Paper Introduction (with Examples)

The research paper introduction section, along with the Title and Abstract, can be considered the face of any research paper. The following article is intended to guide you in organizing and writing the research paper introduction for a quality academic article or dissertation.

The research paper introduction aims to present the topic to the reader. A study will only be accepted for publishing if you can ascertain that the available literature cannot answer your research question. So it is important to ensure that you have read important studies on that particular topic, especially those within the last five to ten years, and that they are properly referenced in this section. 1 What should be included in the research paper introduction is decided by what you want to tell readers about the reason behind the research and how you plan to fill the knowledge gap. The best research paper introduction provides a systemic review of existing work and demonstrates additional work that needs to be done. It needs to be brief, captivating, and well-referenced; a well-drafted research paper introduction will help the researcher win half the battle.

The introduction for a research paper is where you set up your topic and approach for the reader. It has several key goals:

• Present your research topic
• Capture reader interest
• Summarize existing research
• Position your own approach
• Define your specific research problem and problem statement
• Highlight the novelty and contributions of the study
• Give an overview of the paper’s structure

The research paper introduction can vary in size and structure depending on whether your paper presents the results of original empirical research or is a review paper. Some research paper introduction examples are only half a page while others are a few pages long. In many cases, the introduction will be shorter than all of the other sections of your paper; its length depends on the size of your paper as a whole.

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Table of Contents

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The introduction in a research paper is placed at the beginning to guide the reader from a broad subject area to the specific topic that your research addresses. They present the following information to the reader

• Scope: The topic covered in the research paper
• Context: Background of your topic
• Importance: Why your research matters in that particular area of research and the industry problem that can be targeted

The research paper introduction conveys a lot of information and can be considered an essential roadmap for the rest of your paper. A good introduction for a research paper is important for the following reasons:

• It stimulates your reader’s interest: A good introduction section can make your readers want to read your paper by capturing their interest. It informs the reader what they are going to learn and helps determine if the topic is of interest to them.
• It helps the reader understand the research background: Without a clear introduction, your readers may feel confused and even struggle when reading your paper. A good research paper introduction will prepare them for the in-depth research to come. It provides you the opportunity to engage with the readers and demonstrate your knowledge and authority on the specific topic.
• It explains why your research paper is worth reading: Your introduction can convey a lot of information to your readers. It introduces the topic, why the topic is important, and how you plan to proceed with your research.
• It helps guide the reader through the rest of the paper: The research paper introduction gives the reader a sense of the nature of the information that will support your arguments and the general organization of the paragraphs that will follow. It offers an overview of what to expect when reading the main body of your paper.

What are the parts of introduction in the research?

A good research paper introduction section should comprise three main elements: 2

• What is known: This sets the stage for your research. It informs the readers of what is known on the subject.
• What is lacking: This is aimed at justifying the reason for carrying out your research. This could involve investigating a new concept or method or building upon previous research.
• What you aim to do: This part briefly states the objectives of your research and its major contributions. Your detailed hypothesis will also form a part of this section.

How to write a research paper introduction?

The first step in writing the research paper introduction is to inform the reader what your topic is and why it’s interesting or important. This is generally accomplished with a strong opening statement. The second step involves establishing the kinds of research that have been done and ending with limitations or gaps in the research that you intend to address. Finally, the research paper introduction clarifies how your own research fits in and what problem it addresses. If your research involved testing hypotheses, these should be stated along with your research question. The hypothesis should be presented in the past tense since it will have been tested by the time you are writing the research paper introduction.

The following key points, with examples, can guide you when writing the research paper introduction section:

• Highlight the importance of the research field or topic
• Describe the background of the topic
• Present an overview of current research on the topic

Example: The inclusion of experiential and competency-based learning has benefitted electronics engineering education. Industry partnerships provide an excellent alternative for students wanting to engage in solving real-world challenges. Industry-academia participation has grown in recent years due to the need for skilled engineers with practical training and specialized expertise. However, from the educational perspective, many activities are needed to incorporate sustainable development goals into the university curricula and consolidate learning innovation in universities.

• Reveal a gap in existing research or oppose an existing assumption
• Formulate the research question

Example: There have been plausible efforts to integrate educational activities in higher education electronics engineering programs. However, very few studies have considered using educational research methods for performance evaluation of competency-based higher engineering education, with a focus on technical and or transversal skills. To remedy the current need for evaluating competencies in STEM fields and providing sustainable development goals in engineering education, in this study, a comparison was drawn between study groups without and with industry partners.

• State the purpose of your study
• Highlight the key characteristics of your study
• Describe important results
• Highlight the novelty of the study.
• Offer a brief overview of the structure of the paper.

Example: The study evaluates the main competency needed in the applied electronics course, which is a fundamental core subject for many electronics engineering undergraduate programs. We compared two groups, without and with an industrial partner, that offered real-world projects to solve during the semester. This comparison can help determine significant differences in both groups in terms of developing subject competency and achieving sustainable development goals.

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You can use the same process to develop each section of your article, and finally your research paper in half the time and without any of the stress.

The purpose of the research paper introduction is to introduce the reader to the problem definition, justify the need for the study, and describe the main theme of the study. The aim is to gain the reader’s attention by providing them with necessary background information and establishing the main purpose and direction of the research.

The length of the research paper introduction can vary across journals and disciplines. While there are no strict word limits for writing the research paper introduction, an ideal length would be one page, with a maximum of 400 words over 1-4 paragraphs. Generally, it is one of the shorter sections of the paper as the reader is assumed to have at least a reasonable knowledge about the topic. 2 For example, for a study evaluating the role of building design in ensuring fire safety, there is no need to discuss definitions and nature of fire in the introduction; you could start by commenting upon the existing practices for fire safety and how your study will add to the existing knowledge and practice.

When deciding what to include in the research paper introduction, the rest of the paper should also be considered. The aim is to introduce the reader smoothly to the topic and facilitate an easy read without much dependency on external sources. 3 Below is a list of elements you can include to prepare a research paper introduction outline and follow it when you are writing the research paper introduction. Topic introduction: This can include key definitions and a brief history of the topic. Research context and background: Offer the readers some general information and then narrow it down to specific aspects. Details of the research you conducted: A brief literature review can be included to support your arguments or line of thought. Rationale for the study: This establishes the relevance of your study and establishes its importance. Importance of your research: The main contributions are highlighted to help establish the novelty of your study Research hypothesis: Introduce your research question and propose an expected outcome. Organization of the paper: Include a short paragraph of 3-4 sentences that highlights your plan for the entire paper

Cite only works that are most relevant to your topic; as a general rule, you can include one to three. Note that readers want to see evidence of original thinking. So it is better to avoid using too many references as it does not leave much room for your personal standpoint to shine through. Citations in your research paper introduction support the key points, and the number of citations depend on the subject matter and the point discussed. If the research paper introduction is too long or overflowing with citations, it is better to cite a few review articles rather than the individual articles summarized in the review. A good point to remember when citing research papers in the introduction section is to include at least one-third of the references in the introduction.

The literature review plays a significant role in the research paper introduction section. A good literature review accomplishes the following: Introduces the topic – Establishes the study’s significance – Provides an overview of the relevant literature – Provides context for the study using literature – Identifies knowledge gaps However, remember to avoid making the following mistakes when writing a research paper introduction: Do not use studies from the literature review to aggressively support your research Avoid direct quoting Do not allow literature review to be the focus of this section. Instead, the literature review should only aid in setting a foundation for the manuscript.

Remember the following key points for writing a good research paper introduction: 4

• Avoid stuffing too much general information: Avoid including what an average reader would know and include only that information related to the problem being addressed in the research paper introduction. For example, when describing a comparative study of non-traditional methods for mechanical design optimization, information related to the traditional methods and differences between traditional and non-traditional methods would not be relevant. In this case, the introduction for the research paper should begin with the state-of-the-art non-traditional methods and methods to evaluate the efficiency of newly developed algorithms.
• Avoid packing too many references: Cite only the required works in your research paper introduction. The other works can be included in the discussion section to strengthen your findings.
• Avoid extensive criticism of previous studies: Avoid being overly critical of earlier studies while setting the rationale for your study. A better place for this would be the Discussion section, where you can highlight the advantages of your method.
• Avoid describing conclusions of the study: When writing a research paper introduction remember not to include the findings of your study. The aim is to let the readers know what question is being answered. The actual answer should only be given in the Results and Discussion section.

To summarize, the research paper introduction section should be brief yet informative. It should convince the reader the need to conduct the study and motivate him to read further. If you’re feeling stuck or unsure, choose trusted AI academic writing assistants like Paperpal to effortlessly craft your research paper introduction and other sections of your research article.

1. Jawaid, S. A., & Jawaid, M. (2019). How to write introduction and discussion. Saudi Journal of Anaesthesia, 13(Suppl 1), S18.

2. Dewan, P., & Gupta, P. (2016). Writing the title, abstract and introduction: Looks matter!. Indian pediatrics, 53, 235-241.

3. Cetin, S., & Hackam, D. J. (2005). An approach to the writing of a scientific Manuscript1. Journal of Surgical Research, 128(2), 165-167.

4. Bavdekar, S. B. (2015). Writing introduction: Laying the foundations of a research paper. Journal of the Association of Physicians of India, 63(7), 44-6.

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Get accurate academic translations, rewriting support, grammar checks, vocabulary suggestions, and generative AI assistance that delivers human precision at machine speed. Try for free or upgrade to Paperpal Prime starting at US$19 a month to access premium features, including consistency, plagiarism, and 30+ submission readiness checks to help you succeed.  

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• USC Libraries
• Research Guides

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

• 4. The Introduction
• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Independent and Dependent Variables
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Reading Research Effectively
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Academic Writing Style
• Applying Critical Thinking
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• Research Process Video Series
• Executive Summary
• The C.A.R.S. Model
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Content Alert Services
• Evaluating Sources
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tiertiary Sources
• Scholarly vs. Popular Publications
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Insiderness
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Writing Concisely
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Generative AI and Writing
• USC Libraries Tutorials and Other Guides
• Bibliography

The introduction leads the reader from a general subject area to a particular topic of inquiry. It establishes the scope, context, and significance of the research being conducted by summarizing current understanding and background information about the topic, stating the purpose of the work in the form of the research problem supported by a hypothesis or a set of questions, explaining briefly the methodological approach used to examine the research problem, highlighting the potential outcomes your study can reveal, and outlining the remaining structure and organization of the paper.

Key Elements of the Research Proposal. Prepared under the direction of the Superintendent and by the 2010 Curriculum Design and Writing Team. Baltimore County Public Schools.

Importance of a Good Introduction

Think of the introduction as a mental road map that must answer for the reader these four questions:

• What was I studying?
• Why was this topic important to investigate?
• What did we know about this topic before I did this study?
• How will this study advance new knowledge or new ways of understanding?

According to Reyes, there are three overarching goals of a good introduction: 1) ensure that you summarize prior studies about the topic in a manner that lays a foundation for understanding the research problem; 2) explain how your study specifically addresses gaps in the literature, insufficient consideration of the topic, or other deficiency in the literature; and, 3) note the broader theoretical, empirical, and/or policy contributions and implications of your research.

A well-written introduction is important because, quite simply, you never get a second chance to make a good first impression. The opening paragraphs of your paper will provide your readers with their initial impressions about the logic of your argument, your writing style, the overall quality of your research, and, ultimately, the validity of your findings and conclusions. A vague, disorganized, or error-filled introduction will create a negative impression, whereas, a concise, engaging, and well-written introduction will lead your readers to think highly of your analytical skills, your writing style, and your research approach. All introductions should conclude with a brief paragraph that describes the organization of the rest of the paper.

Hirano, Eliana. “Research Article Introductions in English for Specific Purposes: A Comparison between Brazilian, Portuguese, and English.” English for Specific Purposes 28 (October 2009): 240-250; Samraj, B. “Introductions in Research Articles: Variations Across Disciplines.” English for Specific Purposes 21 (2002): 1–17; Introductions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; “Writing Introductions.” In Good Essay Writing: A Social Sciences Guide. Peter Redman. 4th edition. (London: Sage, 2011), pp. 63-70; Reyes, Victoria. Demystifying the Journal Article. Inside Higher Education.

Structure and Writing Style

I.  Structure and Approach

The introduction is the broad beginning of the paper that answers three important questions for the reader:

• What is this?
• Why should I read it?
• What do you want me to think about / consider doing / react to?

Think of the structure of the introduction as an inverted triangle of information that lays a foundation for understanding the research problem. Organize the information so as to present the more general aspects of the topic early in the introduction, then narrow your analysis to more specific topical information that provides context, finally arriving at your research problem and the rationale for studying it [often written as a series of key questions to be addressed or framed as a hypothesis or set of assumptions to be tested] and, whenever possible, a description of the potential outcomes your study can reveal.

These are general phases associated with writing an introduction: 1.  Establish an area to research by:

• Highlighting the importance of the topic, and/or
• Making general statements about the topic, and/or
• Presenting an overview on current research on the subject.

2.  Identify a research niche by:

• Opposing an existing assumption, and/or
• Revealing a gap in existing research, and/or
• Formulating a research question or problem, and/or
• Continuing a disciplinary tradition.

3.  Place your research within the research niche by:

• Stating the intent of your study,
• Outlining the key characteristics of your study,
• Describing important results, and
• Giving a brief overview of the structure of the paper.

NOTE:   It is often useful to review the introduction late in the writing process. This is appropriate because outcomes are unknown until you've completed the study. After you complete writing the body of the paper, go back and review introductory descriptions of the structure of the paper, the method of data gathering, the reporting and analysis of results, and the conclusion. Reviewing and, if necessary, rewriting the introduction ensures that it correctly matches the overall structure of your final paper.

II.  Delimitations of the Study

Delimitations refer to those characteristics that limit the scope and define the conceptual boundaries of your research . This is determined by the conscious exclusionary and inclusionary decisions you make about how to investigate the research problem. In other words, not only should you tell the reader what it is you are studying and why, but you must also acknowledge why you rejected alternative approaches that could have been used to examine the topic.

Obviously, the first limiting step was the choice of research problem itself. However, implicit are other, related problems that could have been chosen but were rejected. These should be noted in the conclusion of your introduction. For example, a delimitating statement could read, "Although many factors can be understood to impact the likelihood young people will vote, this study will focus on socioeconomic factors related to the need to work full-time while in school." The point is not to document every possible delimiting factor, but to highlight why previously researched issues related to the topic were not addressed.

Examples of delimitating choices would be:

• The key aims and objectives of your study,
• The research questions that you address,
• The variables of interest [i.e., the various factors and features of the phenomenon being studied],
• The method(s) of investigation,
• The time period your study covers, and
• Any relevant alternative theoretical frameworks that could have been adopted.

Review each of these decisions. Not only do you clearly establish what you intend to accomplish in your research, but you should also include a declaration of what the study does not intend to cover. In the latter case, your exclusionary decisions should be based upon criteria understood as, "not interesting"; "not directly relevant"; “too problematic because..."; "not feasible," and the like. Make this reasoning explicit!

NOTE:   Delimitations refer to the initial choices made about the broader, overall design of your study and should not be confused with documenting the limitations of your study discovered after the research has been completed.

ANOTHER NOTE : Do not view delimitating statements as admitting to an inherent failing or shortcoming in your research. They are an accepted element of academic writing intended to keep the reader focused on the research problem by explicitly defining the conceptual boundaries and scope of your study. It addresses any critical questions in the reader's mind of, "Why the hell didn't the author examine this?"

III.  The Narrative Flow

Issues to keep in mind that will help the narrative flow in your introduction :

• Your introduction should clearly identify the subject area of interest . A simple strategy to follow is to use key words from your title in the first few sentences of the introduction. This will help focus the introduction on the topic at the appropriate level and ensures that you get to the subject matter quickly without losing focus, or discussing information that is too general.
• Establish context by providing a brief and balanced review of the pertinent published literature that is available on the subject. The key is to summarize for the reader what is known about the specific research problem before you did your analysis. This part of your introduction should not represent a comprehensive literature review--that comes next. It consists of a general review of the important, foundational research literature [with citations] that establishes a foundation for understanding key elements of the research problem. See the drop-down menu under this tab for " Background Information " regarding types of contexts.
• Clearly state the hypothesis that you investigated . When you are first learning to write in this format it is okay, and actually preferable, to use a past statement like, "The purpose of this study was to...." or "We investigated three possible mechanisms to explain the...."
• Why did you choose this kind of research study or design? Provide a clear statement of the rationale for your approach to the problem studied. This will usually follow your statement of purpose in the last paragraph of the introduction.

IV.  Engaging the Reader

A research problem in the social sciences can come across as dry and uninteresting to anyone unfamiliar with the topic . Therefore, one of the goals of your introduction is to make readers want to read your paper. Here are several strategies you can use to grab the reader's attention:

• Open with a compelling story . Almost all research problems in the social sciences, no matter how obscure or esoteric , are really about the lives of people. Telling a story that humanizes an issue can help illuminate the significance of the problem and help the reader empathize with those affected by the condition being studied.
• Include a strong quotation or a vivid, perhaps unexpected, anecdote . During your review of the literature, make note of any quotes or anecdotes that grab your attention because they can used in your introduction to highlight the research problem in a captivating way.
• Pose a provocative or thought-provoking question . Your research problem should be framed by a set of questions to be addressed or hypotheses to be tested. However, a provocative question can be presented in the beginning of your introduction that challenges an existing assumption or compels the reader to consider an alternative viewpoint that helps establish the significance of your study. 
• Describe a puzzling scenario or incongruity . This involves highlighting an interesting quandary concerning the research problem or describing contradictory findings from prior studies about a topic. Posing what is essentially an unresolved intellectual riddle about the problem can engage the reader's interest in the study.
• Cite a stirring example or case study that illustrates why the research problem is important . Draw upon the findings of others to demonstrate the significance of the problem and to describe how your study builds upon or offers alternatives ways of investigating this prior research.

NOTE:   It is important that you choose only one of the suggested strategies for engaging your readers. This avoids giving an impression that your paper is more flash than substance and does not distract from the substance of your study.

Freedman, Leora  and Jerry Plotnick. Introductions and Conclusions. University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Introduction. The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College; Introductions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Introductions. The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Center. University of Wisconsin, Madison; Introductions, Body Paragraphs, and Conclusions for an Argument Paper. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; “Writing Introductions.” In Good Essay Writing: A Social Sciences Guide . Peter Redman. 4th edition. (London: Sage, 2011), pp. 63-70; Resources for Writers: Introduction Strategies. Program in Writing and Humanistic Studies. Massachusetts Institute of Technology; Sharpling, Gerald. Writing an Introduction. Centre for Applied Linguistics, University of Warwick; Samraj, B. “Introductions in Research Articles: Variations Across Disciplines.” English for Specific Purposes 21 (2002): 1–17; Swales, John and Christine B. Feak. Academic Writing for Graduate Students: Essential Skills and Tasks . 2nd edition. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2004 ; Writing Your Introduction. Department of English Writing Guide. George Mason University.

Writing Tip

Avoid the "Dictionary" Introduction

Giving the dictionary definition of words related to the research problem may appear appropriate because it is important to define specific terminology that readers may be unfamiliar with. However, anyone can look a word up in the dictionary and a general dictionary is not a particularly authoritative source because it doesn't take into account the context of your topic and doesn't offer particularly detailed information. Also, placed in the context of a particular discipline, a term or concept may have a different meaning than what is found in a general dictionary. If you feel that you must seek out an authoritative definition, use a subject specific dictionary or encyclopedia [e.g., if you are a sociology student, search for dictionaries of sociology]. A good database for obtaining definitive definitions of concepts or terms is Credo Reference .

Saba, Robert. The College Research Paper. Florida International University; Introductions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina.

Another Writing Tip

When Do I Begin?

A common question asked at the start of any paper is, "Where should I begin?" An equally important question to ask yourself is, "When do I begin?" Research problems in the social sciences rarely rest in isolation from history. Therefore, it is important to lay a foundation for understanding the historical context underpinning the research problem. However, this information should be brief and succinct and begin at a point in time that illustrates the study's overall importance. For example, a study that investigates coffee cultivation and export in West Africa as a key stimulus for local economic growth needs to describe the beginning of exporting coffee in the region and establishing why economic growth is important. You do not need to give a long historical explanation about coffee exports in Africa. If a research problem requires a substantial exploration of the historical context, do this in the literature review section. In your introduction, make note of this as part of the "roadmap" [see below] that you use to describe the organization of your paper.

Introductions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; “Writing Introductions.” In Good Essay Writing: A Social Sciences Guide . Peter Redman. 4th edition. (London: Sage, 2011), pp. 63-70.

Yet Another Writing Tip

Always End with a Roadmap

The final paragraph or sentences of your introduction should forecast your main arguments and conclusions and provide a brief description of the rest of the paper [the "roadmap"] that let's the reader know where you are going and what to expect. A roadmap is important because it helps the reader place the research problem within the context of their own perspectives about the topic. In addition, concluding your introduction with an explicit roadmap tells the reader that you have a clear understanding of the structural purpose of your paper. In this way, the roadmap acts as a type of promise to yourself and to your readers that you will follow a consistent and coherent approach to addressing the topic of inquiry. Refer to it often to help keep your writing focused and organized.

Cassuto, Leonard. “On the Dissertation: How to Write the Introduction.” The Chronicle of Higher Education , May 28, 2018; Radich, Michael. A Student's Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies . (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Writing n. d.), pp. 35-37.

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How to write an effective introduction for your research paper

Last updated

20 January 2024

Reviewed by

However, the introduction is a vital element of your research paper. It helps the reader decide whether your paper is worth their time. As such, it's worth taking your time to get it right.

In this article, we'll tell you everything you need to know about writing an effective introduction for your research paper.

• The importance of an introduction in research papers

The primary purpose of an introduction is to provide an overview of your paper. This lets readers gauge whether they want to continue reading or not. The introduction should provide a meaningful roadmap of your research to help them make this decision. It should let readers know whether the information they're interested in is likely to be found in the pages that follow.

Aside from providing readers with information about the content of your paper, the introduction also sets the tone. It shows readers the style of language they can expect, which can further help them to decide how far to read.

When you take into account both of these roles that an introduction plays, it becomes clear that crafting an engaging introduction is the best way to get your paper read more widely. First impressions count, and the introduction provides that impression to readers.

• The optimum length for a research paper introduction

While there's no magic formula to determine exactly how long a research paper introduction should be, there are a few guidelines. Some variables that impact the ideal introduction length include:

Field of study

Complexity of the topic

Specific requirements of the course or publication

A commonly recommended length of a research paper introduction is around 10% of the total paper’s length. So, a ten-page paper has a one-page introduction. If the topic is complex, it may require more background to craft a compelling intro. Humanities papers tend to have longer introductions than those of the hard sciences.

The best way to craft an introduction of the right length is to focus on clarity and conciseness. Tell the reader only what is necessary to set up your research. An introduction edited down with this goal in mind should end up at an acceptable length.

• Evaluating successful research paper introductions

A good way to gauge how to create a great introduction is by looking at examples from across your field. The most influential and well-regarded papers should provide some insights into what makes a good introduction.

Dissecting examples: what works and why

We can make some general assumptions by looking at common elements of a good introduction, regardless of the field of research.

A common structure is to start with a broad context, and then narrow that down to specific research questions or hypotheses. This creates a funnel that establishes the scope and relevance.

The most effective introductions are careful about the assumptions they make regarding reader knowledge. By clearly defining key terms and concepts instead of assuming the reader is familiar with them, these introductions set a more solid foundation for understanding.

To pull in the reader and make that all-important good first impression, excellent research paper introductions will often incorporate a compelling narrative or some striking fact that grabs the reader's attention.

Finally, good introductions provide clear citations from past research to back up the claims they're making. In the case of argumentative papers or essays (those that take a stance on a topic or issue), a strong thesis statement compels the reader to continue reading.

Common pitfalls to avoid in research paper introductions

You can also learn what not to do by looking at other research papers. Many authors have made mistakes you can learn from.

We've talked about the need to be clear and concise. Many introductions fail at this; they're verbose, vague, or otherwise fail to convey the research problem or hypothesis efficiently. This often comes in the form of an overemphasis on background information, which obscures the main research focus.

Ensure your introduction provides the proper emphasis and excitement around your research and its significance. Otherwise, fewer people will want to read more about it.

• Crafting a compelling introduction for a research paper

Let’s take a look at the steps required to craft an introduction that pulls readers in and compels them to learn more about your research.

Step 1: Capturing interest and setting the scene

To capture the reader's interest immediately, begin your introduction with a compelling question, a surprising fact, a provocative quote, or some other mechanism that will hook readers and pull them further into the paper.

As they continue reading, the introduction should contextualize your research within the current field, showing readers its relevance and importance. Clarify any essential terms that will help them better understand what you're saying. This keeps the fundamentals of your research accessible to all readers from all backgrounds.

Step 2: Building a solid foundation with background information

Including background information in your introduction serves two major purposes:

It helps to clarify the topic for the reader

It establishes the depth of your research

The approach you take when conveying this information depends on the type of paper.

For argumentative papers, you'll want to develop engaging background narratives. These should provide context for the argument you'll be presenting.

For empirical papers, highlighting past research is the key. Often, there will be some questions that weren't answered in those past papers. If your paper is focused on those areas, those papers make ideal candidates for you to discuss and critique in your introduction.

Step 3: Pinpointing the research challenge

To capture the attention of the reader, you need to explain what research challenges you'll be discussing.

For argumentative papers, this involves articulating why the argument you'll be making is important. What is its relevance to current discussions or problems? What is the potential impact of people accepting or rejecting your argument?

For empirical papers, explain how your research is addressing a gap in existing knowledge. What new insights or contributions will your research bring to your field?

Step 4: Clarifying your research aims and objectives

We mentioned earlier that the introduction to a research paper can serve as a roadmap for what's within. We've also frequently discussed the need for clarity. This step addresses both of these.

When writing an argumentative paper, craft a thesis statement with impact. Clearly articulate what your position is and the main points you intend to present. This will map out for the reader exactly what they'll get from reading the rest.

For empirical papers, focus on formulating precise research questions and hypotheses. Directly link them to the gaps or issues you've identified in existing research to show the reader the precise direction your research paper will take.

Step 5: Sketching the blueprint of your study

Continue building a roadmap for your readers by designing a structured outline for the paper. Guide the reader through your research journey, explaining what the different sections will contain and their relationship to one another.

This outline should flow seamlessly as you move from section to section. Creating this outline early can also help guide the creation of the paper itself, resulting in a final product that's better organized. In doing so, you'll craft a paper where each section flows intuitively from the next.

Step 6: Integrating your research question

To avoid letting your research question get lost in background information or clarifications, craft your introduction in such a way that the research question resonates throughout. The research question should clearly address a gap in existing knowledge or offer a new perspective on an existing problem.

Tell users your research question explicitly but also remember to frequently come back to it. When providing context or clarification, point out how it relates to the research question. This keeps your focus where it needs to be and prevents the topic of the paper from becoming under-emphasized.

Step 7: Establishing the scope and limitations

So far, we've talked mostly about what's in the paper and how to convey that information to readers. The opposite is also important. Information that's outside the scope of your paper should be made clear to the reader in the introduction so their expectations for what is to follow are set appropriately.

Similarly, be honest and upfront about the limitations of the study. Any constraints in methodology, data, or how far your findings can be generalized should be fully communicated in the introduction.

Step 8: Concluding the introduction with a promise

The final few lines of the introduction are your last chance to convince people to continue reading the rest of the paper. Here is where you should make it very clear what benefit they'll get from doing so. What topics will be covered? What questions will be answered? Make it clear what they will get for continuing.

By providing a quick recap of the key points contained in the introduction in its final lines and properly setting the stage for what follows in the rest of the paper, you refocus the reader's attention on the topic of your research and guide them to read more.

• Research paper introduction best practices

Following the steps above will give you a compelling introduction that hits on all the key points an introduction should have. Some more tips and tricks can make an introduction even more polished.

As you follow the steps above, keep the following tips in mind.

Set the right tone and style

Like every piece of writing, a research paper should be written for the audience. That is to say, it should match the tone and style that your academic discipline and target audience expect. This is typically a formal and academic tone, though the degree of formality varies by field.

Kno w the audience

The perfect introduction balances clarity with conciseness. The amount of clarification required for a given topic depends greatly on the target audience. Knowing who will be reading your paper will guide you in determining how much background information is required.

Adopt the CARS (create a research space) model

The CARS model is a helpful tool for structuring introductions. This structure has three parts. The beginning of the introduction establishes the general research area. Next, relevant literature is reviewed and critiqued. The final section outlines the purpose of your study as it relates to the previous parts.

Master the art of funneling

The CARS method is one example of a well-funneled introduction. These start broadly and then slowly narrow down to your specific research problem. It provides a nice narrative flow that provides the right information at the right time. If you stray from the CARS model, try to retain this same type of funneling.

Incorporate narrative element

People read research papers largely to be informed. But to inform the reader, you have to hold their attention. A narrative style, particularly in the introduction, is a great way to do that. This can be a compelling story, an intriguing question, or a description of a real-world problem.

Write the introduction last

By writing the introduction after the rest of the paper, you'll have a better idea of what your research entails and how the paper is structured. This prevents the common problem of writing something in the introduction and then forgetting to include it in the paper. It also means anything particularly exciting in the paper isn’t neglected in the intro.

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• Knowledge Base
• Dissertation

How to Write a Thesis or Dissertation Introduction

Published on 9 September 2022 by Tegan George and Shona McCombes.

The introduction is the first section of your thesis or dissertation , appearing right after the table of contents . Your introduction draws your reader in, setting the stage for your research with a clear focus, purpose, and direction.

Your introduction should include:

• Your topic, in context: what does your reader need to know to understand your thesis dissertation?
• Your focus and scope: what specific aspect of the topic will you address?
• The relevance of your research: how does your work fit into existing studies on your topic?
• Your questions and objectives: what does your research aim to find out, and how?
• An overview of your structure: what does each section contribute to the overall aim?

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Table of contents

How to start your introduction, topic and context, focus and scope, relevance and importance, questions and objectives, overview of the structure, thesis introduction example, introduction checklist, frequently asked questions about introductions.

Although your introduction kicks off your dissertation, it doesn’t have to be the first thing you write – in fact, it’s often one of the very last parts to be completed (just before your abstract ).

It’s a good idea to write a rough draft of your introduction as you begin your research, to help guide you. If you wrote a research proposal , consider using this as a template, as it contains many of the same elements. However, be sure to revise your introduction throughout the writing process, making sure it matches the content of your ensuing sections.

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Begin by introducing your research topic and giving any necessary background information. It’s important to contextualise your research and generate interest. Aim to show why your topic is timely or important. You may want to mention a relevant news item, academic debate, or practical problem.

After a brief introduction to your general area of interest, narrow your focus and define the scope of your research.

You can narrow this down in many ways, such as by:

• Geographical area
• Time period
• Demographics or communities
• Themes or aspects of the topic

It’s essential to share your motivation for doing this research, as well as how it relates to existing work on your topic. Further, you should also mention what new insights you expect it will contribute.

Start by giving a brief overview of the current state of research. You should definitely cite the most relevant literature, but remember that you will conduct a more in-depth survey of relevant sources in the literature review section, so there’s no need to go too in-depth in the introduction.

Depending on your field, the importance of your research might focus on its practical application (e.g., in policy or management) or on advancing scholarly understanding of the topic (e.g., by developing theories or adding new empirical data). In many cases, it will do both.

Ultimately, your introduction should explain how your thesis or dissertation:

• Helps solve a practical or theoretical problem
• Addresses a gap in the literature
• Builds on existing research
• Proposes a new understanding of your topic

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Perhaps the most important part of your introduction is your questions and objectives, as it sets up the expectations for the rest of your thesis or dissertation. How you formulate your research questions and research objectives will depend on your discipline, topic, and focus, but you should always clearly state the central aim of your research.

If your research aims to test hypotheses , you can formulate them here. Your introduction is also a good place for a conceptual framework that suggests relationships between variables .

• Conduct surveys to collect data on students’ levels of knowledge, understanding, and positive/negative perceptions of government policy.
• Determine whether attitudes to climate policy are associated with variables such as age, gender, region, and social class.
• Conduct interviews to gain qualitative insights into students’ perspectives and actions in relation to climate policy.

To help guide your reader, end your introduction with an outline  of the structure of the thesis or dissertation to follow. Share a brief summary of each chapter, clearly showing how each contributes to your central aims. However, be careful to keep this overview concise: 1-2 sentences should be enough.

I. Introduction

Human language consists of a set of vowels and consonants which are combined to form words. During the speech production process, thoughts are converted into spoken utterances to convey a message. The appropriate words and their meanings are selected in the mental lexicon (Dell & Burger, 1997). This pre-verbal message is then grammatically coded, during which a syntactic representation of the utterance is built.

Speech, language, and voice disorders affect the vocal cords, nerves, muscles, and brain structures, which result in a distorted language reception or speech production (Sataloff & Hawkshaw, 2014). The symptoms vary from adding superfluous words and taking pauses to hoarseness of the voice, depending on the type of disorder (Dodd, 2005). However, distortions of the speech may also occur as a result of a disease that seems unrelated to speech, such as multiple sclerosis or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.

This study aims to determine which acoustic parameters are suitable for the automatic detection of exacerbations in patients suffering from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) by investigating which aspects of speech differ between COPD patients and healthy speakers and which aspects differ between COPD patients in exacerbation and stable COPD patients.

Checklist: Introduction

I have introduced my research topic in an engaging way.

I have provided necessary context to help the reader understand my topic.

I have clearly specified the focus of my research.

I have shown the relevance and importance of the dissertation topic .

I have clearly stated the problem or question that my research addresses.

I have outlined the specific objectives of the research .

I have provided an overview of the dissertation’s structure .

You've written a strong introduction for your thesis or dissertation. Use the other checklists to continue improving your dissertation.

The introduction of a research paper includes several key elements:

• A hook to catch the reader’s interest
• Relevant background on the topic
• Details of your research problem
• A thesis statement or research question
• Sometimes an outline of the paper

Don’t feel that you have to write the introduction first. The introduction is often one of the last parts of the research paper you’ll write, along with the conclusion.

This is because it can be easier to introduce your paper once you’ve already written the body ; you may not have the clearest idea of your arguments until you’ve written them, and things can change during the writing process .

Research objectives describe what you intend your research project to accomplish.

They summarise the approach and purpose of the project and help to focus your research.

Your objectives should appear in the introduction of your research paper , at the end of your problem statement .

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the ‘Cite this Scribbr article’ button to automatically add the citation to our free Reference Generator.

George, T. & McCombes, S. (2022, September 09). How to Write a Thesis or Dissertation Introduction. Scribbr. Retrieved 15 April 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/thesis-dissertation/introduction/

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Other students also liked, what is a dissertation | 5 essential questions to get started, how to write an abstract | steps & examples, how to write a thesis or dissertation conclusion.

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• Research Papers

How to Write a Research Introduction

Last Updated: December 6, 2023 Fact Checked

This article was co-authored by Megan Morgan, PhD . Megan Morgan is a Graduate Program Academic Advisor in the School of Public & International Affairs at the University of Georgia. She earned her PhD in English from the University of Georgia in 2015. There are 7 references cited in this article, which can be found at the bottom of the page. This article has been fact-checked, ensuring the accuracy of any cited facts and confirming the authority of its sources. This article has been viewed 2,651,775 times.

The introduction to a research paper can be the most challenging part of the paper to write. The length of the introduction will vary depending on the type of research paper you are writing. An introduction should announce your topic, provide context and a rationale for your work, before stating your research questions and hypothesis. Well-written introductions set the tone for the paper, catch the reader's interest, and communicate the hypothesis or thesis statement.

Introducing the Topic of the Paper

• In scientific papers this is sometimes known as an "inverted triangle", where you start with the broadest material at the start, before zooming in on the specifics. [2] X Research source
• The sentence "Throughout the 20th century, our views of life on other planets have drastically changed" introduces a topic, but does so in broad terms.
• It provides the reader with an indication of the content of the essay and encourages them to read on.

• For example, if you were writing a paper about the behaviour of mice when exposed to a particular substance, you would include the word "mice", and the scientific name of the relevant compound in the first sentences.
• If you were writing a history paper about the impact of the First World War on gender relations in Britain, you should mention those key words in your first few lines.

• This is especially important if you are attempting to develop a new conceptualization that uses language and terminology your readers may be unfamiliar with.

• If you use an anecdote ensure that is short and highly relevant for your research. It has to function in the same way as an alternative opening, namely to announce the topic of your research paper to your reader.
• For example, if you were writing a sociology paper about re-offending rates among young offenders, you could include a brief story of one person whose story reflects and introduces your topic.
• This kind of approach is generally not appropriate for the introduction to a natural or physical sciences research paper where the writing conventions are different.

Establishing the Context for Your Paper

• It is important to be concise in the introduction, so provide an overview on recent developments in the primary research rather than a lengthy discussion.
• You can follow the "inverted triangle" principle to focus in from the broader themes to those to which you are making a direct contribution with your paper.
• A strong literature review presents important background information to your own research and indicates the importance of the field.

• By making clear reference to existing work you can demonstrate explicitly the specific contribution you are making to move the field forward.
• You can identify a gap in the existing scholarship and explain how you are addressing it and moving understanding forward.

• For example, if you are writing a scientific paper you could stress the merits of the experimental approach or models you have used.
• Stress what is novel in your research and the significance of your new approach, but don't give too much detail in the introduction.
• A stated rationale could be something like: "the study evaluates the previously unknown anti-inflammatory effects of a topical compound in order to evaluate its potential clinical uses".

Specifying Your Research Questions and Hypothesis

• The research question or questions generally come towards the end of the introduction, and should be concise and closely focused.
• The research question might recall some of the key words established in the first few sentences and the title of your paper.
• An example of a research question could be "what were the consequences of the North American Free Trade Agreement on the Mexican export economy?"
• This could be honed further to be specific by referring to a particular element of the Free Trade Agreement and the impact on a particular industry in Mexico, such as clothing manufacture.
• A good research question should shape a problem into a testable hypothesis.

• If possible try to avoid using the word "hypothesis" and rather make this implicit in your writing. This can make your writing appear less formulaic.
• In a scientific paper, giving a clear one-sentence overview of your results and their relation to your hypothesis makes the information clear and accessible. [10] X Trustworthy Source PubMed Central Journal archive from the U.S. National Institutes of Health Go to source
• An example of a hypothesis could be "mice deprived of food for the duration of the study were expected to become more lethargic than those fed normally".

• This is not always necessary and you should pay attention to the writing conventions in your discipline.
• In a natural sciences paper, for example, there is a fairly rigid structure which you will be following.
• A humanities or social science paper will most likely present more opportunities to deviate in how you structure your paper.

Research Introduction Help

Community Q&A

• Use your research papers' outline to help you decide what information to include when writing an introduction. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 1
• Consider drafting your introduction after you have already completed the rest of your research paper. Writing introductions last can help ensure that you don't leave out any major points. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0

• Avoid emotional or sensational introductions; these can create distrust in the reader. Thanks Helpful 50 Not Helpful 12
• Generally avoid using personal pronouns in your introduction, such as "I," "me," "we," "us," "my," "mine," or "our." Thanks Helpful 31 Not Helpful 7
• Don't overwhelm the reader with an over-abundance of information. Keep the introduction as concise as possible by saving specific details for the body of your paper. Thanks Helpful 24 Not Helpful 14

You Might Also Like

• ↑ https://library.sacredheart.edu/c.php?g=29803&p=185916
• ↑ https://www.aresearchguide.com/inverted-pyramid-structure-in-writing.html
• ↑ https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/introduction
• ↑ https://writing.wisc.edu/Handbook/PlanResearchPaper.html
• ↑ https://dept.writing.wisc.edu/wac/writing-an-introduction-for-a-scientific-paper/
• ↑ https://writing.wisc.edu/handbook/assignments/planresearchpaper/
• ↑ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3178846/

About This Article

To introduce your research paper, use the first 1-2 sentences to describe your general topic, such as “women in World War I.” Include and define keywords, such as “gender relations,” to show your reader where you’re going. Mention previous research into the topic with a phrase like, “Others have studied…”, then transition into what your contribution will be and why it’s necessary. Finally, state the questions that your paper will address and propose your “answer” to them as your thesis statement. For more information from our English Ph.D. co-author about how to craft a strong hypothesis and thesis, keep reading! Did this summary help you? Yes No

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Organizing Academic Research Papers: 4. The Introduction

• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Academic Writing Style
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• Executive Summary
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Content Alert Services
• Evaluating Sources
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tertiary Sources
• What Is Scholarly vs. Popular?
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Annotated Bibliography
• Dealing with Nervousness
• Using Visual Aids
• Grading Someone Else's Paper
• How to Manage Group Projects
• Multiple Book Review Essay
• Reviewing Collected Essays
• About Informed Consent
• Writing Field Notes
• Writing a Policy Memo
• Writing a Research Proposal
• Acknowledgements

The introduction serves the purpose of leading the reader from a general subject area to a particular field of research. It establishes the context of the research being conducted by summarizing current understanding and background information about the topic, stating the purpose of the work in the form of the hypothesis, question, or research problem, briefly explaining your rationale, methodological approach, highlighting the potential outcomes your study can reveal, and describing the remaining structure of the paper.

Key Elements of the Research Proposal. Prepared under the direction of the Superintendent and by the 2010 Curriculum Design and Writing Team. Baltimore County Public Schools.

Importance of a Good Introduction

Think of the introduction as a mental road map that must answer for the reader these four questions:

• What was I studying?
• Why was this topic important to investigate?
• What did we know about this topic before I did this study?
• How will this study advance our knowledge?

A well-written introduction is important because, quite simply, you never get a second chance to make a good first impression. The opening paragraph of your paper will provide your readers with their initial impressions about the logic of your argument, your writing style, the overall quality of your research, and, ultimately, the validity of your findings and conclusions. A vague, disorganized, or error-filled introduction will create a negative impression, whereas, a concise, engaging, and well-written introduction will start your readers off thinking highly of your analytical skills, your writing style, and your research approach.

Introductions . The Writing Center. University of North Carolina.

Structure and Writing Style

I. Structure and Approach

The introduction is the broad beginning of the paper that answers three important questions for the reader:

• What is this?
• Why am I reading it?
• What do you want me to think about / consider doing / react to?

Think of the structure of the introduction as an inverted triangle of information. Organize the information so as to present the more general aspects of the topic early in the introduction, then narrow toward the more specific topical information that provides context, finally arriving at your statement of purpose and rationale and, whenever possible, the potential outcomes your study can reveal.

These are general phases associated with writing an introduction:

• Highlighting the importance of the topic, and/or
• Making general statements about the topic, and/or
• Presenting an overview on current research on the subject.
• Opposing an existing assumption, and/or
• Revealing a gap in existing research, and/or
• Formulating a research question or problem, and/or
• Continuing a disciplinary tradition.
• Stating the intent of your study,
• Outlining the key characteristics of your study,
• Describing important results, and
• Giving a brief overview of the structure of the paper.

NOTE: Even though the introduction is the first main section of a research paper, it is often useful to finish the introduction very late in the writing process because the structure of the paper, the reporting and analysis of results, and the conclusion will have been completed and it ensures that your introduction matches the overall structure of your paper.

II.  Delimitations of the Study

Delimitations refer to those characteristics that limit the scope and define the conceptual boundaries of your study . This is determined by the conscious exclusionary and inclusionary decisions you make about how to investigate the research problem. In other words, not only should you tell the reader what it is you are studying and why, but you must also acknowledge why you rejected alternative approaches that could have been used to examine the research problem.

Obviously, the first limiting step was the choice of research problem itself. However, implicit are other, related problems that could have been chosen but were rejected. These should be noted in the conclusion of your introduction.

Examples of delimitating choices would be:

• The key aims and objectives of your study,
• The research questions that you address,
• The variables of interest [i.e., the various factors and features of the phenomenon being studied],
• The method(s) of investigation, and
• Any relevant alternative theoretical frameworks that could have been adopted.

Review each of these decisions. You need to not only clearly establish what you intend to accomplish, but to also include a declaration of what the study does not intend to cover. In the latter case, your exclusionary decisions should be based upon criteria stated as, "not interesting"; "not directly relevant"; “too problematic because..."; "not feasible," and the like. Make this reasoning explicit!

NOTE: Delimitations refer to the initial choices made about the broader, overall design of your study and should not be confused with documenting the limitations of your study discovered after the research has been completed.

III. The Narrative Flow

Issues to keep in mind that will help the narrative flow in your introduction :

• Your introduction should clearly identify the subject area of interest . A simple strategy to follow is to use key words from your title in the first few sentences of the introduction. This will help focus the introduction on the topic at the appropriate level and ensures that you get to the primary subject matter quickly without losing focus, or discussing information that is too general.
• Establish context by providing a brief and balanced review of the pertinent published literature that is available on the subject. The key is to summarize for the reader what is known about the specific research problem before you did your analysis. This part of your introduction should not represent a comprehensive literature review but consists of a general review of the important, foundational research literature (with citations) that lays a foundation for understanding key elements of the research problem. See the drop-down tab for "Background Information" for types of contexts.
• Clearly state the hypothesis that you investigated . When you are first learning to write in this format it is okay, and actually preferable, to use a past statement like, "The purpose of this study was to...." or "We investigated three possible mechanisms to explain the...."
• Why did you choose this kind of research study or design? Provide a clear statement of the rationale for your approach to the problem studied. This will usually follow your statement of purpose in the last paragraph of the introduction.

IV. Engaging the Reader

The overarching goal of your introduction is to make your readers want to read your paper. The introduction should grab your reader's attention. Strategies for doing this can be to:

• Open with a compelling story,
• Include a strong quotation or a vivid, perhaps unexpected anecdote,
• Pose a provocative or thought-provoking question,
• Describe a puzzling scenario or incongruity, or
• Cite a stirring example or case study that illustrates why the research problem is important.

NOTE:   Only choose one strategy for engaging your readers; avoid giving an impression that your paper is more flash than substance.

Freedman, Leora  and Jerry Plotnick. Introductions and Conclusions . University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Introduction . The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College; Introductions . The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Introductions . The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Center. University of Wisconsin, Madison; Introductions, Body Paragraphs, and Conclusions for an Argument Paper. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Resources for Writers: Introduction Strategies . Program in Writing and Humanistic Studies. Massachusetts Institute of Technology; Sharpling, Gerald. Writing an Introduction . Centre for Applied Linguistics, University of Warwick; Writing Your Introduction. Department of English Writing Guide. George Mason University.

Writing Tip

Avoid the "Dictionary" Introduction

Giving the dictionary definition of words related to the research problem may appear appropriate because it is important to define specific words or phrases with which readers may be unfamiliar. However, anyone can look a word up in the dictionary and a general dictionary is not a particularly authoritative source. It doesn't take into account the context of your topic and doesn't offer particularly detailed information. Also, placed in the context of a particular discipline, a term may have a different meaning than what is found in a general dictionary. If you feel that you must seek out an authoritative definition, try to find one that is from subject specific dictionaries or encyclopedias [e.g., if you are a sociology student, search for dictionaries of sociology].

Saba, Robert. The College Research Paper . Florida International University; Introductions . The Writing Center. University of North Carolina.

Another Writing Tip

When Do I Begin?

A common question asked at the start of any paper is, "where should I begin?" An equally important question to ask yourself is, "When do I begin?" Research problems in the social sciences rarely rest in isolation from the history of the issue being investigated. It is, therefore, important to lay a foundation for understanding the historical context underpinning the research problem. However, this information should be brief and succinct and begin at a point in time that best informs the reader of study's overall importance. For example, a study about coffee cultivation and export in West Africa as a key stimulus for local economic growth needs to describe the beginning of exporting coffee in the region and establishing why economic growth is important. You do not need to give a long historical explanation about coffee exportation in Africa. If a research problem demands a substantial exploration of historical context, do this in the literature review section; note in the introduction as part of your "roadmap" [see below] that you covering this in the literature review.

Yet Another Writing Tip

Always End with a Roadmap

The final paragraph or sentences of your introduction should forecast your main arguments and conclusions and provide a description of the rest of the paper [a "roadmap"] that let's the reader know where you are going and what to expect.

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Module 1: Introduction: What is Research?

Learning Objectives

By the end of this module, you will be able to:

• Explain how the scientific method is used to develop new knowledge
• Describe why it is important to follow a research plan

The Scientific Method consists of observing the world around you and creating a  hypothesis  about relationships in the world. A hypothesis is an informed and educated prediction or explanation about something. Part of the research process involves testing the  hypothesis , and then examining the results of these tests as they relate to both the hypothesis and the world around you. When a researcher forms a hypothesis, this acts like a map through the research study. It tells the researcher which factors are important to study and how they might be related to each other or caused by a  manipulation  that the researcher introduces (e.g. a program, treatment or change in the environment). With this map, the researcher can interpret the information he/she collects and can make sound conclusions about the results.

Research can be done with human beings, animals, plants, other organisms and inorganic matter. When research is done with human beings and animals, it must follow specific rules about the treatment of humans and animals that have been created by the U.S. Federal Government. This ensures that humans and animals are treated with dignity and respect, and that the research causes minimal harm.

No matter what topic is being studied, the value of the research depends on how well it is designed and done. Therefore, one of the most important considerations in doing good research is to follow the design or plan that is developed by an experienced researcher who is called the  Principal Investigator  (PI). The PI is in charge of all aspects of the research and creates what is called a  protocol  (the research plan) that all people doing the research must follow. By doing so, the PI and the public can be sure that the results of the research are real and useful to other scientists.

Module 1: Discussion Questions

• How is a hypothesis like a road map?
• Who is ultimately responsible for the design and conduct of a research study?
• How does following the research protocol contribute to informing public health practices?

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Introduction: What Is Research?

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• Rajeeb Dey 7 &
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Research refers to a careful, well-defined (or redefined), objective, and systematic method of search for knowledge, or formulation of a theory that is driven by inquisitiveness for that which is unknown and useful on a particular aspect so as to make an original contribution to expand the existing knowledge base. Research involves the formulation of hypothesis or proposition of solutions, data analysis, and deductions; and ascertaining whether the conclusions fit the hypothesis. Research is a process of creating, or formulating knowledge that does not yet exist.

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Hill, F., & Collins, L. (2000). A descriptive and analytical model of organisational transformation. International Journal of Quality & Reliability Management , 17 (9), 966–983.

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Deb, D., Dey, R., Balas, V.E. (2019). Introduction: What Is Research?. In: Engineering Research Methodology. Intelligent Systems Reference Library, vol 153. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-2947-0_1

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH article

Research on the metabolic regulation mechanism of yangyin qingfei decoction plus in severe pneumonia caused by mycoplasma pneumoniae in mice.

• 1 The First Clinical College of Liaoning University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shenyang, China
• 2 The Second Affiliated Hospital of Liaoning University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shenyang, China
• 3 College of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Liaoning University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shenyang, China

Introduction: With amazing clinical efficacy, Yangyin Qingfei Decoction Plus (YQDP), a well-known and age-old Chinese compound made of ten Chinese botanical drugs, is utilized in clinical settings to treat a range of respiratory conditions. This study examines the impact of Yangyin Qingfei Decoction (YQDP) on lung tissue metabolic products in severe Mycoplasma pneumoniae pneumonia (SMPP) model mice and examines the mechanism of YQDP in treating MP infection using UPLC-MS/MS technology.

Methods: YQDP’s chemical composition was ascertained by the use of Agilent 1260 Ⅱ high-performance liquid chromatography. By using a nasal drip of 10 10 CCU/mL MP bacterial solution, an SMPP mouse model was created. The lung index, pathology and ultrastructural observation of lung tissue were utilized to assess the therapeutic effect of YQDP in SMPP mice. Lung tissue metabolites were found in the normal group, model group, and YQDP group using UPLC-MS/MS technology. Using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent test (ELISA), the amount of serum inflammatory factors, such as interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), was found. Additionally, the protein expression of PI3K, P-PI3K, AKT, P-AKT, NF-κB, and P-NF-κB was found using Western blot.

Results: The contents of chlorogenic acid, paeoniflorin, forsythrin A, forsythrin, and paeonol in YQDP were 3.480 ± 0.051, 3.255 ± 0.040, 3.612 ± 0.017, 1.757 ± 0.031, and 1.080 ± 0.007 mg/g respectively. YQDP can considerably lower the SMPP mice’s lung index ( p < 0.05). In the lung tissue of YQDP groups, there has been a decrease ( p < 0.05) in the infiltration of inflammatory cells at varying concentrations in the alveoli compared with the model group. A total of 47 distinct metabolites, including choline phosphate, glutamyl lysine, L-tyrosine, 6-thioinosine, Glu Trp, 5-hydroxydecanoate, etc., were linked to the regulation of YQDP, according to metabolomics study. By controlling the metabolism of porphyrins, pyrimidines, cholines, fatty acids, sphingolipids, glycerophospholipids, ferroptosis, steroid hormone biosynthesis, and unsaturated fatty acid biosynthesis, enrichment analysis suggested that YQDP may be used to treat SMPP. YQDP can lower the amount of TNF-α and IL-6 in model group mice as well as downregulate P-PI3K, P-AKT, and P-NF-κB expression ( p < 0.05).

Conclusion: A specific intervention effect of YQDP is observed in SMPP model mice. Through the PI3K/Akt/NF-κB signaling pathways, YQDP may have therapeutic benefits by regulating the body’s metabolism of α-Linoleic acid, sphingolipids, glycerophospholipids, arachidonic acid, and the production of unsaturated fatty acids.

1 Introduction

One of the most frequent infections in children with community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) is Mycoplasma pneumoniae (MP), which has a widespread pathogenicity and frequently exhibits periodic and regional epidemiology. Ten to forty percent of pediatric pneumonia cases are caused by Mycoplasma pneumoniae pneumonia (MPP), which is the result of MP infection ( Kutty et al., 2019 ). The MP infection is typically regarded as a self-limiting illness. It is marked by subtle respiratory symptoms, the most notable of which is paroxysmal dry cough, which is frequently followed by the expectoration of little amounts of mucus or mucopurulent sputum. Although MPP is thought to be self-limiting, 0.5%–to 2.0% of instances are known to proceed to severe MPP (SMPP). This condition is linked to life-threatening consequences such respiratory failure and acute respiratory distress syndrome, which can be fatal ( Izumikawa, 2016 ; Lee et al., 2021 ). Although the exact pathogenic mechanism of MP infection is unknown, some studies think that adhesion and cytotoxic effects cause direct damage to the respiratory epithelium during MP pathogenesis ( Atkinson et al., 2008 ). When MP infection damages host mucosal epithelial cells, it can generate toxic compounds that cause the epithelial cells to die and apoptose, which can result in pneumonia and other extrapulmonary injuries ( Sun et al., 2008 ; He et al., 2016 ). Since MP lacks a cell wall structure, it is resistant to antibiotics that stop bacteria from producing cell walls, but it is susceptible to quinolones, tetracyclines, and macrolides. For this reason, macrolides are the recommended treatment for MPP in children. Unfortunately, resistance to macrolides has grown in many regions since the discovery of macrolide-resistant strains of MP in China in 2003. Additionally, the side effects of macrolide antibiotics, such as gastrointestinal distress and vascular irritation, have made the hunt for more effective treatment options necessary ( Xin et al., 2005 ; Zhao et al., 2019 ; Dou et al., 2020 ). There are benefits to using traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) in the treatment of SMPP, and research on the targeted mechanism of TCM intervention in SMPP is currently a popular topic.

The “Chonglou Yuyao” book, authored by renowned Qing Dynasty physician Zheng Meijian, is where Yangyin Qingfei Decoction Plus (YQDP) originated. Ten traditional Chinese medicines are included in it: Rehmanniae Radix, Scrophulariae Radix, Ophiopogonis Radix, Paeoniae Radix Alba, Moutan Cortex, Fritillariae Thunbergii Bulbus, Menthae Haplocalycis Herba, Glycyrrhizae Radix Et Rhizoma, Forsythiae Fructus, and Lonicerae Japonicae Flos. In clinical settings, YQDP is frequently used to treat bronchopneumonia, post-infection cough, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, among other conditions ( Liu et al., 2017 ; Min et al., 2021 ). Contemporary pharmacological studies have demonstrated that YQDP functions by increasing tissue healing, controlling immunological function, and suppressing inflammatory reactions ( Tang et al., 2020 ). Forsythoside, a representative of Forsythiae Fructus, has shown antiviral, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties in contemporary studies ( Ma et al., 2020 ). Phenolic acid compounds in Lonicerae Japonicae Flos have pharmacological activities such as antiviral, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant effects. Compounds containing phenolic acid in Lonicerae Japonicae Flos include antioxidant, antiviral, and antibacterial properties ( Xiong et al., 2022 ). As an indication component of Lonicerae Japonicae Flos, chlorogenic acid possesses a variety of anti-inflammatory properties ( Gao et al., 2019 ) and can eliminate reactive oxygen species within cells ( Shin et al., 2017 ; Liang and Kitts, 2018 ). The primary ingredients of Forsythiae Fructus, forsythiaside A and forsythin, have potent antiviral and anti-inflammatory properties ( Qu et al., 2016 ; Runfeng et al., 2020 ). The functional elements of Moutan Cortex and Paeoniae Radix Alba are pheonol and pheoniflorin, respectively. The analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties of monoterpenes and their glycosides, embodied by Paeoniflorin, are acknowledged as the pharmacologically active components of Paeoniae Radix Alba ( Wu et al., 2018 ; Zhang et al., 2021 ). Paeonol has the ability to protect against oxidative stress, prevent the production of reactive oxygen species, and boost the activity of the enzymes superoxide dismutase and hydrogen peroxide ( Zhang et al., 2020 ). In earlier research, we established and evaluated a severe pneumonia model in high-load MP-infected mice ( Wu et al., 2023a ) and showed that YQDP regulates the TLR2/MyD88/NF-κB signaling pathway, Aquaporin5 (AQP5), and Mucin 5ac (MUC5ac) to regulate SMPP ( Wu et al., 2023b ; Qi et al., 2023 ).

An HPLC method is used in this study to simultaneously determine the level of five useful compounds in YQDP for quality control. The therapeutic benefits and metabolic pathways of YQDP on SMPP were then examined.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 reagents and chemicals.

Merck Company (USA) provided the acetonitrile (CAS: 75-05-8), phosphoric acid (CAS: 7664-38-2), and methanol (CAS: 67-56-1). The China Academy of Food and Drug Administration provided the following: Chlorogenic Acid (CGA, CAS: 327-97-9), Paeoniflorin (PF, CAS: 23180-57-–6), Forsythoside A (FTA, CAS: 79916-77-1), Forsythin (FT, CAS: 487-41-2), and Paeonol (PAE, CAS: 552-41-0). Proteintech was the source of the following antibodies: Anti-GAPDH (60004-1-Ig), Anti-PI3K (60225-1-Ig), Anti-AKT (10176-2-AP), Anti-Phospho-AKT (66444-1-Ig), and Anti-NFκB p65 (10745-1-AP). Bioss provided the anti-phospho-PI3K (bs-3332R) and anti-phospho-NFκB p65 (bs-3543R) antibodies.

Rehmannia glutinosa (Gaertn.) DC. [Orobanchaceae] (Rehmanniae Radix, 2202163), Scrophularia ningpoensis Hemsl. [Scrophulariaceae] (Scrophulariae Radix, 2203081), Ophiopogon japonicus (Thunb.) Ker Gawl. [Asparagaceae] (Ophiopogonis Radix, 2203052), Paeonia lactiflora Pall. [Paeoniaceae] (Paeoniae Radix Alba, 2203152), Paeonia × suffruticosa Andrews [Paeoniaceae] (Moutan Cortex, 2,203,121), Fritillaria thunbergii Miq. [Liliaceae] (Fritillariae Thunbergii Bulbus, 2203151), Mentha canadensis L. [Lamiaceae] (Menthae Haplocalycis Herba, 2203241), Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch. ex DC. [Fabaceae] (Glycyrrhizae Radix Et Rhizoma, 2203152), Forsythia suspensa (Thunb.) Vahl [Oleaceae] (Forsythiae Fructus, 2204102), and Lonicera japonica Thunb. [Caprifoliaceae] (Lonicerae Japonicae Flos, 2203081) were purchased from Anhui Puren Traditional Chinese Medicine Drinking Tablets Co Ltd (Anhui, China) and authenticated by Professor Leng Yujie from the Chinese Herbal Medicine Bureau of the Affiliated Hospital of Liaoning University of Traditional Chinese Medicine (Shenyang, China). Rehmanniae Radix sample (RGL20220617), Scrophulariae Radix sample (SNH20220618), Ophiopogonis Radix sample (OJK20220619), Paeoniae Radix Alba sample (PLP20220617), Moutan Cortex sample (PSA20220617), Fritillariae Thunbergii Bulbus sample (FTM20220617), Menthae Haplocalycis Herba sample (MHB20220617), Glycyrrhizae Radix Et Rhizoma sample (GUF20220617), Forsythiae Fructus sample (FSV20220617) and Lonicerae Japonicae Flos sample (LJT20220617) were kept in the Laboratory of Pharmacognosy, Liaoning Academy of Traditional Chinese Medicine.

2.2 Experimental animals and strains

36 SPF BALB/c mice, 4–6 weeks, weighing 20 ± 2g, were provided by Liaoning Changsheng Biotechnology Co., Ltd. [SCXK (Liao) 2020–0001]. The mice were kept in separate cages at the Experimental Animal Center of Liaoning University of Traditional Chinese Medicine [SYXK (Liao) 2019-004]. The housing environment was kept at (22 ± 2)°C, with a 12h/12 h light/dark cycle, and a humidity of (50 ± 2)%. The MP standard strain FH was stored in the virus room of the Affiliated Hospital of Liaoning University of Traditional Chinese Medicine. The Animal Ethics Committee of Liaoning University of Traditional Chinese Medicine gave its approval to this study (Approval No.: 21000042021131).

2.3 Determination of five active ingredients in YQDP

2.3.1 preparation of standard solutions.

Precisely weighing CGA, PF, FTA, FT, and PAE, then dissolving them with methanol to create a solution with CGA at 0.214 mg/mL, PF at 0.217 mg/mL, FTA at 0.214 mg/mL, FT at 0.118 mg/mL, and PAE at 0.068 mg/mL.

2.3.2 Preparation of YQDP sample solutions

The procedure described in the literature was used to make YQDP ( Wu et al., 2019 ). Rehmanniae Radix (15 g), Scrophulariae Radix (11 g), Ophiopogonis Radix (9 g), Paeoniae Radix Alba (6 g), Moutan Cortex (6 g), Fritillariae Thunbergii Bulbus (6 g), Menthae Haplocalycis Herba (4 g), Glycyrrhizae Radix Et Rhizoma (4 g), Forsythiae Fructus (6 g) and Lonicerae Japonicae Flos (6 g) were then placed in a 10-fold 70% ethanol (v/v). The extract was then extracted using cold reflux for 70 min, filtered, concentrated to create a paste, and dried at a constant temperature to produce YQDP dry powder. Ultimately, 25 mL of methanol and 0.5 g of the dry powder were combined, sonicated, and then filtered through a 0.45 µm filter membrane for additional usage.

2.3.3 HPLC analysis

A SHIMADZU-GL C18 (250 mm × 4.6 mm × 5 μm) column was used in an Agilent 1260 high-performance liquid chromatograph to determine the content. The flow rate was 0.8 mL/min and the column temperature was 30°C. The following gradient elution conditions applied to the mobile phase, which was 0.1% phosphoric acid-water (A) and acetonitrile (B): 0∼20 min, 10%∼20% (B); 20∼25 min, 12%∼15% (B); 25∼30 min, 15%–18% (B); 30–50 min, 18%–36% (B); 50∼70 min, 36%∼50% (B); 70∼75 min, 50%∼50% (B); 75∼80 min, 50%∼60% (B); 80∼85 min, 60%∼70% (B). The following were the detecting wavelength and program: 0∼25 min, 330 nm; 25∼37 min, 230 nm; 37∼45 min, 280 nm. 5 μL was the injection volume of the sample.

2.4 Preparation of YQDP prescription for intervention in SMPP model mice

Condensation and refluxing with 70% ethanol for 70 min was used to extract Rehmanniae Radix (150 g), Scrophulariae Radix (110 g), Ophiopogonis Radix (90 g), Paeoniae Radix Alba (60 g), Moutan Cortex (60 g), Fritillariae Thunbergii Bulbus (60 g), Menthae Haplocalycis Herba (40 g), Glycyrrhizae Radix Et Rhizoma (40 g), Forsythiae Fructus (60 g) and Lonicerae Japonicae Flos (60 g). 176.23 g of the extract were obtained by drying the extracts at a steady temperature after they had been concentrated into a paste. The drug extraction rate was 24.14%.

2.5 MP cultivation

After thawing under running water, the MP strain was introduced to PPLO liquid medium and cultured at 37°C in an incubator set to a constant temperature with 5% CO 2 . The third generation was removed and placed aside when the liquid medium turned yellow instead of red. The Color Change Unite (CCU) was defined as the highest dilution concentration at which the medium turned yellow. The MP concentration was ascertained using the CCU/mL method, and the gradient dilution method was used to prepare the bacterial solution with a concentration of 1×10 10 CCU/mL.

2.6 Animal grouping and dosing

Following a week of consistent adaptive feeding, 36 BALB/c mice were split into six groups at random ( n = 6). Referring to the modeling method of previous studies ( Wu et al., 2023a ), mice were anesthetized with isoflurane. Mice in the normal group were given nasal drip of 100 μL of physiological saline, while mice in the other groups were given nasal drip of 100 μL of MP bacterial solution at a concentration of 1×10 10 CCU/mL. All groups received nasal drip for three consecutive days.

According to the “Animal Dose Conversion Table” ( Wei, 2010 ), the positive group was administered azithromycin dry suspension at a total dose of 0.370 g/kg. The YQDP group received three dosages of formula solution (1.552, 3.104, 6.208 g/kg, crude drug), The normal group and model group were given an equal amount of physiological saline. Lung tissue was utilized for pathological and metabolomic research, and serum from each group of mice was obtained for ELISA detection following continuous dosing for 7 days.

2.7 Mouse lung index

To determine the lung index, lung tissues were blotted dry on filter paper, washed with 0.9% saline, and then weighed.

2.8 Histopathological observation

After being fixed with 4% paraformaldehyde, the lung tissue was sectioned into thin 5 μm slices using a sectioning machine and embedded into wax blocks using a paraffin embedding machine. Under a light microscope, the pathological alterations in the lung tissue following HE staining were seen.

2.9 Observation of lung tissue ultrastructure

Two to three pieces of lung tissue (1 mm 3 ) were removed from each group, preserved using 2.5% glutaraldehyde and 1% osmium acid, gradually dried with acetone, and then sliced using an epoxy resin infiltration and embedding process. The samples were then stained with lead citrate and uranyl acetate so that an H-7650 transmission electron microscope could be used to observe the ultrastructural alterations in lung tissue.

2.10 Metabolomics analysis

0.1 g of lung tissue samples were weighed and then finely powdered using liquid nitrogen. Each group of samples received four times the volume of the extraction buffer MeOH/ACN (1:1, v/v), which was added, properly vortexed, and then incubated at −20°C for 1 h before being centrifuged at 18,000 g for 15 min at 4 °C. After transferring the liquid metabolite extraction supernatant to a centrifuge tube, separate an aliquot of 10 μL dilution solution from each sample to combine with quality control samples in preparation for metabolomics analysis. Utilizing the Waters ACQUITY UPLC ultra-performance liquid chromatography system in conjunction with the Waters ACQUITY UPLC BEH C18 Column (1.7 µm, 2.1 mm × 100 mm) for separation, 10 µL of injection volume, 0.40 mL/min of elution, and 40°C column temperature, the analysis was carried out.

The mobile phase A was an aqueous solution containing 0.1% formic acid, and the mobile phase B was an acetonitrile-water solution containing 0.1% formic acid. The liquid phase gradient was set as follows: 0–11 min, 2%–98% B; 11–12 min, 98% B; 12–12.1 min, 98%–2% B; 12.1–15 min, 2% B. The metabolites were separated by an ultra-high-performance liquid-phase system and injected into an ESI ion source for ionization and then analyzed by timsTOF Pro (Bruker) mass spectrometry. The ion source voltage was set at 4.5 kV, and both precursor ions and its secondary fragments were detected and analyzed using high-resolution TOF. The mass spectrometry scan range was set at 50–1,300 m/z, and the data acquisition mode used Parallel Accumulation Serial Fragmentation (PASEF) mode.

2.11 Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for the detection of IL-6 and TNF-α expression in serum

The serum was divided into sterile EP tubes, centrifuged for 20 min at 3,000 r/min, and refrigerated at −80°C. Following the kit’s instructions, add the sample, enzyme-labeled antibody, chromogenic reagent, and stop solution once the reagents have warmed up to room temperature. Then, use a 450 nm wavelength to examine the contents.

2.12 Protein expression of PI3K, P-PI3K, AKT, P-AKT, NF-κB, P-NF-κB in lung tissues by Western blot

After extracting the total protein from the lung tissue, the concentration of the protein was measured quantitatively and adjusted to a uniform concentration. 10% SDS-PAGE gel electrophoresis was used for protein separation, and the wet transfer technique was used to transfer the proteins to a PVDF membrane. The primary antibodies, PI3K (1:2000), P-PI3K (1:2000), AKT (1:10,000), P-AKT (1:5000), NF-κB (1:5000), P-NF-κB (1:5000), and the internal reference antibody GAPDH (1:10,000), were incubated after blocking with 5% non-fat milk powder. At 4°C, the incubation was carried out all night. The membrane was washed three times with TBST and then incubated with HRP-conjugated goat anti-rabbit secondary antibody (1:10,000) at room temperature for 1 h. Following membrane cleaning, the PVDF membrane was put in a chemiluminescence imaging system for detection after the proper volume of ECL luminous solution was introduced. The internal control protein’s grayscale value served as a mathematical reference while using ImageJ software for analysis.

2.13 Statistical analysis

The statistical software GraphPad Prism six was used for both graph processing and statistical analysis. When it came to quantitative data that satisfied the requirements for normality and homogeneity of variance, the one-way ANOVA test was employed, and the data were reported as Mean ± SD. * p < 0.05 was considered statistically significant.

3.1 HPLC determination of five chemical components in YQDP

Using acetonitrile (B) and 0.1% phosphoric acid water (A) as mobile phases will yield the best peak shape and resolution. Figure 1 displays the chromatograms of the YQDP sample solution and the mixed reference solution under these circumstances.

Figure 1 . HPLC chromatograms of mixed reference solution (A) and modified sample solution of YQDP decoction (B) 1. CGA. 2. PF. 3. FTA. 4. FT. 5. PAE.

3.2 Validation

Tests on linearity, accuracy, stability, reproducibility, and sample recovery identified five chemical components in the YQDP recipe. Supplementary Table S1 displays all of the component standard curves. According to the data, there is a good linear association (r ≥ 0.9996) between the compounds that were tested and their corresponding concentration ranges. CGA, PF, FTA, FT, and PAE have respective RSD between 0.31% and 0.88%. Within 48 h, all components exhibited good stability, with an RSD ranging from 0.56% to 1.25%. consistency, ranging from 0.47% to 1.79%. All components had recovery rates between 98.63% and 100.04%, with an RSD between 0.27% and 1.84%.

3.3 Content of five chemical components in YQDP

YQDP recipe’s five chemical components’ contents were ascertained by the application of the established analytical method. Table 1 displays the results.

Table 1 . Content determination results of five chemical components in YQDP (mg/g, Mean ± SD, n = 6).

3.4 Changes in lung index of mice in each group

The lung index of the model group mice was higher than that of the normal group on the seventh day following MP infection ( p < 0.01). At every dosage, YQDP groups and the positive group shown a decline in comparison to the model group. Both the YQDP (3.104 g/kg) and YQDP (6.208 g/kg) groups saw a considerable decline. These two YQDP groupings are not significantly different from one another. The outcomes are displayed in Figure 2 .

Figure 2 . Lung index. ** p < 0.01.

3.5 Pathological observation and scoring of lung tissue

The normal group mice had intact lung tissue morphology and structure, with no edema or congestion in the tracheal wall, and no infiltration of inflammatory cells in the surrounding blood vessels. Most of the alveolar structures in model group mice were severely damaged, with fewer intact alveoli, significantly widened alveolar septa, and a large number of inflammatory cells exuding from the alveolar lumen. Inflammatory cell exudation and widened alveolar septa were observed in lung tissue of YQDP group mice at various concentrations. Lymphocyte infiltration was observed around the bronchioles and blood vessels. The positive group mice showed inflammatory cell infiltration around the trachea, bronchi, and small blood vessels, with mild pulmonary tissue congestion. Figure 3 The results of the pathological score indicate that the lung tissue in the model group of mice had higher pathological scores than each treatment group ( p < 0.01). The positive group performed better than the YQDP groups at different concentrations ( p < 0.01). The outcomes are displayed in Figure 4 .

Figure 3 . Pathological score. ** p < 0.01.

Figure 4 . Pathology of lung tissue (HE, 200×). (A) Normal group. (B) Model group. (C) YQDP (1.552 g/kg). (D) YQDP (3.104 g/kg) group. (E) YQDP (6.208 g/kg) group. (F) Positive group.

3.6 Ultrastructural observation of lung tissue

The alveolar wall of the normal group mice is intact, the cytoplasm is uniform, the nuclear membrane is intact, and a small amount of microvilli can be seen on the free surface. The microvilli on the free surface of type II alveolar cells in the model group mice thickened and disordered, with mitochondrial swelling and thickening of the thin layer of connective tissue and basement membrane between alveoli. YQDP groups of mice at different concentrations showed more microvilli on the surface of type II alveolar cells and clear nuclear membranes. There are organelles in the cytoplasm, such as mitochondria with clear cristae and numerous lamellar bodies, and there are cell junctions between adjacent cells. The microvilli in the positive group were slightly thickened, with a small amount of shedding and irregular arrangement. Some mitochondria were swollen, and the connective tissue and basement membrane were thickened. Results are shown in Figure 5 .

Figure 5 . Observation of lung tissue ultrastructure (TEM, 120,00×). (A) Normal group. (B) Model group. (C) YQDP (1.552 g/kg). (D) YQDP (3.104 g/kg) group. (E) YQDP (6.208 g/kg) group. (F) Positive group. Lamina (White →), mitochondria (black →).

3.7 Metabolomics analysis

At 6.208 g/kg, the YQDP group had significant pharmacological effects. In conjunction with the normal group, model group, and YQDP group, metabolomics analysis was carried out. The three groups’ metabolites varied in both positive and negative ion modes, according to PLS-DA analysis. As seen in Figure 6 , the P-test findings reveal that there is no overfitting across the group models. Figure 7 further demonstrates a complete separation of the normal, model, and YQDP groups based on OPLS-DA data analysis. In Supplementary Figure S1 , the 200 permutation test chart is displayed. Fold Change >1.5 served as the upregulation threshold, Fold Change <1/1.5 served as the significant downregulation threshold, and t -test p < 0.05 and VIP >1 served as the screening criteria for differential metabolites based on the VIP values of the developed OPLS-DA model. In the positive ion mode, the model group’s lung tissue included 81 metabolites, 64 of which were upregulated and 17 of which were downregulated, significantly different from the normal group’s lung tissue composition. The content of 32 metabolites, including choline phosphate, glutamine, lysine, and L-tyrosinamide, changed following YQDP intervention. In the negative ion mode, the model group’s lung tissue contained significantly less of 49 metabolites (42 upregulated and seven downregulated) than the normal group’s. The levels of 15 metabolites, including Glu Trp, 5-hydroxydecanoate, and 6-thioinosine, varied following YQDP medication. The findings are displayed in Supplementary Tables S2, S3 , Figures 8 , 9 . We displayed the differential metabolite data, as seen in Figure 10 , to better comprehend the metabolic variations in the lungs of several groups of mice.

Figure 6 . PLS-DA score and model validation of pulmonary metabolites in SMPP mice treated with YQDP. (A) Positive PLS-DA. (B) Positive PLS-DA Validation. (C) Negative PLS-DA. (D) Negative PLS-DA Validation.

Figure 7 . OPLS-DA analysis of pulmonary metabolites in SMPP mice treated with YQDP intervention. (A) Positive OPLS-DA. (B) Negative OPLS-DA.

Figure 8 . (Continued).

Figure 9 . Multiple comparison analysis of differential metabolites in lung tissue under negative ion mode. Compared with normal group, * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01. Compared with model group, # p < 0.05, ## p < 0.01.

Figure 10 . Heat map analysis of differential metabolites in lung tissue. (A) Positive. (B) Negative.

3.8 Enrichment analysis of differential metabolite pathways

We performed pathway enrichment analysis of metabolites that underwent significant changes in mouse lung tissue after YQDP therapy, as shown in Figure 11 . Each circle in the image represents a different metabolic route. As the enrichment factor rises, so does the degree of differential metabolite enrichment in this channel. Based on the results, YQDP may be used to treat SMPP by controlling the metabolism of porphyrins, pyrimidines, cholines, fatty acids, sphingolipids, glycerophospholipids, ferroptosis, steroid hormones, and unsaturated fatty acids.

Figure 11 . Bubble diagram of KEGG pathway enrichment analysis. (A) Positive. (B) Negative.

3.9 ELISA for detecting IL-6 and TNF-α expression in serum

The mice in the model group had higher serum expression levels of IL-6 and TNF-α than the mice in the normal group ( p < 0.01), and the mice in the YQDP administration group had lower expression levels of IL-6 and TNF-α at all concentrations than the mice in the model group ( p < 0.01). The results are displayed in Figures 12 , 13 .

Figure 12 . Serum IL-6 expression (pg/mL). ** p < 0.01.

Figure 13 . Serum TNF-α expression (pg/mL). ** p < 0.01.

3.10 Western blot for detecting PI3K, P-PI3K, AKT, P-AKT, NF-κB, P-NF-κB protein expression in lung tissue

As demonstrated in Figure 14 , the model group mice’s lung tissue showed an increase ( p < 0.01) in the P-PI3K, P-AKT, and P-NF-κB protein expression ratio when compared to the normal group. In the lung tissue of mice in the positive group and YQDP groups for each dose, the ratio of P-PI3K, P-AKT, and P-NF-κB protein expression reduced ( p < 0.05) when compared to the model group.

Figure 14 . Effect of YQDP on the relative content of PI3K/AKT/NF-κB protein in SMPP mice. (A) Normal group. (B) Model group. (C) YQDP (1.552 g/kg). (D) YQDP (3.104 g/kg) group. (E) YQDP (6.208 g/kg) group. (F) Positive group. * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01.

4 Discussion

MPP is one of the common community-acquired diseases in children caused by MP infection ( Rogozinski et al., 2017 ), with unremarkable respiratory symptoms and paroxysmal irritating cough as the prominent manifestation of MP infection, accompanied by coughing up and vomiting small amounts of mucus or mucopurulent sputum. In previous studies, our research team applied the theory of “dryness” and the concept of “drying toxins” to treat SMPP using the well-known prescription YQDP from the book “Chonglou Yuyao.” We conducted experiments from multiple angles, including immunoinflammation, epithelial-mesenchymal transition, oxidative stress, and water metabolism, and demonstrated the advantageous targeting of YQDP in intervening in MP infection. First, we conducted a pharmacodynamic component analysis and identified five chemical components in YQDP, including chlorogenic acid, paeoniflorin, forsythoside A, forsythin, and gallic acid. Through the use of experimental techniques such lung tissue pathology, ultrastructure observation, and pulmonary index, we assessed the effectiveness of the model and YQDP. According to the findings, YQDP considerably improved lung tissue pathology and decreased the pulmonary index in SMPP mice. In order to investigate the YQDP’s mechanism of action on SMPP mice further, we used UPLC-MS/MS technology to do a metabolomic study of lung tissue samples from normal, model, and YQDP-treated groups. This study screened 47 differential metabolites that changed after the addition of YQDP, mostly lipids, nucleosides, and fatty acids, which play important roles in inhibiting the immune inflammatory process and participating in multiple inflammatory processes ( Das, 2021 ; Nieto-Garai et al., 2022 ). The research discovered that while YQDP intervention altered various endogenous metabolites in the model group’s lung tissue, it also altered pathways including the metabolism of α-linolenic acid, sphingolipids, glycerophospholipids, arachidonic acid, and unsaturated fatty acid biosynthesis, which had a therapeutic effect on SMPP mice. α-linolenic acid belongs to the ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid family and can generate oxidized lipids under the action of specific enzymes. In terms of inflammation, ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids can alleviate and inhibit inflammation ( Simopoulos, 2002 ; Saini and Keum, 2018 ). The synthesis of phospholipase is an important link that affects the metabolites of glycerophospholipids, and if the content is reduced, it will result in a large number of phospholipid metabolites accumulation. Glycerophospholipid metabolism is achieved through the hydrolysis of phospholipase liaison with the relevant signaling pathways of humoral metabolism, to promote the normal operation of the material and energy metabolism, to maintain metabolic balance and homeostasis ( Kouznetsova et al., 2019 ). Unsaturated fatty acids like arachidonic acid are essential for immunological response, inflammation, and antibacterial activities ( Yan et al., 2019 ; Das, 2021 ). The study’s findings demonstrated that giving YQDP to SMPP mice decreased the amount of phosphatidylcholine in their lungs, which increased the amount of phosphatidylethanolamine—a material crucial for the metabolism of arachidonic acid in the glycerophospholipid metabolism pathway—and sped up the rate at which phospholipase hydrolyzed the lipid ( Zengin et al., 2019 ). YQDP may be able to treat MP infection-related lipid metabolic abnormalities by controlling glycerophospholipid metabolism. The immune system and inflammatory reactions are greatly influenced by the amounts of endogenous fatty acids and their metabolites. While saturated fatty acids tend to increase inflammation, certain unsaturated fatty acids have anti-inflammatory properties ( Rodriguez-Perez et al., 2017 ; Kotlyarov and Kotlyarova, 2021 ). Nucleotide production and breakdown are regulated by purine metabolism. The primary cause of multiple organ damage and mortality in SARS-CoV-2-infected severe COVID-19 patients is cytokine storm. Research has revealed a robust association between cytokine storms and dysregulated purine metabolism in COVID-19 patients ( Sauer et al., 2012 ; Zardini et al., 2020 ), suggesting a direct connection between hyperinflammation and dysregulated purine metabolism in respiratory tract infections. Additionally, studies have demonstrated the regulatory effects of the chemical components in YQDP, including chlorogenic acid, paeoniflorin, gallic acid, glycyrrhizic acid, and forsythoside, on the metabolism of glycerophospholipids, arachidonic acid, and sphingolipids ( Zhao, 2018 ; Cheng et al., 2020 ; Duan et al., 2020 ; Feng et al., 2020 ; Li et al., 2022 ; Wang et al., 2022 ).

Phospholipids are essential components of pulmonary surfactants, with the ability to modulate local immune and inflammatory responses, lower alveolar surface tension, preserve alveolar fluid balance, engage in cell membrane protein recognition and conduction, and function as an essential secondary messenger in immune metabolic pathways downstream ( Chao et al., 2020 ). One important modulator of phospholipid conversion is phosphatidylinositide 3-kinases (PI3K), which activates protein kinase B (Akt) signaling pathways that control cellular activity. In order to induce the expression of inflammatory and chemotactic factors, activated Akt can enter the cell nucleus and activate downstream factor NF-κB. This can lead to the infiltration and aggregation of inflammatory cells at the site of inflammation, speeding up the onset and progression of inflammation ( Li et al., 2020 ; Saravia et al., 2020 ). Following modeling, the model group’s lung tissues had much higher amounts of PI3K/AKT/NF-κB protein than the normal group’s, indicating that the stimulation of inflammatory factors had activated the PI3K/AKT/NF-κB signaling pathway. The ratio of P-PI3K, P-AKT, and P-NF-κB protein expression in lung tissues decreased following YQDP intervention, suggesting that YQDP could prevent the PI3K/AKT/NF-κB signaling pathway from being activated, lessen lung damage, and restore lung function in SMPP animals. The body releases tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) as the first cytokine in reaction to a potentially harmful stimulus, and it is essential in starting the inflammatory cascade of cytokines. Co-stimulation of Interleukin-6 (IL-6) production can occur through the combined action of TNF-α and other inflammatory agents. According to certain research, CGA can have anti-inflammatory properties, remove Akt phosphorylation, and decrease the expression of TNF-α and IL-6 ( Hou et al., 2016 ). The experiment’s findings demonstrated that YQDP intervention led to a decrease in the expression of TNF-α and IL-6 in serum, suggesting that YQDP can effectively suppress inflammatory factors’ expression and reduce the inflammatory response.

5 Conclusion

In conclusion, YQDP affects SMPP model mice in a certain way. Based on the examination of biological markers and their associated metabolic pathways, conjecture has it that YQDP primarily functions by modulating pathways like the metabolism of α-linolenic acid, sphingolipids, glycerophospholipids, arachidonic acid, and unsaturated fatty acid biosynthesis. Additionally, it may potentially exert a regulatory influence via the PI3K/Akt/NF-κB signaling pathway.

Abbreviation

Akt, Kinase B; AQP5, Aquaporin5; CAP, Community Acquired Pneumonia; CGA, Chlorogenic Acid; ELISA, Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay; FT, Forsythin; FTA, Forsythoside A; IL-6, Interleukin-6; MP, Mycoplasma pneumoniae; MPP, Mycoplasma pneumoniae pneumonia; MUC5ac, Mucin 5ac; PAE, Paeonol; PASEF, Parallel accumulation serial fragmentation; PF, Paeoniflorin; PI3K, Phosphatidylinositide 3-kinases; SMPP, Severe mycoplasma pneumoniae pneumonia; TCM, Traditional Chinese medicine; TNF-α, Tumor necrosis factor α; YQDP, Yangyin Qingfei Decoction Plus.

Data availability statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/ Supplementary Material , further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Ethics statement

The animal study was approved by Animal Ethics Committee of Liaoning University of Traditional Chinese Medicine (Approval No.: 21000042021131). The study was conducted in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements.

Author contributions

TZ: Writing–original draft, Validation, Methodology, Conceptualization. XZ: Writing–review and editing, Visualization, Investigation. XiZ: Writing–review and editing, Visualization, Investigation. XL: Writing–review and editing, Visualization, Investigation. ZG: Writing–review and editing, Software, Investigation. GW: Writing–review and editing, Methodology. GL: Writing–review and editing, Supervision, Project administration, Funding acquisition, Conceptualization. ZW: Writing–review and editing, Supervision, Project administration, Funding acquisition, Conceptualization.

The author(s) declare financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. This work was supported by National Natural Science Foundation of China (grant number 81373687; 81874490; 82074494).

Acknowledgments

We are grateful to Experimental Center of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Affiliated Hospital of Liaoning University of Traditional Chinese Medicine for providing technical support.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Supplementary material

The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fphar.2024.1376812/full#supplementary-material

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Keywords: Yangyin Qingfei decoction plus, Mycoplasma pneumoniae , severe illness, metabolomics, PI3K/Akt/NF-κB

Citation: Zhang T, Zhao X, Zhang X, Liang X, Guan Z, Wang G, Liu G and Wu Z (2024) Research on the metabolic regulation mechanism of Yangyin Qingfei decoction plus in severe pneumonia caused by Mycoplasma pneumoniae in mice. Front. Pharmacol. 15:1376812. doi: 10.3389/fphar.2024.1376812

Received: 26 January 2024; Accepted: 04 March 2024; Published: 17 April 2024.

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Copyright © 2024 Zhang, Zhao, Zhang, Liang, Guan, Wang, Liu and Wu. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Zhenqi Wu, [email protected] ; Guanghua Liu, [email protected]

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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