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The Holistic Approach to Anthropology

Categories: Aesthetics Cultural Anthropology

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Published: Mar 16, 2024

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What Is Holism?

How psychologists use holism to understand behavior

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Amy Morin, LCSW, is a psychotherapist and international bestselling author. Her books, including "13 Things Mentally Strong People Don't Do," have been translated into more than 40 languages. Her TEDx talk, "The Secret of Becoming Mentally Strong," is one of the most viewed talks of all time.

Verywell / Laura Porter

In Psychology

In psychology, holism is an approach to understanding the human mind and behavior that focuses on looking at things as a whole. It is often contrasted with reductionism , which instead tries to break things down into their smallest parts. This approach suggests that we can only understand the parts when we view them in relation to the whole.

Overview of Holism

In terms of psychology, the holistic view suggests that it is important to view the mind as a unit, rather than trying to break it down into its individual parts. Each individual part plays its own important role, but it also works within an integrated system.

The basic principle of holism is that people are more than simply the sum of their parts. In order to understand how people think, the holistic perspective stresses that you need to do more than simply focus on how each individual component functions in isolation. Instead, psychologists who take this approach believe that it is more important to look at how all the parts work together.

Holism in Psychology

As an approach to understanding systems, holism is used in psychology as well as in other areas including medicine, philosophy, ecology, and economics. One key phrase that summarizes the key idea behind the holistic approach is that “the whole is more than the sum of its parts.”

The field of holistic medicine, for example, focuses on treating all aspects of a person's health including physical symptoms, psychological factors, and societal influences.

In order to understand why people do the things they do and think the way they think, holism proposes that it is necessary to look at the entire person. Rather than focus on just one aspect of the problem, it is necessary to recognize that various factors interact and influence each other.

One reason why it is so important to consider the entire being is that the whole may possess emergent properties . These are qualities or characteristics that are present in the whole but cannot be observed by looking at the individual pieces.

Consider the human brain, for example. The brain contains millions of neurons , but just looking at each individual neuron will not tell you what the brain can do. It is only by looking at the brain holistically, by looking at how all the pieces work together, that you can see how messages are transmitted, how memories are stored, and how decisions are made.

Even looking at other aspects of the brain such as the individual structures does not really tell the whole story. It is only when taking a more holistic approach that we are truly able to appreciate how all the pieces work together.

In fact, one of the earliest debates in the field of neurology centered on whether the brain was homogeneous and could not be broken down further (holism) or whether certain functions were localized in specific cortical areas (reductionism).

Today, researchers recognize that certain parts of the brain act in specific ways, but these individual parts interact and work together to create and influence different functions.

Uses for Holism

When looking at questions in psychology, researchers might take a holistic approach by considering how different factors work together and interact to influence the entire person. At the broadest level, holism would look at every single influence that might impact behavior or functioning.

A humanistic psychologist, for example, might consider an individual's environment (including where they live and work), their social connections (including friends, family, and co-workers), their background (including childhood experiences and educational level), and physical health (including current wellness and stress levels).

The goal of this level of analysis is to be able to not only consider how each of these variables might impact overall well-being but to also see how these factors interact and influence one another.

In other cases, holism might be a bit more focused. Social psychologists, for example, strive to understand how and why groups behave as they do. Sometimes groups react differently than individuals do, so looking at group behavior more holistically allows research to assess emergent properties that might be present.

Benefits of Holism

Just like the reductionist approach to psychology, holism has both advantages and disadvantages. For example, holism can be helpful at times when looking at the big picture allows the psychologist to see things they might have otherwise missed. In other cases, however, focusing on the whole might cause them to overlook some of the finer details.

Some of the key benefits of this perspective include:

It Incorporates Many Factors

One of the big advantages of the holistic approach is that it allows researchers to assess multiple factors that might contribute to a psychological problem. Rather than simply focusing on one small part of an issue, researchers can instead look at all of the elements that may play a role.

This approach can ultimately help them find solutions that address all of the contributing internal and external factors that might be influencing the health of an individual. This is sometimes more effective than addressing smaller components individually.

By looking at people holistically, health care providers can address all of the many factors that might affect how a person is feeling, including their mind, their body, and their environment.

It Looks at the Big Picture

When researching a topic, it's frequently helpful to step back and look at the big picture. Reductionism tends to focus solely on the trees, but holism allows psychologists to view the entire forest. This can be true of both the research and treatment of mental health issues.

When trying to help a client with symptoms of a psychiatric condition, for example, looking at the patient holistically allows mental health professionals to see all of the factors that affect the patient’s daily life, and also how the patient interacts with their environment. Using this type of approach, therapists are often better able to address individual symptoms.

Human behavior is complex, so explaining it often requires an approach that is able to account for this complexity. Holism allows researchers to provide a fully inclusive answer to difficult questions about how people think, feel, and behave.

Drawbacks of Holism

While holism has a number of key advantages, there are also some important drawbacks to consider. Some of these include:

It Tends to Be Non-Specific

When trying to solve a problem, it is often important to focus on a particular aspect of the issue in order to come up with a solution. Holism tends to be more generalized, which can sometimes make precision more difficult. Scientists, in particular, must be able to focus their research on clearly defined variables and hypotheses.

Looking at something too broadly can make it difficult to conduct tests using the scientific method, largely due to the fact that it incorporates so many varied factors and influences.

It Can Be Overly Complex

Because holism is so all-inclusive, it can make scientific investigations very challenging and complex. There may be many different variables to account for, as well as a plethora of potential interactions. This can make this approach unwieldy at times.

Examples of Holism

There are a number of examples in the field of psychology of how holism can be used to view the human mind and behavior. The early schools of thought, structuralism and functionalism , are good examples of reductionist and holistic views.

Structuralism focused on breaking down elements of behavior into their smallest possible components (reductionism), whereas functionalism focused on looking at things as a whole and considering the actual purpose and function of behaviors (holism).

Throughout history, there have been other perspectives and branches of psychology that have also taken a holistic approach.

Gestalt Psychology

Gestalt psychology is a school of thought that is rooted in holism. The Gestalt psychologists not only believed that human behavior needed to be viewed as a whole; they also worked to understand how the human mind itself uses a holistic approach to make sense of the world.

The Gestalt laws of perceptual organization , demonstrate that the ways in which individual items relate to one another can influence how we see them. When similar items are viewed together, the law of similarity, for example, suggests that people will perceive them as components of a whole.

This approach can also be applied to the treatment of mental health problems. Gestalt therapy is a person-centered approach to treatment that emerged from the Gestalt school of thought. Rather than breaking down aspects of a person's past to understand their current problem, this approach to therapy looks at all aspects of the individual's life in the here and now.

Humanistic Psychology

Humanistic psychology is a branch of psychology that emerged in the 1950s partially as a response to behaviorism. Where behaviorism had taken a reductionist approach to explain human behavior, humanist thinkers are more interested in looking at behavior holistically.

This approach to psychology looks at all of the factors that contribute to how people think and act, as well as how all of these different components interact.

Abraham Maslow’s famous hierarchy of needs is one example of a humanistic theory that takes a holistic look at human motivation. This theory doesn't focus on any single aspect of motivation. Instead, it incorporates many aspects including environmental, social, and emotional influences.

Social Psychology

Social psychology tends to take a holistic approach since it considers individuals in their social context. In particular, this branch of psychology looks at how group behavior is often different than individual behavior, which is a good example of emergent properties and the sum being more than its parts.

Holism vs. Reductionism

One way to look at how holism and reductionism are used is to observe how these approaches might be applied when studying a specific psychological problem.

Imagine that researchers are interested in learning more about depression .

A researcher using the holistic approach might instead focus on understanding how different contributing factors might interact, such as examining how thought patterns, social relationships, and neurotransmitter levels influence a person’s depression levels.
A scientist using the reductionist approach might look at a highly specific factor that influences depression, such as neurotransmitter levels in the brain.

A Word From Verywell

Much of the appeal of holism lies in its ability to incorporate all of the elements that make us who we are. People are infinitely complex and varied, and holism is able to address all of the external and internal factors that influence our past, present, and future.

Different areas of psychology often tend to focus on either one approach or the other. While reductionism and holism are often pitted against one another, they both serve an important role in helping researchers better understand human psychology.

Michaelson V, Pickett W, King N, Davison C. Testing the theory of holism: A study of family systems and adolescent health . Prev Med Rep . 2016;4:313–319. doi:10.1016/j.pmedr.2016.07.002

Freeman J. Towards a definition of holism . Br J Gen Pract . 2005;55(511):154–155.

APA Dictionary of Psychology. Humanistic perspective .

APA Dictionary of Psychology. Gestalt psychology .

Goodwin, CJ. A History of Modern Psychology, 5th Edition. New York: Wiley.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

The Impact of WeFuture’s ‘Challenge Your World’ Workshop in Amsterdam | Case Study

Holistic thinking: what it is, why it’s important, and how to do it.

Holistic Thinking
World Conservation

We humans like to simplify things. And that's a good thing, to begin with, because this characteristic protects us from too many stimuli, excessive demands and overload. We develop routines that help us cope with everyday life without having to expend a lot of thought and energy. We build a microcosm around ourselves, focusing on people and things in our immediate environment. We know our family and friends, our city and our work so well that we think we know how life works.

Sometimes, however, we find that things are not as simple as we would like to believe. Namely, when we encounter complex problems. Abruptly, we tend to realize that our individual view of the world can be one-sided. For example, we can feel quite uncomfortable when we realize that climate change is a real threat. Here, our microcosm with its usual solution patterns suddenly reaches its limits. We are faced with a problem that seems so complex and abstract that it can (and often does) make us feel overwhelmed.

But in this, there is creative power. In chaos lies the chance of creativity. Why? Because it forces us to step back from familiar perceptions. Because it allows us to see that our ‘individual’ world, to which we devote all our attention, is only a part of reality. And we see that we, as individuals, are a part of the whole of nature in its beauty. Changing our perspective from the individual details to the whole forms the basis for a way of thinking that aims to help solve problems in a more cohesive way: Holistic thinking.

What Is Holistic Thinking?

Holistic thinking means having a holistic approach by contemplating the bigger picture. "Holistic“ derives from the Greek word "holos", which stands for "whole" and "comprehensive". "Holistic" therefore, means "wholeness."

Aristotle, the famous Greek philosopher, has a quote that provides a great description of how the holistic way of thinking works: "The whole is more than the sum of its parts." To help explain the impact of this quote, let’s break the process down using a simple example:

Collect all of the ‘parts’ of something - eg. building blocks.
Sum them up by adding them together, ordering, and arranging them in a way that makes sense - eg. build up walls, create windows, and doors.
After summing up the parts, we create a whole. - eg. a house
However, the ‘whole’ (or in this case, the house) is more than that because we get more value and understanding through the ‘summing’ process. By adding these parts up together, we may now better understand: - Physical structures eg. the best way to build walls so they are insulated. - Scientific principles eg. balancing the weight of the house so gravity won't tear it down. - Human Impact eg. Once we move into the house, it becomes a home. We now have shelter, security, and an increased likelihood of survival.

By summing these parts, we have received so much more - the intangible assets like understanding, value, and meaning - about the whole that was not available to its parts alone. The holistic approach leads us to truly appreciate and comprehend the sum of parts, thus making it "more than".

How is Holistic Thinking Applied?

Holistic thinking can be applied to many systems; such as biological, social, mental, economic or spiritual systems.

It is a way of thinking that has been practiced by many indigenous people for many, many years - especially when it comes to health and wellness (an example of biological, mental, and spiritual systems). Whatsmore, some traditional health care systems that are rooted in holistic principles, such as the Ancient Indian Ayurveda and Amazonian Shamanism, are still practiced today!

One of the famous personalities associated with a holistic vision was Leonardo Da Vinci, the well-known Italian painter of the Mona Lisa, living in the Renaissance. He is admired by the world for his multidisciplinary approach to connecting logic and creativity. His holistic perspective of knowledge gathering was based on thinking beyond limits and resulted in iconic creative expression that has stood the test of time.

Holism was also the core of the worldview of another famous individual - Alexander von Humboldt, German naturalist and explorer. He didn’t see organisms, geological structures, weather phenomena, or human activities as detached; but as interacting entities of a larger complex system. He shaped the scientific perception of how everything is connected. Both Da Vinci and von Humboldt showed with their interdisciplinary approach how existing ideas and new concepts complement each other.

From ancient practices to famous personalities, the application and outcomes of holistic thinking is timeless. And this is most likely because this way of thinking stems from something bigger; Holism.

The Significance of Holism

“Holism (noun): the idea that the whole of something must be considered in order to understand its different parts” - Oxford Advanced American Dictionary

While clearly defined by man, Holism is by no means a thought construct of man. Nature exemplifies and dictates holism to us; every part needs the whole and the whole needs every part. Balance, cooperation, symbiosis and synergy defines life. From animate and inanimate nature to ecosystems, physiology of organisms to climate or social interactions - every single piece of a system affects the others and the whole.

This complexity becomes particularly clear when we consider the big challenges of today. The major challenges humanity is facing are on a global scale. If we look at climate change, for example, we often think of industry and mobility. The fires in the Amazon rainforest? The (majorly illegal) deforestation of the rainforest for the cultivation of palm oil or soy and loss of biodiversity? Corruption, the displacement of the local population or conflicts with indigenous groups? All of these aspects are also defined as climate change.

It’s not possible to break the world down into its components. Whether it is climate change, mass poverty or mass extinction – there are no simple solutions to global crises. Holistic thinking makes us realise the complexity of all of the issues we face. It aims to help us to identify different perspectives and needs. Furthermore, it helps us to develop and create long-term solutions for these global challenges. Creativity, interdisciplinarity, participation and collaboration are important prerequisites to try to achieve this.

The United Nations established a plan of action for sustainable development, known as the 2030 Agenda , and is an example of a holistic approach to multilateral sustainability policy. The agenda is based on the three dimensions model of sustainability: economy, society and the environment, which are interrelated. The Agenda is broken down into Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) , which are considered universal and apply equally to all countries when striving for a balance between the three dimensions.

Holistic thinking is the prerequisite to the 2030 Agenda and is a necessary consequence of the cooperation between all countries working towards the SDGs. It’s the key to tackling our global challenges.

WeFuture Global’s guide to holistic thinking

Many people have learned to solve a problem where it appears visibly and tangibly for everyone. While this approach may well lead to initial successes – these are not long-lasting, since the core of the problem is often hidden at first glance.

For example, In order to contribute to the fight against climate change by reducing carbon emissions, it makes sense to use the bicycle more often than a car. But, if we really want to make a difference, we should look further than just at one piece of the puzzle and adopt a holistic approach. This can be done in many ways, such as questioning our own consumption in all areas of life (not just with personal transportation), taking a look at the sustainable practices implemented on other sides of the globe, and increasing the pressure on businesses and politicians to implement sustainable practices, to name a few.

Looking at the details is not wrong – but it’s not enough either. Holistic thinking goes beyond, it means breaking free from your mindset. This requires awareness, consideration and communication. But how to put this into practice?

To assist our community in developing this important skill, we have developed the WeFuture Global guideline to help our community think holistically.

The WeFuture Global Guideline to Holistic Thinking

Step 1. awareness.

First, take a step back from what you are doing.
Change your perspective from detail-oriented to the whole.
Define the exact problems / challenges.
Define the overall objective / the end-goal.

Step 2. Consideration

Consider and define the individual parts of the overall system.
Look for recurring patterns and interfaces.
See how the interfaces affect the overall objective.
Define your role in the overall system.
Search for the lever (area or action) with the greatest impact.

Step 3. Communication

Showcase the importance of the single to all partners in the system.
Facilitate and implement new and stronger relationships.

Holistic thinking is a continuous process of changing perspectives, brainstorming and critical questioning. By that, it forms the basis for decisions on concrete action and next steps.

It is of fundamental importance to identify the real problem first. It is worthwhile to pause and get an overall view: Look at the whole instead of single details, push comprehension instead of actionism and focus on strategic thinking instead of operational hectic. By looking closely at the interrelationships, the system's biggest levers can be identified. And only those will affect a real change. During the entire process, it is always important to critically question the solution statements and yourself.

Holistic World Conservation

The holistic approach makes us realize that we humans ourselves are a part of the whole. It not only makes each of us responsible but also empowers us to make a difference. Just like in a huge ecosystem, everyone and everything can understand that the overall result is bigger than individual contributions. Holistic thinking is the core of world conservation.

To solve interrelated problems, we need to work together. Individuals, civil society organizations and the private sector are indispensable for the success of world conservation as innovation can and does arise from the collaboration of these entities. If we want to change a system, we need to work on all levels. Therefore we need a strong network of symbiotic relationships, varying expertise and sector access. We need to identify the right problems, understand the connections, and each of us needs to be aware of our role in complex challenges.

Through the holistic thinking approach, we can lose the fear of complexity and be empowered to make a difference. By understanding that the whole is more than the sum of the parts, we can learn to look at problems differently and change perspectives, allowing us and our way of thinking to evolve. The holistic way of thinking can transform our lives as we question our attitudes and gain inspiration to break out of recurring patterns in our everyday life. And by collaborating with all members and groups within society, we can innovate sustainable solutions that contribute to impactful world conservation.

Be open to change. Strive for balance. Think beyond.

To become a part of the change, see all the ways that you can contribute to wefuture global..

How to Write a Holistic Style Essay

Sharon penn.

Before you write an essay that is to be graded holistically, you must understand the process. Holistic grading is more specific and it puts some control in the hands of the student. With a holistic approach, the student is aware of a scoring rubric, which can differ from assignment to assignment. This example follows the New Jersey Registered Holistic Scoring Rubric, used to score Grade Eight Proficiency Assessment (GEPA) and High School Statewide Assessment (HSPA) essays. Scores are given in four different areas, and can range from 6 (superior command) to 1 (inadequate command).

Explore this article

Organize your ideas
Proofread your essay

things needed

Library resources for research

1 Organize your ideas

Organize your ideas to support a well-focused thesis. Make sure you have an opening and closing to your essay. There should be a logical progression of ideas from start to finish. If you are a good student who does a lot of reading, you may want to stretch your capabilities and knowledge and take a compositional risk. If you do this well, you will receive a 6. Even if your attempts are not completely correct, you will get a 5 (strong command) for trying. Another important part of content and organization is the use of detail to support your main idea or thesis statement. You should have enough details, and they should be effective in proving your point. Transitions from one thought to another should be used effectively.

2 Use words

Use words, verb tenses and modifiers correctly. Subject-verb agreement and pronoun usage should have very few errors to achieve a grade of 6. A score of 4 (adequate command) is given to a student who has some errors that do not interfere with the meaning she is trying to convey. You should speak with your teacher to see if you should risk using a word you are not completely sure about. Some teachers will give you credit for trying, if you come close to the meaning, and others will subtract from your score.

Make use of a variety of sentence constructions to achieve a high score in sentence construction. An essay using the same sentence structure throughout becomes monotonous and, even if the sentences are correct, will achieve a score of only 3 (partial command). If your sentences are varied in type, structure and length and contain few errors, you can achieve a 5 or 6.

4 Proofread your essay

Proofread your essay to receive a high score in mechanics (spelling, punctuation and capitalization). If the essay is a homework assignment and you have the time, write a first draft straight through to the end and then edit for mechanics. If you have the luxury of time, let it sit for a day and go back to it. You may find that in using this technique, errors jump off the page for your correction.

Read over your essay to be certain you have all the required elements.
If you don't understand what is required, ask. The rubric explains how you will be graded.
Writing an essay to be scored holistically gives you the control you need to achieve a good score by following the rubric.

About the Author

Sharon Penn is a writer based in South Florida. A professional writer since 1981, she has created numerous materials for a Princeton advertising agency. Her articles have appeared in "Golf Journal" and on industry blogs. Penn has traveled extensively, is an avid golfer and is eager to share her interests with her readers. She holds a Master of Science in Education.

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1.2: Holism in Anthropology

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Holism is the perspective on the human condition that assumes that mind, body, individuals, society, and the environment interpenetrate, and even define one another. In anthropology holism tries to integrate all that is known about human beings and their activities. From a holistic perspective, attempts to divide reality into mind and matter isolate and pin down certain aspects of a process that, by very nature, resists isolation and dissection. Holism holds great appeal for those who seek a theory of human nature that is rich enough to do justice to its complex subject matter.

An easier understanding of holism is to say that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts . Individual human organisms are not just x percent genes and y percent culture added together. Rather, human beings are what they are because of mutual shaping of genes and culture and experiences living in the world produces something new, something that cannot be reduced to the materials used to construct it. It is important to note that humans who grow and live together are inevitably shaped by shared cultural experiences and develop into a much different person than they would have if developing in isolation.

Sally Engle Merry, an anthropologist, got a call from a radio show asking her to talk about a recent incident that happened in Pakistan that resulted in a gang rape of a young woman authorized by a local tribal council. She explained to them that it was an inexcusable act and that the rape was probably connected to local political struggles and class differences. This relates to holism because the gang rape was authorized by higher authorities because it is a cultural norm for socially higher class men to feel more empowered over women. This emphasizes the connection between human actions and their environment and society.

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External Links

What is Anthropology? – Information from the American Anthropological Association
SLA– Society for Linguistic Anthropology
^ Schultz, Emily A., and Robert H. Lavenda. Cultural Anthropology : A Perspective on the Human Condition. New York: Oxford UP, Incorporated, 2009.pg.79.
^ Schultz, Emily A., and Robert H. Lavenda. Cultural Anthropology : A Perspective on the Human Condition. New York: Oxford UP, Incorporated, 2009. pgs. 332-333

1.5 Holism, Anthropology’s Distinctive Approach

Learning outcomes.

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Define and give examples of holism.
Analyze how different elements of society cohere with and reinforce one another.
Identify how different elements of society can contradict one another, motivating social change.

In 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic swept across the globe. Nearly 210 million people had fallen sick with the coronavirus and more than 4 million had died as of August 2021. Medical researchers are still studying the long-term effects of this illness on the lungs and brains of people who have recovered. Some have discovered psychological effects as well, such as increased risks for depression, anxiety, and schizophrenia.

Beyond the medical realm, the effects of the pandemic reached into every aspect of our societies and our everyday lives. In societies all over the world, people were forced to remain at home, “ sheltering in place ” from the dangers of the disease. Businesses closed their doors to the public, and many shut down permanently, unable to pay their bills. By May 2020, nearly 50 million Americans had reported losing their jobs due to the pandemic. The epidemic of disease ballooned into an epidemic of grief as people mourned the loss of the those who had died and worried about those who had fallen sick. Stressed out by so many disruptions, some adults turned to alcohol and drugs, and addiction rates soared. Incidents of domestic violence escalated. Racial violence against Asian Americans increased as some Americans blamed China for the emergence and global spread of the disease. People everywhere reported feeling lonelier and more cut off from their friends and family members.

And yet there were also some positive consequences. Because people were not driving as much, air quality improved in many urban areas, giving relief to many people who suffer from asthma. Looking up into the night sky, some people were able to see stars for the very first time. Some people reported valuing their friends and family members even more now that they could not spend time with them in person. New social media technologies spread, such as Zoom, and many people learned to use existing technologies such as FaceTime and Skype. People also became aware of the valuable contributions made by “essential workers” in drugstores, hardware stores, and grocery stores as well as hospitals and nursing homes.

How did a virus cause so many changes? The various elements of society are entwined in a complex whole. Dramatic changes in one area, such as epidemic disease in the realm of public health, can trigger a chain of effects throughout other social realms, such as the family, the economy, religion, and the political system.

You’ll recall the word holism from our earlier discussion about anthropology’s commitment to understanding how the many parts of society work together. Holism is a distinctive method of analysis that foregrounds the ever-changing relationships among different realms of culture.

Society as an Integrated Whole

Throughout the 2010s, infant death rates in certain rural areas in Africa decreased dramatically. While thrilled with this positive trend, researchers did not initially know how to explain it. Were mothers and fathers doing something different to promote the health of their babies? Were African governments providing better health services for infants? Were aid agencies providing more resources? None of these things seemed to be true in any significant way.

The one thing that had changed in the areas with lower infant mortality was the spread of mobile phones. Could that have something to do with lower infant mortality? And if so, how? Researchers hypothesize that it wasn’t just the possession or use of mobile phones that was making the difference—it was the capability to use mobile money transfers and other fintech. If a baby had a fever in the middle of the night, the mother could now immediately text members of her extended family to organize the necessary funds to take the baby to a hospital for treatment. Quicker treatment meant a better chance for recovery. Something that does not appear to be directly related to infant health may in fact have a great impact on it.

Recall from the beginning of this chapter our discussion of the very broad scope of anthropology. While other disciplines focus on one realm of society, such as medicine or technology, anthropology ranges across all realms of human thought and activity. Using the technique of holism, anthropologists ask how seemingly disparate elements of social life might be related in unexpected ways.

In American and European cultures, the most common form of marriage is a union of two people. In the United States, many marriages end in divorce and most people then remarry, resulting in a cycle of marriage-divorce-remarriage called serial monogamy . In other cultures, however, a man may have more than one wife. It might be tempting to think that the dominant form of marriage in a culture is related to morality or gender relations. It turns out, however, that one very significant influence on marriage patterns is the food-getting strategy of a particular culture. In small-scale farming cultures, the marriage of one man to two or more women provides an abundance of children to help out with the work of weeding, watering, fertilizing, and guarding the crops (Boserup [1970] 2007; Goody 1976). In cultures where children contribute to food production, the marriage of one man to multiple women is more prevalent. This isn’t always the case, of course, as there are other factors that influence the form of marriage practiced in a culture, but the useful work of children does contribute to the popularity of this form of marriage.

In the contemporary United States, by contrast, most people work not on farms but in offices, shops, and factories. Children are not valued as sources of household labor, and they are not legally permitted to work for wages. In fact, children can be viewed as a drain on the household, each one requiring a massive investment of resources in the form of health care, childcare, special equipment, educational opportunities, and expensive toys. In this context, the increased fertility of multiple wives might impoverish the household. Moreover, our fast-paced, capitalist economy requires a flexible and highly mobile work force. American workers can lose their jobs, and they must be prepared to move and retrain in order to find further work. Many Americans experience periods of uncertainty and precarity in their work lives, conditions that affect the livelihood of their households as well as their relationships with their marriage partners and children. Such a context contributes to smaller family size and fragile marriage bonds. The cycles of stability and disruption in American work life are mirrored in the cycles of marriage and divorce involved in serial monogamy.

These are just two examples of why anthropologists are committed to taking such a broad view of the cultures they study. Often, the various realms of society are related in ways that are not at first apparent to the researcher. By specializing too narrowly on only one realm, the researcher might miss the wider forces that shape the object of study.

Sources of Contradiction, Conflict, and Change

Holistic analysis considers not only how the various features of culture hold together but also how change in one feature can generate cascading changes among others. Often, anthropologists begin their analysis by focusing on one significant change in the lives of a particular cultural group and then chart the ramifications of that change through various other realms of culture.

Attiya Ahmad conducted research among South Asian women who migrate to the Middle East for jobs as housekeepers (2017). She writes about how these women adapt to a new culture and living situation in Kuwait and the disruptions they face when they return to their families and home cultures. On the job in Kuwait, these domestic workers must learn to speak Arabic, operate household gadgets, prepare an entirely different cuisine, respect Islamic norms and practices, and perform their appropriate gender role as female members of a Kuwaiti household. They face the cultural requirement that women should be naram , or soft and malleable, as they develop emotionally charged relationships with the various members of the household. These requirements bring about profound personal transformations for these women as they deal with the contradictions of being both successful wage earners and subordinated cultural others.

The motivation to migrate is primarily financial: the need to pay for schooling, marriages, medical care, and other family expenses. While the women are working in Kuwait, their families become economically dependent on the money they send back home even as their emotional relationships with their family members become weaker and more difficult. When they return home, profoundly changed by their experiences in Kuwait, their natal families nonetheless expect them to behave exactly as they did before they left, observing the same gender and age-related norms that govern the household. This creates a sense of internal conflict for these women. Unable to truly reintegrate with their natal families, many either seek out new connections in their home communities or migrate back to Kuwait. Some begin learning more about Islam by attending special da’wa classes, where they meet other women in the same situation. Finding ethical inspiration in Islamic teachings, many do convert, against the objections of their natal families and their Kuwaiti employers.

All cultures are constantly changing, with small changes in one realm snowballing into larger and larger changes within and beyond that culture. The Me Too movement is another good example. What began in 2006 as a call by American activist Tarana Burke for solidarity and empathy with victims of sexual harassment has now spread into many sectors of American society and across the globe. Initially focused on high-profile celebrities and the movie industry, the Me Too movement has raised awareness of widespread sexual harassment and assault in the fashion industry, churches, the finance industry, sports, medicine, politics, and the military. Activists press for legal changes to protect workers, especially whistleblowers who come forward with allegations of inappropriate sexual behavior. Evaluations of patriarchal and chauvinistic behavior in these institutional realms have sparked scrutiny of the more informal cultural norms of American romance and dating. The Me Too movement challenges the way Americans think about the gender roles of men and women, appropriate speech and gestures, and the distinction between public life and private life.

The movement has prompted processes of dialogue and change in at least 28 other countries, including Afghanistan, China, Nigeria, and the Philippines. The global campaign has been interpreted differently in each of these cultural contexts as the transcultural intentions of American activists intersect with local norms of gender and sexuality. Indeed, some critique the Me Too movement as ethnocentric. Though the calls for reform resonated with French feminists, Me Too activism sparked a backlash among many other French people, with some men and even women arguing that French men should have the right to make sexually provocative comments and rub against women in public places.

While many anthropologists actively support the Me Too movement, our methods of cross-cultural comparison call on us to set aside our personal values (at least temporarily) in order to understand how people in various cultural contexts interpret and act on the cross-cultural campaign against gender-based harassment and assault. This method of suspending personal values is key to understanding how all the elements of a particular culture interact with one another, including pressures from the outside.

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v.7(1); 2021 Jan

Introducing ‘holistic psychology’ for life qualities: A theoretical model for consideration

Positive psychology has attracted extensive interests from educators, researchers, and organizations. Many would recognize the work of Martin Seligman (e.g., Seligman, 2010) and Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi (e.g.,Csíkszentmihályi, 2014b). In its summarized form, positive psychology is concerned with a person's state of flourishing, his/her perceived sense of resilience and inner virtues, and a desire to have positive outlooks in life. Positive psychology is significant, forming the basis for other research inquiries – for example, the advancement of the theory of optimization (Fraillon, 2004; Phan, Ngu and Yeung, 2019b). Considering this evidence, we develop and offer an alternative theoretical model for discussion, which we termed as ‘holistic psychology’.

Holistic psychology , the main focus of this theoretical-conceptual article, is significant for its emphasis on the existence of life experiences, which may exist on a continuous spectrum without distinction between negativity and positivity. This testament, we contend, reflects the importance of inclusiveness and that one could consider maladaptive and negative life experiences (e.g., school disengagement) as sources of vitality, motivating and governing a person to seek for improvement, resulting in a state of flourishing. Our conceptualization in this sense is philosophical, grounded in the main premise of optimization (Fraillon, 2004; Phan et al., 2019b) in which we propose a key tenet for consideration – namely, the ‘transformation’ of negative life experiences into a source of ‘energy’ (i.e., denoted as E) for subsequent enactment. In detail for discussion, our proposed model of holistic psychology consists of four major stages: (i) personal reflection, (ii) the sub-process of transformation, (iii) enactment of energy, and (iv) arousal and sustaining an improved state of functioning.

Positive Psychology, Holistic Psychology, Energy, Transformation, Optimal Functioning, Optimization, Life Education.

1. Introduction

Positive psychology , an important paradigm in the field of psychology, focuses on the proactivity of human behavior, motivation, and personal outlook in life. The operational nature of positive psychology, situated within the context of schooling has been extensively studied ( Csíkszentmihályi, 2014a ; 2014b ; Gable and Haidt, 2005 ; Kern et al., 2019 ; Phan and Ngu, 2017a ). One notable inquiry, for example, has involved the use of positive psychology tenets to promote students' academic and non-academic well-being ( ACU and Erebus International, 2008 ). Indeed, the perception of and the applicability of positive psychology is similar to that of motivational beliefs , which place strong emphasis on students’ proactive engagement, enriched learning experiences, and improved performance outcomes ( Bandura, 1997 ).

One major consideration of positive psychology is that its focus has been on the ‘positivities’ of life – for example, how can I improve and flourish in mathematics? In relation to academic learning, the paradigm of positive psychology considers the promotion and enhancement of different types of adaptive states of functioning (e.g., task engagement). Complexity of school, in this case, contends different academic, school-based, and life experiences for students – in this analysis, daily life experiences may be both positive and negative: some students with unfavorable personal circumstances may have low motivational beliefs, whereas other students may exceed their teachers' academic expectations. In a similar vein, of course, there is evidence that bullying ( Kraft and Wang, 2009 ; Lazuras et al., 2017 ), as a defensive measure for some students, would give rise to school withdrawal, anti-social engagement, etc.

A duty of care would indicate that we need to foster positive schooling experiences and, in contrast, address maladaptive experiences. The use of positive psychology, for example, is advantageous and may instill motivational beliefs and/or facilitate and strengthen students' subjective well-being (e.g., academic) experiences at school ( ACU and Erebus International, 2008 ; Fraillon, 2004 ). Similarly, of course, educators may capitalize on positive psychology tenets to help develop different types of school-based and in-class preventive measures that could deter students' inclination towards negativities (e.g., school disengagement and/or low academic performance experiences). Drawing from this premise, we consider the expansion of positive psychology ( Kern et al., 2019 ; Seligman and Csíkszentmihályi, 2000 ) with our own proposition of an advanced model, which we termed as ‘holistic psychology’. In the subsequent sections of this article, we review the paradigm of positive psychology and from this examination, detail the proposed tenets of holistic psychology for consideration.

2. Positive psychology: an introduction

Positive psychology is related to the study of internal and external life conditions and personal experiences, which may reflect a state of optimal functioning ( Gable and Haidt, 2005 ). Positive psychology ( Gable and Haidt, 2005 ), arising from Seligman, Csikszentmihalyi and Peterson's work, focuses on the theoretical understanding of psychological wellbeing and optimal functioning of people's thoughts and behaviors ( Quick, 2008 ). So, in this analysis, what is optimal functioning? Keyes (2005) postulates a continuum of psychological well-being : on one end of the continuum is the experience of languishing, or negativity, and on the other end of the continuum is the experience of flourishing, or optimal functioning, reflecting a perceived sense of positivity. Phan, Ngu, and Yeung (2017) , in contrast, conceptualize optimal functioning as being the maximization of a person's competence – that is, for example, what is the best that a person can actually do, at present, in say mathematics?

Overview of extensive research developments acknowledges Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi ( Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi, 2000 ; Seligman and Csíkszentmihályi, 2000 ) with coining of the term ‘positive psychology’. According to Sheldon et al. (2000) , positive psychology is defined as being:

“…. the scientific study of optimal human functioning. It aims to discover and promote the factors that allow individuals and communities to thrive. The positive psychology movement represents a new commitment on the part of research psychologists to focus attention upon the resources of psychological health, thereby going beyond prior emphases upon disease and disorder” (Section 2 ).

Pawalkski's (2016) recent comprehensive review of positive psychology is interesting for its detailed analysis and examination of the complex nature of positive psychology. According to the author, the positive characteristics or qualities of this paradigm include, in particular, the importance of personal growth, mastery, drive, character building, human strength, and family and civic virtue ( Phan, Ngu, Chen, Wu, Shi, Shih, Wang and Lin, 2020b ). By the same token, there are a number of attributes that are negative or maladaptive – pessimism, helplessness, underperformance, and procrastination. This testament contends then, that there are two contrasting positions, or ends, within the paradigm of positive psychology: the encouragement, promotion, and enhancement of positive life experiences (e.g., a student who is doing well, academically, at school in different subject areas) versus the prevention and remedy of negative experiences and life conditions (e.g., personal experience of depression). From this analysis, we can surmise and highlight that there is a dichotomy between enhancement and prevention of life conditions and experiences, which may in turn govern a person's action and behavior differently.

In essence, we contend that positive psychology ( Seligman, 1999 ; Seligman and Csíkszentmihályi, 2000 ) capitalizes on positive attributes (e.g., altruism, love, forgiveness, compassion) for personal development and, by contrast, considers the prevention and resolution of negative life conditions (e.g., a temporary state of pessimism, which arises from recent academic failures). Over the years, educators, researchers, stakeholders, and organizations have made concerted attempts to design and develop different educational and social programs that may reflect the theories of positive psychology. Interestingly, in the area of human motivation ( Franken, 2007 ), for example, Maslow's (1954 , 1962) humanistic theory considers the importance of accomplishment of different types of psychological needs (e.g., personal satisfaction). In a similar vein, in our recent conceptual analysis article, we proposed a potential association between the concept of mindfulness and the paradigm of positive psychology ( Phan et al., 2020b ). In this analysis, we argued that our proposed multifaceted model of mindfulness , taking into consideration both Eastern and Western epistemologies, philosophical beliefs, and rationales (e.g., the concept of enlightenment ) ( Phan et al., 2020b ) would serve to stimulate, promote, and cultivate different types of life qualities (e.g., the cultivation of a perceived sense of spirituality).

Indeed, existing literatures indicate that it is somewhat difficult for researchers to provide a coherent or conclusive definition of positive psychology, given that this paradigm is complex and quite diverse in scope and coverage ( Donaldson et al., 2015 ). On this basis, a number of researchers have proposed distinctive but yet comparable theoretical models to explain and/or to reflect the tenets of positive psychology – for example: Seligman's (2010) PERMA model (i.e., Positive Emotions, Engagement, Relationship, Meaning and Accomplishment), Csikszentmihalyi and Robinson's (1990) flow theory , Keyes' (2002) continuum of psychological wellbeing , Peterson and Seligman's (2004) Character Strengths and Virtues Framework , and Phan et al.'s (2017) Framework of Achievement Bests . In brief, as a point of consolidation, we could define and say that positive psychology is related to contentment and inner satisfaction of a person's past (e.g., achievement), optimism and hope for future experiences (e.g., positive emotions), and flow and happiness in the present moment (e.g., engagement and meaning).

Positive psychology, as conceptualized by Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi (2000) , is the pursuit of eudaimonia , a Greek term that connotes the meaning of welfare or a good life. The etymology of the term has its foundation in the Aristotelian philosophy of the relationship between human virtue and excellence. Modern reference to this term is a “state of well-being”. This reference, indeed, intricately links the study of positive psychology to the concept of well-being. Similar to positive psychology, well-being is complex in definition and scope. From their comprehensive review of this topical theme, the Australian Catholic University defines well-being as “… a sustainable state of positive mood and attitude, resilience, and relationships and experiences” ( ACU and Erebus International, 2008 , p. 5). In school contexts, for example, subjective well-being may entail a student's emotional well-being (e.g., personal contentment) and his/her social relatedness with others.

Existing literatures indicate well-being is a multi-dimensional construct that may include the subjective element of happiness, physical health, inner satisfaction, purpose, and positive social relationships ( ACU and Erebus International, 2008 ; Fraillon, 2004 ; Sanghani et al., 2013 ; Van Damme, De Fraine, Van Landeghem, Opdenakker and Onghena, 2002 ). In his book, titled Authentic Happiness , Seligman (2010) presented three fields of investigation that may explain and account for the enrichment of excellent mental health and well-being. He outlined these as:

1. Pleasant life – the pursuit of happiness and a focus on positive emotions (e.g., happiness).
2. Meaningful life – concerns the engagement and immersion of an individual within a meaningful activity. It also is applicable to the psychological benefits of engagement and connection to group and organizations.
3. Good life – how individuals derive pleasure through engagement in pursuits that are external to themselves or serves a greater good – for example, family, religion, community, country.

With reference to the use of positive psychology, Keyes (2002) describes a state of “complete well-being and mental health” as flourishing . Keyes (2002) highlighted that no existing measures are evident that could satisfactorily diagnose or study the presence of complete mental health. Simply, according to Keyes (2007) , “the absence of mental illness is the presence of mental health” (p. 5). Keyes and Lopez (2002) proposed a model for a state of complete mental health, whereby mental illness and well-being are two separate entities on a transecting spectrum. Individuals with high subjective well-being and low mental illness symptoms are considered to flourish and/or to possess a complete state of mental health. Recently, aligning to the tenets of positive psychology, Huppert and So (2013) suggest that the notion of ‘flourishing’ may, in fact, reflect 10 comparable features, namely: “vitality, self-esteem, resilience, positive relationships, positive emotions, optimism, meaning, engagement, emotional stability, and competence” ( Norrish, Williams, O'Connor and Robinson, 2013 ). Interestingly, Phan and his colleagues defined flourishing somewhat differently, suggesting that it is the quantitative (and qualitative) difference, denoted as Δ, between two levels of best practice : realistic achievement best (L 1 ) (i.e., defined as what a person is capable of at the present time, for example: I am capable of solving equations with one unknown) and optimal achievement best (L 2 ) (i.e., defined as a person's testament and indication of his/her maximum capability) ( Phan, Ngu and McQueen, 2020c ; Phan, Ngu and Yeung (2019b) ).

The proliferation of research, articles, and books on positive psychology has meant that the field has expanded to cover a broad range of definitions. Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi (2000) conceptualized positive psychology as made up of three fields of study:

1. The importance of the valuing of subjective experience (e.g., subjective well-being, happiness).
2. Positive individual traits that a person may possess (e.g., character virtues).
3. The importance of civic values, which different types of institutions may support (e.g., positive organizations).

The study of positive psychology has often been misconstrued and criticized for its strong emphasis on positive life conditions and experiences, and the masking of negativities ( Held, 2004 ; Lazarus, 2003 ). Linley, Joseph, Harrington, and Wood (2006) contend that this claim and misinterpretation is made on the unfounded belief that positive psychologies, which are antithesis to traditional pathological approaches are more effective. A deep understanding of positive psychology reveals an acknowledgement of the entirety of human experience in the hope of extrapolating the optimal conditions for self-fulfillment and flourishing. Having said this, we also need to put into perspective that life is often consumed by negative experiences, pessimistic outlooks, and maladaptive functioning. Hence, drawing from this understanding, later in the article, we present our own conceptualization of theoretical model that embraces and amalgamates both positivities and negativities.

2.1. The importance of positive education

Positive Education , coined by Seligman (2010) , emerged as the ‘practical application’ of positive psychology in educational contexts. In other words, from a school-based perspective, how can educators capitalize on positive psychology to inform their teaching practices, professional growth, and students' learning experiences? The practical application of positive psychology theories ( Gable and Haidt, 2005 ; Seligman, 1999 ; Seligman and Csíkszentmihályi, 2000 ), or any theory for that matter, requires some form of conceptualization and design of a program or an in-class intervention for implementation, which then could improve and enhance students' learning and well-being experiences. For example, in our recent publication ( Phan et al., 2020b ), we recommended the use of mindfulness (e.g., Buddhist mindfulness), reflecting the paradigm of positive psychology qualities to facilitate students' academic learning and well-being experiences. Buddhist meditation, in this analysis, may give rise to a feeling of serenity and perceived sense of peace, resulting in .a student being able to think more clearly and to have positive life outlooks.

With reference to the study of subjective well-being, Waters et al. (2017) contend that this development in personal experience, emotion, and feeling would make a profound impact on different types of adaptive outcomes (e.g., proactive social relationship at school: Phan, Ngu, Wang, Shih, Shi and Lin, 2019a ; Raufelder et al., 2013 ; Umberson and Montez, 2010 ). For example, according to the authors, a low level of well-being would closely associate with a perceived sense of pessimism, a weakening in academic performance, a high level of anxiety, etc. A recent correlational research by Phan, Ngu, and Alrashidi (2016a) substantiated Waters et al.'s (2017) claim, showing evidence of the direct effect of well-being on student engagement (β = .53, p < .001) and academic achievement (β = .22, p < .05).

Positive education, indeed, highlights a close association between student well-being and academic accomplishment in achievement contexts. The term positive education, as we discussed, is related to the transformation of theoretical understanding and empirical research findings into applied practice. This consideration (e.g., the application of positive psychology theories to assist a student's academic growth in mathematics) is similar to motivational research, which explores the practicality of motivational beliefs on different types of adaptive outcomes (e.g., academic buoyancy: Collie et al., 2015 ). Recently, reflecting positive psychology tenets, Phan et al. (2017) advanced the study of optimal functioning by proposing the theory of optimization . Phan et al.'s (2017) theorization, in this case, focuses on the potential for a person to reach his/her optimal achievement, via means of different types of educational (e.g., an effective instructional design: Ngu et al., 2014 ), psychological (e.g., the operational nature of personal belief of efficacy: Bandura, 1997 ), and psychosocial (e.g., the impact of the home environment: Daulta, 2008 ) agencies. Importantly, one hallmark of Phan et al.'s (2017) theory of optimization is that successful optimal functioning (e.g., optimal cognitive functioning) reflects a state of flourishing ( Phan et al., 2019b ).

Aside from education institutions' use of Seligman's (2010) PERMA model of positive psychology, other researchers and educators have focused on design and development of practical frameworks for in-class implementation. Visible Well-Being , developed by Lea Waters, is an appropriation of Hattie's Visible Learning approach. Hattie's (2009) seminal work proposed that to affect change, teachers need to be aware of the impact that they are making. Waters et al. (2017) argue that the missing element from Visible Learning is, indeed, the domain of subjective well-being. Waters et al. (2017) present the Positive Functioning Framework as the element to fill this gap. The Positive Functioning Framework is the result of a meta-synthesis of 18,400 studies, spanning the fields of psychology, education, health, neuroscience, and sociology ( Rusk and Waters, 2015 ). The meta-synthesis, in this case, identified six comparable domains that may account for the psychological well-being of students ( Rusk and Waters, 2015 ):

1. Attention and Awareness
2. Emotional Management
3. Comprehension and Coping
4. Goals and Habits
6. Relationships

A core tenet of positive education is the prevention of anxiety and depression through the focus on resilience and optimism. Kern, Waters, Adler, and White (2015) empirically assessed Seligman's (2011) PERMA framework and the well-being of 516 Australian male students (age 13–18) in a secondary school. They found significant correlations between the multidimensionality of well-being and the PERMA framework, which overall provided guidance for positive education. Other research studies, likewise, have focused on and attested to the positive effects of hope (e.g., Adelabu, 2008 ; Bernardo, 2015 ; Phan, 2013 ; Rand et al., 2011 ) and academic optimism (e.g., Bressler et al., 2010 ; Phan, 2016 ; Wu, 2013 ) on academic performance.

Positive psychology is advocated not only as a preventative measure of negative life conditions and experiences (e.g., weakening in academic performance) but also as a potential strategy, which in this case could facilitate students' psychological well-being and academic engagement experiences ( Alford and White, 2015 ). Seligman, Ernst, Gillham, Reivich, and Linkins (2009) and other researchers (e.g., Cohen, 2006 ; Gillham et al., 2011 ) contend that schools and formal institutions play a pivotal role in the support and shaping of children's and adolescents' psychological well-being. Aside from this recognition, Norrish et al. (2013) also believe that schools have the capacity to assist in the support of key developmental skills, such as resilience and environmental adaptation. Moreover, Seligman et al. (2009) emphasize the significant power of positive education to improve and foster academic learning and performance outcomes, via means of using different pathways, opportunities, and/or skills that could stimulate positive emotions (e.g., personal contention, satisfaction) and psychological well-being experiences. Bernard and Walton (2011) concur with this position by highlighting the positive correlation between positive education's promotion of life qualities (e.g., proactive social relationship at school: Phan et al., 2019a ; Raufelder et al., 2013 ; Umberson and Montez, 2010 ) and school-related outcomes (e.g., academic performance).

Vella-Brodrick, Rickard, and Chin's (2014) seminal review regarding the use of positive education in an Australian school, Geelong Grammar, noted its potential effectiveness for wider usage. Having said this, however, Vella-Brodrick et al.‘s (August, 2014) evaluation does recognize a need for further research development as empirical evidence, at this stage, is still in its infancy. In a similar vein, for potential advancement in future research, we contend that many research studies focusing on the effectiveness of positive education have used self-reported scales. This methodological approach is limited, to a certain degree, as it does not yield comprehensive information into the underlying processes of the delivery of positive education (e.g., the causal effect of positive education).

Waters (2011) , in a recent publication, reviewed the effectiveness of 12 world-wide positive education programs (Note: N = 3,400 students). The author found benefits for such programs, which included the improvement of different types of well-being, self-esteem, self-acceptance, relationship satisfaction, and optimism. This line of evidence, from our point of view, affirms the significance of positive education and, more importantly, provides empirical support for the practical relevance of this theoretical orientation. One possibility, in this analysis, is to consider pathways and means that place emphasis on individual and shared happiness. For example, a school-based meditation program that seeks to instill appreciation of mindfulness ( Hanh, 1976 ; Nyanaponika Thera, 1972 ; Phan, Wang, Shih, Shi, Lin and Ngu, 2019d ; Tang et al., 2007 ; Viarengo, 1998 ) may, in a similar vein, encourage a state of calm, peace, and happiness.

3. The complexity of schooling experiences

Life, in general, is in a constant flux of continuous changes, both positive and negative. In school contexts, we do not expect students to perform at their optimal best all the time. In this analysis, the complexity of school settings gives rise to different contextual influences, which would affect students' daily functioning, both positive and negative. For example, the provision of a caring social environment conveys messages of care, emotional support, and social security, resulting in quality learning experiences and improved academic performances ( Roorda et al., 2011 ). In a similar vein, appropriate pedagogical approaches that teachers use also help to improve students’ academic learning of different subject matters ( Ngu and Yeung, 2013 ; Ngu et al., 2014 ). Having said this, however, we acknowledge that some students, or many students, do not always have the flexibility, leeway, opportunity, etc., to flourish and experience enriched academic learning experiences.

It is evident that school also espouses non-favorable social and learning experiences. Some minority students, for example, may find adjustment to a new school environment difficult, consequently because of differing cultural values, customary practices, and/or social norms ( Brown and Jones, 2004 ; Collins, 2005 ; Sabri, 2012 ; St. Louis and Liem, 2005 ). It is more than a possibility, in this case, for minority students to experience and/or to perceive racism, bullying, and social isolation ( Lazuras et al., 2017 ; Lee and Shin, 2017 ; Wadian et al., 2016 ). With reference to the general student population at large, some students may experience difficulties with academic learning of some disciplinary areas (e.g., mathematics), consequently because of limited prior knowledge, lack of interest, and/or little perceived task value ( Eccles, 2005 ; Eccles and Wigfield, 2002 ). These examples, academic and non-academic, in general, underline the complexity of students’ daily experiences in school and classroom settings.

In terms of society at large, there are also disadvantages such as limited funding, poor physical infrastructures, staff recruitment, neighborhood location and reputation, etc., which may serve to impede the enrichment of students’ schooling experiences ( Becker and Luthar, 2002 ; Heckman, 2006 ; Odgers et al. , 2009). As such, some students may not have the advantage and favorable position to flourish in their academic studies. In this analysis, it would be unrealistic to expect comparable standards in terms of learning experiences, motivational beliefs, and/or subjective well-being for students who attend these schools. Academically and socially, some students may exhibit detrimental effects, consequently as a result of negative schooling experiences, such as pessimism ( El-Anzi, 2005 ; Harpaz-Itay and Kaniel, 2012 ; Peterson et al., 1988 ) and helplessness ( Gazelle and Druhen, 2009 ; Phan, 2010 ; Stipek and Kowalski, 1989 ).

In general, school settings impart and espouse different academic and sociocultural influences, which may yield both positive and negative personal experiences. It is a central feat of the schooling process for educators to consider the following: (i) make a concerted effort to prevent the continuation of maladaptive experiences (e.g., a student's sense of helplessness because of social isolation), and (ii) to encourage, promote, and facilitate positive experiences (e.g., a student's engagement of mastery and enjoyment of Chemistry). This consideration may involve, from our discussion so far, the use of positive psychology theories ( Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi, 2000 ; Seligman and Csíkszentmihályi, 2000 ) to address the dichotomy between positivities and negativities. For example, in the context of schooling, we could focus on developing pathways, opportunities, school-based programs (e.g., a mentoring program), in-class strategies (e.g., an effective instructional design), etc. to deter the continuation of maladaptive experiences, or to foster positive experiences.

Aside from positive psychology, it is also possible for us to consider the use of behaviorism ( Watson, 1924 ; Wiest, 1967 ) to negate maladaptive experiences and, likewise, to foster positive behaviors. In school settings, punishments (e.g., taking something that is pleasant away from a learner) are quite effective in helping to suppress certain negative and undesirable behaviors. Taking something that is pleasant away from a student (e.g., preventing the student from soccer training), for example, may discourage and prevent him/her from misbehaving. By all account, regardless of their effectiveness, punishments are unpleasant and may yield further detrimental consequences – for example, the use of in-class punishment could result in student withdraw, perceived feeling of stigmatization, and a sense of demotivation.

In contrast, of course, positive reinforcements such as in-class social recognition and prizes may serve to facilitate and motivate a student to strive for continuing success in mathematics. Positive reinforcements (e.g., providing effort feedback: Schunk, 1982 , 1983 ) also serve to strengthen preferred desirable behaviors, such as strengthening students' personal belief of efficacy for academic learning. As part of the assessment process ( Howell, 2014 ; Readman and Allen, 2013 ), prizes and other types of rewards (e.g., social recognition in class) could indeed encourage students to strive for educational successes. Indeed, from this analysis, it would appear that reinforcements are more potent in their explanatory power to foster desirable outcomes (e.g., improve academic performance) than teachers’ use of punishments, which instead would focus on the weakening of certain negative behaviors (e.g., misbehavior).

In sum, the aforementioned discussion underlines the complexity of school and the schooling process. On a daily basis and at any moment in time, a student may be subject to different sociocultural influences, which would guide and govern his/her motivation, behavior, and learning pattern. Personal experience, cognitive maturity, and self-autonomy, in this sense, may help students to focus on positive schooling experiences, and to purposively choose to avoid negative experiences. It is also advantageous, of course, for teachers to assist by capitalizing on the effective nature of positive psychology ( Csíkszentmihályi, 2014a ; Seligman and Csíkszentmihályi, 2000 ; Seligman et al., 2009 ). Our premise for development, as detailed next, relates to an alternative theoretical model that we term as ‘holistic psychology’.

4. Conceptualization of the paradigm of ‘holistic psychology’

In the preceding section, we made a concerted effort to highlight the complexity of students’ schooling experiences, which closely align with general life experiences, encompassing both positives and negatives. This testament, interestingly, coincides with Pawelski's (2016) theoretical review and places emphasis on the complex nature of positive psychology, especially in terms of its scope and coverage. For example, relatively complex in scope, the work of Seligman and Csíkszentmihályi (2000) details the emphasis of positive psychology: “to prevent [normal people] from developing pathologies” and, likewise, in the “promotion of human flourishing” ( Pawelski, 2016 , p. 341). As a point of summary, Seligman and Csíkszentmihályi (2000) surmise the following: “The aim of positive psychology is to begin to catalyze a change in the focus of psychology from preoccupation only with repairing the worst things in life to also building positive qualities” (p. 5). In this sense, according to the authors, “[the field of positive psychology] is not just the study of pathology, weakness, and damage; it is also the study of strength and virtue. Treatment is not just fixing what is broken; it is nurturing what is best” (p. 7).

Pawelski's (2016) theoretical review, from our point of view, is significant for its critique and examination of one interesting question: how do we reconcile the dichotomy between negativities and positivities? Are they bipolar and, more importantly, is there a neutral point, denoted as say ‘0’, which would separate the two valences? In a similar vein, there are some other imperative related questions that Pawelski (2016) raises – namely: “is the positive just the absence of the negative?, is the negative just the absence of the positive?, and are the two independently definable dimensions?” (p. 433). We commend Pawelski (2016) for his insightful and critical examination of this important tenet 1 , which we advance further in this article. One line of inquiry that is of distinction is whether positive psychology, as a theoretical orientation, is indicative of its total focus and/or, alternatively, whether there is some form of deficiency that would require clarification and further modification. Our critique of this matter, resulting from Pawelski's (2016) writing is that the term ‘positive’ in itself contentious at best. Why is this the case?.

Our reservation with the coining of ‘positive psychology’, despite Seligman and Csíkszentmihályi's (2000) detailed rationale and Pawelski's (2016) critique, is that this term is somewhat ‘non-inclusive’ and may geared solely towards the fulfilment of positive human functioning ( Phan et al., 2020b ). In this analysis, our aim is to conceptualize an alternative nomenclature that could be perceived as being more inclusive. In addition to a change in nomenclature, we want to consider a conceptualization that would address the ‘demarcation’ between positive valence and negative valence ( Pawelski, 2016 ). In other words, is it plausible for us to argue that life experiences simply exist on a seamless spectrum by which there is no demarcation between positive and negative? The main aim then, from our consideration, is that we use an alternative form of positive psychology to promote and encourage optimal best experiences in life.

We propose an alternative nomenclature, which we term as holistic psychology . The term holistic psychology, for us, is more encompassing, emphasizing the importance of totality of personal experiences in life. Reference to the term holistic psychology, from our rationalization, is poignant as it acknowledges the complexity of different life experiences that exist on a continuous spectrum. Importantly, however, we contend that our proposition of holistic psychology does not place emphasis on a neutral point of reference, differentiating between positive life experiences and negative life experiences. Figure 1 shows visually our conceptualization of holistic psychology, which we examine in detail in the subsequent sections of this article.

Conceptualization of the operational nature of holistic psychology.

4.1. Introducing holistic psychology

Before we commence with our examination of the four major steps involved in the proposed model of holistic psychology, it is sufficed to briefly describe its visual depiction. Pawelski's (2016) critique of the nature of both positive (e.g., optimism) and negative (e.g., pessimism) life experiences and the potential point of neutrality, which would act as a dividing line has assisted us in our conceptualization. Our interest in the development of the theory of optimization ( Fraillon, 2004 ; Phan et al., 2017 , 2019a ; Phan, Ngu and Yeung (2019b) ), likewise, has assisted us in this conceptualization of holistic psychology. Foremost in this analysis of our proposition, with reference to Phan et al.'s (2019b) theory of optimization, is that there is a seamless spectrum of personal life experiences and that, in particular:

i. L 1 at T 1 .
ii. L 2 at T 2 .
⁃ This stipulation considers ‘negative’ life experiences (e.g., pessimism) as a point of origin (i.e., T 1 ), denoted as L 1 , by which a person would seek to move on and improve over time (i.e., L 2 ). Why is this the case? We argue that ultimately, the main emphasis of positive psychology ( Csíkszentmihályi, 2014a ; Seligman and Csíkszentmihályi, 2000 ) and our replacement, holistic psychology, is to encourage and foster positive qualities in life. By placing a reference point of neutrality, we are connoting there are two main possibilities when, in fact, this is not or should not be the case: N > P versus P > N (N = negativity and P = positivity). Indeed, it is more poignant for us to consider that life is in a constant flux of change and is always evolving, morphing in with the complexity of life trajectories.
⁃ Energy is the core engine, or driving force, of the underlying mechanism of holistic psychology. This postulation largely incorporates the recent revision of the optimization theory ( Phan et al., 2019b , 2020c ), which incorporates the concept of ‘energy’ where an adequate level would act to optimize a person's state of functioning.
⁃ From our postulation, a level of energy is needed to motivate and optimize a person's internal state of functioning to progress from L 1 at T 1 to L 2 at T 2 . In this analysis, the proposed model of holistic psychology acknowledges the significance and relatedness of negative life experiences (e.g., school disengagement: Henry et al., 2012 ; Liem et al., 2008 ) and their ‘transformation’, which would then govern, direct, and motivate a person to seek positive qualities in life.
⁃ There are four sequential steps that underline the underlying mechanism of holistic psychology, namely: (i) Identification , (ii) Contemplation , (ii) Inner strength , and (iv) Onset and continuation of improved functioning. From its visual depiction, the operational nature of holistic psychology, reflecting the potent effect of energy would result in and perpetuate a person's state of flourishing.
Step 1: The Importance of Identification

Step 1 , termed as ‘Reflection’, is concerned with a person's individual reflection ( Dewey, 1933 ; Schön, 1987 ), seeking understanding into the cause of L 1 for the purpose of improvement. Referring to our previous example, a student may take some time to reflect and consider what are some of the causes that could have accounted for his/her experience of L 1 (e.g., school disengagement) – for example, one cause of school disengagement could be a student's subject to bullying and, likewise, another cause could be the student's continuing academic failures at school. Emphasis from this personal reflection is for a student to understand and appreciate his/her experience of L 1 with the main premise to improve further. It is pertinent to indicate then, that Step 1 is not related to retribution but rather on personal development and future improvement.

Personal reflection is complex and, in this case, may involve us using different strategies ( Schön, 1983 , 1987). In the context of the present proposition, a reflective strategy may consist of the posing of a number of notable questions by which a student contemplates for reflection – namely: “Where did I go wrong?“, “Why am I feeling like this?“, “What do I want to do next?“, “Who can I confide in?“, “Where do I go to seek assistance for improvement?“, and “Am I prepared to learn and improve?” We contend that these reflective questions establish grounding for the student to proactively seek answers and understanding towards his/her present state of functioning (e.g., a state of disengagement). In this case, for example, the student may reflect and query as to why he/she is feeling disengaged – this, indeed, may clarify the cause of his/her state of school disengagement. Further to this is the issue of whether the student is prepared to change and improve for the better – am I prepared to learn and improve?

Seeking to understand the cause of experience of L 1 is not an easy feat. To achieve this accomplishment, it is important for a person to take the initiative to reflect and to be proactive in his/her quest to seek reasons for the experience of L 1 . In a similar vein, there is impetus for individuals to show willingness to rectify and improve on from L 1 . This mentioning is poignant, as it reflects realistic judgment, personal resolve, and self-efficacy to seek assistance from others to delve into the nature of experience of L 1 . Importantly, of course, this initial step is integral towards the transformation of experience of L 1 into something that is more positive in nature. One possible mistake that students often make is their choosing to disregard L 1 for various reasons – for example, embarrassment, a perceived sense of helplessness, complacency, and demotivational beliefs. From our proposition then, this step towards confronting the experience of L 1 is testament towards a person's inner desire to seek resolution and improvement.

Within the context of schooling, how would a student achieve Step 1 – that is, to be able to reflect on past and existing learning and non-learning experiences for the purpose of improvement? A perceived sense of autonomy is paramount as it relates to the student's willingness to seek answers that could account for his/her experience of L 1 . Guidance via means of appropriate instructions ( Ngu et al., 2018 ; Ngu et al., 2014 ) and/or encouraging feedback, in this instance, would be sufficed to initiate the student's intention to seek understanding to the cause of his/her negativity. Aside from personal guidance, it is also a plausibility to consider the use of direct explanation to help elucidate the nature of L 1 . For example, with regard to the example of school disengagement (i.e., L 1 ), a teacher could explain to the student why attending school is important (e.g., school is important for later life purposes). From this description, we contend that direct input from a teacher, a principal, and/or relevant others is a source of inspiration and motivation, which indeed would facilitate the success of Step 1.

Step 2: Contemplation

Step 2 , termed as ‘Contemplation’, is concerned with the provision of opportunities, pathways, and/or means, which could transform L 1 into a state of energy, denoted as ‘E’. This theoretical concept of energy, introduced by Phan et al. (2019b) in their recent article, is central to the process of optimization. Energy, in this sense, is defined as personal experience of ‘vitality’, ‘liveliness’, and ‘inner strength’. According to the authors, a heightened level of energy is needed to ensure that a person's state of functioning (e.g., cognitive functioning) would be optimized. The question then, from Phan et al.'s (2019b) theorization, is how would we transform experience of L 1 into a source of energy?

Having reflected on his/her experience of L 1 , a student has to now look for different opportunities, pathways, and/or means, which could then help him/her accomplish his/her improvement. The quest to self-improve, in this case, is reflected in Step 1 where posed questions emphasize the student's need to seek external assistance – for example, who can the student see or where does he/she go to seek academic and social assistance for improvement? This willingness, we contend, would coincide with an institution's own directives to assist the student. Some examples, in this analysis, may consist of teachers' constructive feedbacks and philosophical reasoning, abundant physical infrastructures (e.g., technologies), and motivational programs that could, individually or in combination, guide and instill positive feelings and strong self-beliefs for improvement. In a similar vein, constructive opportunities and different pathways (e.g., personal scaffolding via means of an individualized educational program) provided may also enlighten and motivate the student to move pass his/her failure, and to consider new courses of action.

From this understanding, the provision of opportunities, pathways, and/or means is perceived as being the instigator of the transformation process. In this analysis, an internal state of ‘feel-good’ experiences, which may indicate positive emotions (e.g., happiness), motivation, and heightened self-beliefs (e.g., self-confidence) would create a perceived sense of energy. In other words, our conceptualization considers the following:

Inaction of assistance (e.g., lack of opportunities), in this case, is more than likely to limit a person from moving forth from L 1 . Importantly, however, limited provision of assistance, as indicated, would negate the feel-good experiences that could operate as a source of energy. A low level of energy, as Phan et al. (2019b) described, is testament to a state of sub-optimization. Unhappiness and feeling of pessimism arising from L 1 , for example, would not energize a student to strive further for improvement.

Step 3: Inner Strength

Step 3 , termed as ‘Inner Strength’, is concerned with the utilization of experience of energy to advance in the improvement of L 1 (e.g., task disengagement). This step, for us, is in accordance with Phan et al.'s (2019b) theorization of optimization. As we previously described, according to Phan et al. (2019b) , a high level of energy would help to optimize a person's state of functioning from L 1 (e.g., task disengagement) to L 2 (e.g., proactive engagement). Moreover, of course, energy is postulated to initiate and stimulate the buoyancy of different types of psychological attributes (e.g., effort expenditure), which then would arouse and sustain a person's transformed experience of L 1 to L 2 over a period of time ( Phan et al., 2019b , 2020c ).

Step 3 largely reflects the underlying process of optimization and, more importantly, emphasizes the central role of energy. Experience of vitality, liveliness, and inner strength, in this analysis, is central to our conceptualization of holistic psychology. Without a heightened state of energy, we contend, a person would not be able to advance his/her quest to improve L 1 . Energy, according to the revised theory of optimization ( Phan et al., 2019b , 2020c ), is not a final standalone outcome, but rather acts as a driving force towards the achievement of L 2 . This compelling force, reflecting a high level of energy, entails the stimulation and buoyant experiences of personal resolve, mental strength, effort expenditure, intrinsic motivation, and effective functioning ( Phan et al., 2019b ), all of which may act individually or in tandem with each other.

What would happen if, in contrast, a low level of energy was experienced? This question is perhaps self-explanatory but for the purpose of clarity, let us consider the previous example. A student's keen reflective practice to understand his experience of school disengagement (i.e., L 1 ) would propel him to seek support and assistance for the purpose of improvement. Additional support via means of an opportunity to work with a likeable mentor, in this instance, would help transform his experience of L 1 into some form of feel-good experience (e.g., a state of enjoyment for schooling and, in particular, learning). This feel-good experience corresponds to an appropriate level of energy, guiding the student towards the achievement of a new state of functioning, L 2 – that is, an appropriate level of task engagement ( Fredricks et al., 2005 ; Liem and Martin, 2011 ; Phan et al., 2016a ). From our previous description then, a point of summary of the student's progress so far from L 1 to L 2 is as follows:

Reflection of L 1 (e.g., disengagement) → Seeking opportunities, etc. → ‘Feel-good’ experiences → Energy →…… Towards L 2 (e.g., engagement).

Step 4: Onset and Continuation of Improved Functioning

Step 4, termed as ‘Onset and Continuation of Improved Functioning’, is concerned with the arousal of a new state of functioning, L 2 (e.g., engagement), and its sustained state over time. This step, in particular, involves the utilization of buoyant experiences of personal resolve, intrinsic motivation, effort expenditure, mental strength, effective functioning, etc. Buoyancy of psychological attributes, as described in Step 3, arises from a person's heightened level of energy. Indeed, from this analysis, we postulate that evidence pertaining to the effectiveness of buoyant experiences of psychological attributes (e.g., personal resolve) is related to the initiation and arousal of L 2 . In other words, from this account, we consider the following summation:

Buoyancy of psychological attributes (e.g., intrinsic motivation) → Initiation and arousal of L 2 (e.g., engagement) → Sustaining L 2

We contend that buoyancy of different types of psychological attributes, forming part of the process of optimization ( Phan et al., 2019b , 2020c ), is positive and coincides with the paradigm of positive psychology ( Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi, 2000 ; Seligman and Csíkszentmihályi, 2000 ). Consider again the example that we described in the preceding sections regarding a student's school disengagement. A heightened level of energy is poignant as it acts to stimulate the buoyancy of different types of psychological attributes. The main premise in this step entails the student's focus and utilization of buoyancy of different psychological attributes in order to initiate and arouse the onset of accomplishment of L 2 (i.e., engagement). For example, the student may capitalize on his personal resolve and mental strength to strive for the accomplishment of L 2 , which would then result in a high level of expenditure of time and effort. Indeed, from this analysis, we posit that the psychological attribute of personal resolve and mental strength serve as ‘antecedents’ of the initiation and arousal of L 2 . An absence of buoyant experiences of psychological attributes, in contrast, would limit the potentiality for the student to accomplish a state of L 2 .

The final aspect involved in our conceptualization of holistic psychology, situated within Step 4, is the sustaining of a person's state of L 2 . What is L 2 , in this case? From existing literature, a few researchers have stated that L 2 is concerned with a person's optimal best (e.g., Fraillon, 2004 ; Phan et al., 2019a ; Phan, Ngu and Williams, 2016b ). Optimal best, as we briefly explained, reflects a person's maximized state of functioning. In the context of schooling, for example, as we detailed in Figure 1 , L 2 could represent a state of positive emotion (e.g., happiness), proactive engagement in learning (e.g., a focus on mastery), and exceptional academic performance in a subject. With this in mind, ideally, we would like to encourage and sustain the state of L 2 . Phan et al.'s (2019b) recent theorization, interestingly, proposes that buoyancy of psychological attributes (e.g., personal resolve) could assist in the sustaining of a person's L 2 over time. We want to consider this tenet in detail in terms of our reference to the conceptualization of holistic psychology.

From a practical perspective, and in line with positive psychology ( Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi, 2000 ; Seligman and Csíkszentmihályi, 2000 ), it is poignant that we encourage students to achieve a state of L 2 . Moreover, in terms of individual growth and for the purpose of optimal efficiency, it is noteworthy that we make concerted attempts to sustain a state of L 2 . In this analysis, it would be meaningless and non-sensical to have a temporary state of L 2 , which would contradict with our conceptualization of a state of flourishing. For us, based on our conceptualization, the tenet and interpretation of flourishing is slightly different from existing research development ( Diener et al., 2010 ; Huppert and So, 2013 ; Phan, Ngu and Yeung (2019b) ). Flourishing, as we detail in Figure 1 , is related to a person's sustained experience of L 2 (e.g., continuing state of proactive engagement), which is enriching and positive. For this to occur, it is imperative that a student is able to capitalize on his/her buoyant psychological experiences (e.g., his/her level of mental strength), and utilizing these prolonged effects to sustain commitment towards L 2 .

4.2. In totality: the importance of the four stages of holistic psychology

In summary, our conceptualization of holistic psychology is advantageous for its expansion into the study of positive psychology ( Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi, 2000 ; Seligman and Csíkszentmihályi, 2000 ). We contend that our proposition of holistic psychology is more than just a change of nomenclature. It is termed ‘holistic’ in order to emphasize on and reflect a seamless spectrum of life experiences without any deliberate demarcation between negative and positive qualities. Our aim in this analysis is to consider an alternative theoretical model that is more coherent, capitalizing on maladaptive conditions and pathologies in order to develop positive qualities for meaningful living. Moreover, as shown in the preceding sections, our proposition of holistic psychology introduces the concept of energy: the absence of this experience would instead result in a state of stagnation, limiting a person's progress towards the achievement of flourishing, L 2 .

Holistic psychology, in its entirety, places emphasis on four major steps that would account for the transformation of negative experiences and maladaptive conditions into positive qualities for daily living. Importantly, however, taking into consideration previous research development (e.g., Pawelski, 2016 ; Seligman, 1999 ; Seligman and Csíkszentmihályi, 2000 ), our proposed model of holistic psychology expands beyond the realm of remedy and prevention of negative life experiences. Rather, from our rationalization, the self-awareness and acceptance of negative life experience (e.g., continuous failures for a student to master mathematics) is realistic and welcoming. The main premise, in this case, is not so much concerned with the development of preventive measures for implementation; rather, for us, the willingness to embrace negative life experiences is poignant as a person's repertoire of life itself is made up of different situations, events, circumstances, etc. Moreover, we emphasize a need for individuals to not ‘differentiate’ their life experiences into positive and negative qualities, but to simply internalize these as part of a learning curve. This rationalization for us, in part, closely aligns with Gruber and Moskowitz's (2014) recent writing, titled “ Positive emotion: Integrating the light sides and dark sides ”, wherein the authors considered the plausibility that positive emotions could result in negative consequences. In a similar vein, Kashdan and Biswas-Diener (2014) argue that negative emotions do not necessarily have to be ‘detrimental’; in fact, negative emotions may lead to positive emotions. From this brief account, we acknowledge that there are two possibilities:

i. Negative life experiences acting as incentives and facilitators of proactive and positive qualities.
ii. Positive qualities may serve to produce detrimental consequences.

Combining the mentioned possibilities, we consider negative and positive life experiences as not being dichotomous but rather operate in a cyclic pattern that constantly fluctuates. Figure 2 shows a visual depiction of a person's life, depicted as a 3-D ball that moves across space. The 3-D ball, in this case, has both negative and positive life experiences, which oscillate as the ball progresses through a tunnel – the tunnel in this case represents the progress of time. As shown, positive life experiences at T 1 (denoted as A) oscillate to become negative at T 2 (denoted as B); likewise, negative life experiences at T 1 (denoted as B) oscillate to become positive at T 2 (denoted as A). Thus, over the course of time, a person's life experiences would fluctuate and thus, from this description, it is more sufficed to consider a ‘repertoire’ of life experiences rather than a dichotomy of positive and negative qualities.

Conceptualization of life experiences.

5. The importance of holistic education

In tandem with our proposed theoretical model of holistic psychology is a topic known as ‘holistic education’ ( Forbes, 2003 ), which is defined as “a group of beliefs, feelings, principles, and general ideas that share a collective family resemblance” ( Phan and Ngu, 2019 , p. 346). According to Miller (1992) , holistic education is not a pedagogical approach but rather depicts a paradigm that may consist of assumptions and principles for consideration. In this analysis, holistic education differs from formal education for its strong emphasis on the fullest possible development of a person ( Hare, 2010 ) – for example, spiritually, emotionally, cognitively, and physically. Within the context of schooling then, holistic education emphasizes the saliency of a student becoming the very best or finest that he/she can be, espousing and reflecting personal experience of all aspects of life ( Forbes, 2003 ).

Holistic education in school contexts, according to Phan and Ngu (2019) , is significant for its idealistic viewpoint and positioning – that is, to develop a student into a ‘holistic person’, which in this case may espouse the enrichment of physical, moral, intellectual, emotional, and spiritual development . This philosophical position, indeed, is encouraging and focuses on preparation for lifelong learning and appreciation. Importantly, holistic education encourages students to adopt attitudes and personal awareness, as well as to acquire lifelong skills to adapt to the increasingly complex world. At the same time, holistic education recognizes the ‘wholeness’ of a student and that this wholeness is connected to his/her sociocultural surroundings ( Mahmoudi et al., 2012 ). Moreover, coinciding with our proposition of holistic psychology, holistic education emphasizes a need for the embracement of life experiences, which may consist of both positives and negatives. This recognition and acceptance of life experiences, in general, may reflect and involve a student's active engagement in reflective thinking discourse to improve and flourish.

We speculate that holistic psychology could coincide with the concept of holistic education and provides support for some of its proposed tenets. One distinctive aspect, in this analysis of our proposition, is the awareness and noting that we all have diverse learning and non-learning experiences. A ‘holistic’ student, in this case, would acknowledge the highs and lows of his/her life and, importantly, recognize that effective lifelong learning requires timely and considerate reflection of oneself – for example, what is my strength, and/or what is my weakness? At the same time, holistic development in school settings espouses the important viewpoint that regardless of a student's highs and lows, the emphasis in this case is to flourish and achieve optimal best in spirituality, morality, cognition, etc. Holistic psychology, as a framework for guidance, would facilitate the endeavor for a student to develop a holistic self.

As a framework for guidance, holistic psychology is effective for providing four important steps by which a student could adopt in his/her quest to achieve a holistic self. A holistic self, from our recent work ( Phan, Ngu, Chen, Wu, Kuo, & Lin, 2021 ), is related to the totality of a person's development – for example, his/her perceived sense of spirituality. In the context of schooling, likewise, a student's holistic self may consist of his/her flourished state of academic competence in a subject matter, and/or his/her level of self-confidence to interact socially with others. The question then from this is how does the student utilize the model of holistic psychology to assist him/her with the development of totality? This reference and application of holistic psychology, we contend, could potentially form part of the repertoire of holistic education. In other words, from our rationalization, the success of holistic education may depend on a person's utilization of the holistic psychology model. This consideration of utilization of holistic psychology may entail the following:

⁃ Self-awareness that schooling and learning have multiple life-relevant purposes, which may then motivate and energize a student to capitalize on different personal facets for usage. For example, one's own ability to socially interact (i.e., one's own interpersonal skills) with others in school settings may assist in the seeking of opportunities, etc. for the purpose of transforming negative learning and/or non-learning experiences into positivities. Proactive social interactions and, hence, interpersonal relationships are integral towards assisting students to adjust to school, providing emotional support, perceived security, friendship, etc.
⁃ To consider passion ( Fredricks et al., 2010 ), self-regulation ( Pintrich and Zusho, 2002 ; Zimmerman and Kitsantas, 2014 ), and self-determination ( Deci and Ryan, 2000 ; Deci et al., 1991 ) as positive psychological constructs that could help arouse and sustain learning experiences of different subject matters. Passion, for example, may motivate a student and, in turn, mobilize his/her effort to persist in order to strive for educational success.

In summary, as we explained, holistic psychology encompasses the complete spectrum of a person's diverse experiences without any demarcation. By the same token, coinciding with holistic psychology, holistic education is related to the positivity and totality of a student's learning and non-learning experiences in school contexts. Holistic education, in this analysis, may incorporate the development of educational and/or social programs that emphasize the salient use of holistic psychology. This emphasis connotes the viewpoint that holistic education, in general, is more than just a person's development of his/her whole self and enriched experiences. It is also related to the complexity in design and implementation of pedagogical practices, programs, etc. that would facilitate the experience of wholeness.

6. Consideration for future research development

Any theoretical model or conceptualization, for that matter, requires ongoing discussions and empirical development for validation. Our concerted effort, in this case, entailed the inclusion of existing writings in the area of positive psychology ( Csíkszentmihályi, 2014a ; Kern et al., 2019 ; Pawelski, 2016 ; Seligman and Csíkszentmihályi, 2000 ) to assist us in our construction of an alternative model, namely, holistic psychology. Holistic psychology, we prefer, is significant for its consideration of life experiences as being continuous without any demarcation between positive and negative qualities. Our focus of inquiry, in this analysis, posits the viewpoint that there is a seamless spectrum of life conditions and experiences, which would oscillate and fluctuate with time.

We invite researchers and educators to advance our proposed conceptualization of holistic psychology, theoretically, methodologically, and empirically. Of major interest, for consideration in future research development is a focus on the specific measurement, assessment, and validation of our proposed holistic psychology tenet. Theoretical understanding derived from philosophical and psychological reasoning may be limited in terms of established empirical grounding. In this analysis, we contend that there are a few notable inquiries of value for examination, which we explore in this section of the article.

6.1. Effectiveness of educational and social programs

It is noteworthy to consider an educational or social program that could: (i) reflect the tenets of holistic psychology, and (ii) support the proposition of holistic psychology. With reference to schooling, for example, students' personal situations of negative and maladaptive experiences may be considered – say, a student's experience of bullying, or a student's continuing failures in mathematics. The pervasive issue then, from this, is how does one embark on the use of holistic psychology? One possibility, in this case, is to first of all consider the development and implementation of an individual educational program (IEP) that could accommodate a student's needs – in this analysis, a particular IEP may address and accommodate a student who may experience continuing failures in mathematics. There are a number of questions to consider – namely, how would the individualized program developed help to transform a student's negative experience of mathematics into something that is more positive? and what would this transformed experience of L 1 be?

Individual educational programs may differ, depending on students' individual needs. For our example, consider an IEP that is developed to accommodate a student's negative experience of mathematics. For this IEP, we could consider the following, namely: (i) partnering the student with a more capable student in mathematics for the purpose of mentoring and scaffolding, (ii) stipulating learning outcomes (LOs) that emphasize the importance of authenticity and real-life application of mathematics, and (iii) considering the use of timely encouraging and positive feedback to help improve the student's self-beliefs for academic learning (e.g., self-efficacy: Bandura, 1997 ). The question then from this is how effective would this IEP be in terms of informing the student, and transforming his/her experience of L 1 in mathematics into that is more positive? This focus for research development, as shown in Figure 3 , considers examination of the effectiveness of an educational program for a student who exhibits negative learning experiences. Effectiveness in this case, from our rationalization, is determined by the successful transformation of L 1 .

Consideration of Research Development of Implementation of an IEP. Note: As a conceptualization of holistic psychology in practice, an individual educational program (IEP) is introduced to help remedy experience of L 1 . The effectiveness of implementation of this IEP is determined by the successful transformation of L 1, which would then result in a state of L 2 . Part of this model of holistic psychology consists, initially, of a student seeking to understand about his/her state of L 1 – this consideration of reflection may entail some reflective questions – for example, “Why am I not doing well in mathematics?”.

In a similar vein, the effectiveness of the IEP, from our point of view, may be determined by the sustained effect of L 2 . Our discussion in the preceding sections contends the importance of the sustained effect L 2 (e.g., engagement). It is meaningless, in this analysis, for the accomplishment of L 2 to not have any lasting influence on other related outcomes. From this acknowledgment, there is credence then to consider assessment of the sustained effect of L 2 – in this case, for example, a teacher could gauge into the student's contemplative response to questions such as “How will I learn and perform in future?” and “Will I approach my learning of mathematics in future with enjoyment?”

6.2. The importance of methodological appropriateness

In their recent research development, Phan and colleagues proposed a theoretical tenet, which the authors termed as ‘methodological appropriateness’ ( Phan et al., 2019a , Phan, Ngu and Yeung (2019b) ). This key terminology emphasizes the importance of appropriateness of a methodological approach that could, in turn, measure, assess, and validate a theoretical concept or process – in this case, the process of optimization. Phan et al.'s (2019b) article indeed detailed an in-depth analysis of a potential quantitative methodological approach that could be considered for usage. In a similar vein, with reference to the current context, we recommend a focus on the conceptualization and development of an appropriate methodological approach for usage. Referring to Figure 3 , in particular, it is contentious from our point as to how one would study the following:

6.2.1. Transformation of L 1

The transformation of L 1 (from the introduction of an IEP), as we previously described, may serve to facilitate and motivate a student to achieve L 2 . This noting recognizes the complex nature of ‘transformation’ and how this underlying process may yield a level of energy. How would we measure and assess this underlying process of transformation? By all account, consider the following depiction:

sense of vitality.

From this description, the process of transformation is proposed to result in qualitative changes – for example, as shown, an initial state of L 1 is transformed into a different state altogether, denoted in this case as ‘O’. The context of our proposition makes it somewhat difficult for us to ascertain evidence of a state of change. This qualitative change, indicating two or more different states would, in this case, act as a proxy index of transformation. Hence, from this testament, perhaps one methodological approach that we could entail is in situ observation of behavioral changes ( Lofland et al., 2006 ; Maxwell, 2005 ). In situ observations, in this analysis, may enable us to clarify the contextual meaning of the word and/or experience of 'transformation' – for example, what happens when we transform L 1 , consequently as a result of a designated IEP? As a basic example, in this case, L 1 may indicate a student's state of school disengagement for various reasons, whereas O is concerned with his/her subsequent perceived sense of vitality and liveliness. The enactment of transformation at T 2 (e.g., the introduction of an IEP) could result in the student becoming more ‘vibrant’, exhibiting intellectual curiosity, excitement, and/or motivation in his/her schoolwork. Thus, from our rationalization, this positive behavioral change could serve as an index of transformation.

It is plausible from the above example that a student's self-report of his/her level of vitality, liveness, and inner strength could also provide evidence, affirming the enactment of transformation. The use of self-report measures (e.g., asking a student to indicate his/her level of vitality, liveliness, and inner strength), encompassing a non-experimental approach ( Phan and Ngu, 2017b ) may provide fruitful and relevant information pertaining to the personal experience of vitality, liveness, and inner strength. A student's high score, in this case, would indicate a high corresponding level of energy. Interestingly, in recent development of optimization, Phan et al. (2021) propose a multifaceted structure of energy, as shown in Figure 4 . According to the authors, the notion of a multifaceted structure of energy connotes that there are, perhaps, differential effects of energy. In this analysis, as shown in Figure 4 , the effect of energy on intrinsic motivation (i.e., denoted as Path A), stimulated by an instructional design, may differ from the effect of energy on effective functioning (i.e., denoted as Path B), stimulated by self-efficacy beliefs for academic learning. From this rationalization, it would be interesting for researchers to consider appropriate methodological designs that could measure and assess the differential effects of energy on different types of psychological attributes.

The multifaceted structure of energy.

6.2.2. The nature of energy and buoyant psychological experiences

The nature of the concept of energy remains an inconclusive matter for development. What is energy and how does this proposed concept ( Phan et al., 2019a , Phan, Ngu and Yeung (2019b) , 2021 ) feature in the theoretical model of holistic psychology? Referring to both Figure 1 and Figure 3 , we are interested to ascertain and determine the positive impact of energy – that is, how does energy initiate and activate the buoyancy of psychological attributes such as personal resolve, effective functioning, etc.? This issue of the positive nature of energy, as Phan et al. (2019b) attest, is not easily achieved. At best, from the perspective of social sciences ( Phan and Ngu, 2017b ), we could use experimental designs (e.g., a two-group design) to explore the causal effects of energy on different psychological attributes – for example, the causal effect of energy on effort expenditure.

Likert-scale measures ( Cohen et al., 2003 ; Gravetter and Forzano, 2009 ; Shay, 2008 ) likewise may permit us to gauge into a person's level of energy. Self-report questionnaires (e.g., “I feel very much ‘alive’ at the moment”), in this analysis, may provide clarity into the nature of energy – for example, the proposition of the multifaceted nature of energy ( Phan et al., 2021 ). Likewise, from this data source, researchers could explore associations between energy and other cognitive-motivational variables, achievement-related outcomes (e.g., academic performance), and/or non-educational outcomes (e.g., subjective well-being), via correlational analyses.

Despite the potentiality for researchers to use experimental and/or non-experimental data, we still remain doubtful as to how one would be able to measure and assess the nature and key characteristic of energy, as stipulated in Figure 1 and Figure 3 – for example, the onset of energy, which would ‘initiate’ and ‘activate’ of the buoyancy of different psychological attributes. How would we be able to measure, assess, and determine the initiation and activation of buoyant psychological experiences? Indeed, even from our own positioning, the issue of initiation and activation of buoyant psychological experiences from the positive impact of energy is contentious in terms of empirical validation. By the same token, an inquiry pertaining into the sustainability of a state of flourishing requires further methodological and research development. A sustained state of L 2 from L 1 (i.e., a state of flourishing) is not instantaneous and, in this case, calls for the use of longitudinal data, experimental or non-experimental.

Longitudinal data situated within a combination of both experimental and non-experimental designs are advantageous and may provide a logical approach towards the study of a sustained state of flourishing. Referring to our previous discussion and, in particular, Figure 1 , a sustained L 2 in a subject matter in itself would indicate a person's experience of flourishing. Flourishing, we contend, is not instantaneous but an ongoing experience, which is positive and may produce other yields (e.g., an improvement in self-confidence). With this testament in mind, we rationalize that causal flows and latent growth modeling techniques ( Duncan et al., 2006 ; Hancock and Lawrence, 2006 ; Lazarsfeld and Henry, 1968 ), in particular, may provide stronger grounding for the capturing the intricate nature of a sustained state of L 2 .

6.3. Holistic psychology and life education

We have recently engaged in a cross-institutional, cross-cultural research collaboration with scholars from Taiwan, focusing on an interesting subject – namely, the importance of life and death education . Life and death education, also known as life education , or death education ( Chen, 2012 , 2013 ; Huang, 2014 ), is a subject that is formally recognized in Taiwan for its pivotal role in helping to promote civics, respect, social well-being, and personal health. For example, it is believed that formal learning about the nature of life and death could impart life wisdom, assisting a person to view life in a positive manner, regardless of obstacles, difficulties, etc. In 2020, we published an article in Frontiers in Psychology ( Phan, Ngu, Chen, Wu, Lin and Hsu, 2020a ), which explored the nature of life education and how this subject could help promote the cherishing and fulfilment of different types of life qualities (e.g., personal contentment, happiness, aspiration).

The significance of the study of life education in Taiwan is reflected by its incorporation of Eastern-derived epistemologies, philosophical beliefs, cultural beliefs, and customary practices ( Phan et al., 2020a ). One notable aspect that is resonated throughout the teaching of life education is related to Buddhism ( Master Sheng Yen, 2010 ; Yeshe and Rinpoche, 1976 ) or Buddhist teaching, which in particular emphasizes on the notion of spirituality , or spiritual cultivation . Personal understanding of spirituality may encourage a senior citizen to consider the possibility that some ‘form’ of life, or ‘esoteric’ experience and/or divine being, could exist beyond the realm of death. In other words, from the perspective of Buddhism (e.g., the notion of samsāra ) and spirituality, it is plausible for us to consider and/or to accept that, perhaps, there is another unknown dimension beyond life itself.

Advancing the study of life education, our conceptual analysis led to the development of a proposition, which we termed as a person's ‘spiritual and enlightened self’ ( Phan et al., 2020a ). What is the spiritual and enlightened self? As summarized in our published work (see Phan et al., 2020a for a detailed analysis), the study of life education may educate and inform a student of three major components: (i) personal reflection about the meaning of life and death (e.g., one purpose is to live a meaningful life and to assist others), (ii) the acquiring and cultivation of spirituality (e.g., appreciating the notion of transcendence , which could assist with the coping of death), and (iii) the development and enrichment of personal well-being (e.g., the enrichment of emotional well-being, via different means). The promotion, fostering, and interaction of the three components (denoted as ‘X’, which we term as ‘ Spiritual and Enlightened Self ’) form a spiritual and enlightened self, resulting in evidence of a person's experience of different life qualities or characteristics – for example: having a positive outlook about life, having a perceived sense of spirituality, having compassion, showing more willingness to forgive others, etc.

In essence, from our point of view and rationalization, a person's spiritual and enlightened self is ‘positive’, yielding a number of life qualities or characteristics (e.g., being able to forgive others) ( Phan et al., 2020a ) that may, in this analysis, coincide with the proposition of holistic development or holistic psychology. Moreover, aside from our conceptualization of the spiritual and enlightened self ( Phan et al., 2020a ), there are certain elements within the subject of life education (e.g., the importance of acquiring life wisdom) ( Chen, 2012 , 2013 ; Huang, 2014 ) that may advance understanding into: (i) the underlying mechanism of holistic psychology (i.e., the four proposed steps that are involved, which we previously explored), (ii) the experience and manifestation of positive life qualities, or characteristics, of holistic psychology (e.g., the experience and testament of positive emotions), and (iii) the extent to which Eastern-derived epistemologies, philosophical beliefs, and customary practices (e.g., a belief in spirituality: the concept of samsāra) could ‘widen’ the coverage of life qualities of holistic psychology.

From this introduction, we posit the plausibility for life education and our proposed model of holistic psychology to interrelate with each other, potentially providing fruitful information into the totality of a person's development – spiritual, moral, emotional, social, etc. For example, as a focus of inquiry for future research investigations, researchers and educators may wish to explore the extent to which the ‘psychology of spirituality’ (e.g., subsequent daily thoughts and emotions, which arise from ‘spiritual awakening’) could explain a person's holistic development. How does spirituality assist a student to academically adjust and/or to perform well in a subject matter? How does proactive peer social relationship ( Furrer et al., 2014 ; Li et al., 2011 ; Wentzel, 2005 ) at school assist in the promotion and cultivation of spiritual beliefs? How does spirituality assist in ethics understanding and moral development? By the same token, a related inquiry that is worthy for development is validating the extent to which ‘spiritual engagement’, ‘spiritual affiliation’, and/or ‘spiritual orientation’ could instill and facilitate positive psychological beliefs (e.g., intrinsic motive to embrace and/or to cultivate spirituality). These questions, in general, place emphasis on the potentiality for us to affirm and unify the two theoretical concepts (i.e., holistic psychology and life education) within one conceptual framework.

7. Conclusion

The study of positive psychology ( Csíkszentmihályi, 2014a ; Kern et al., 2019 ; Seligman and Csíkszentmihályi, 2000 ) has provided grounding for researchers and educators to incorporate this paradigm as a reference point for implementation and/or usage. Positive psychology, theoretically, emphasizes the importance of resilience, inner virtues, mental fortitude, etc. Moreover, a state of flourishing ( Diener et al., 2010 ; Huppert and So, 2013 ; Phan et al., 2019b ) is a central premise of positive psychology, which may reflect and/or play an important role in accounting for a person's or an organization's growth. Recent research development, likewise, has made significant progress, detailing a state of flourishing as a quantitative and/or qualitative difference between two levels of functioning ( Phan et al., 2019b , 2020c ). In sum, positive psychology is concerned with optimal experiences that a person may acquire and develop over the course of time.

We do not discount the significance of positive psychology. For example, derived in part from this paradigm, researchers have recently focused on a related inquiry – namely, the elucidation into the complex nature of optimal best, which led to the development of the theory of ( Fraillon, 2004 ; Phan et al., 2017 , Phan, Ngu and Yeung (2019b) ). With reference to the current focus, we chose to capitalize on the theory of positive psychology and introduce an alternative model, termed as ‘holistic psychology’. Holistic psychology differs from positive psychology, utilizing the theory of optimization as an explanatory account, and reflecting its inclusive nature by taking considering life experiences on a continuous spectrum. Holistic psychology places emphasis on self-awareness and recognition that negative life experiences could have a profound positive impact, serving a source of energy and motivation for a person to capitalize on. Indeed, from this analysis, postulation of holistic psychology offers an alternative approach in the seeking of understanding and contentment of different perplexities of life.

We contend that holistic psychology is more encompassing in its operational nature. Confronting negative life experiences is something that is undesirable and if we could, we would mask and ignore negative life experiences altogether. Our consideration of holistic psychology, in this analysis, encourages the willingness and the embracement of maladaptive and negative life experiences for the main purpose of personal improvement. In other words, we capitalize on maladaptive and negative life experiences and make concerted attempts to transform these into positive outcomes for usage. In this analysis, our proposition contends a holistic approach in which different types of life experiences (e.g., negative versus positive) are considered as being continuous and intimately relate to each other. Having said this, though, we acknowledge that our proposed model of holistic psychology is theoretical, relying on philosophical psychology, intuition, and personal experiences. As such, we advise educators and researchers to continue with development of different types of conceptual, methodological, and empirical inquiries into the validation of holistic psychology.

Declarations

Author contribution statement.

All authors listed have significantly contributed to the development of this article. This article, in particular, was revised while the first author was on sabbatical and was a visiting scholar in the Department of Education at the National Taipei University of Education. A special thank you to the National Taipei University of Education and the Department of Education (especially Profs. L. Wu and W. Lin) for hosting the first author’s sabbatical.

Funding statement

This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Competing interest statement

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Additional information

No additional information is available for this paper.

1 We advise and recommend readers to consult Pawelski (2016) article for in-depth analysis of the tenets of positive psychology. The article, titled “Defining the ‘positive’ in positive psychology: Part I. A descriptive analysis”, provides a thorough examination of the nature of positive psychology – for example, the meaning of positives and negatives.

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Eryn David Ahmed Santos Agustin

Constant Thanker

Holistic Perspective and Philosophical Reflection

Weeks 1 & 2: Lesson

MELC-based Weeks 1 & 2

Lesson Proper (What’s new?)

Introduction

Philosophy, which etymologically means “love of wisdom,” is the study of the elemental nature and theories of reason (logic), knowledge (epistemology), ethics/morality/values (axiology), and first principles of everything (metaphysics). Using “correct” reasoning (alternatively known as “logic”), philosophy attempts to answer the fundamental, abstract, general, and most often than not, controversial or dilemmatic problems. Generally, there are no single, specific and definitive answers to philosophical questions.

Doing Philosophy (Philosophizing)

Philosophical study can either be an individual intellectual or a collective pursuit. As an individual intellectual pursuit, philosophers use analytic thought processes to test ideas, analyze beliefs, and/or resolve conflicts. On the other hand, as a collective pursuit, individuals and groups employ methodological insights to deal with controversial issues and moral dilemmas about societal problems (such as, same-sex marriage, divorce, abortion, euthanasia, capital punishment). Whatever the pursuit an individual or group might have, either in an individual or on a collective level (and both), philosophizing is prescriptively and normatively bound by reason and morality in arriving at the truth – and ultimately, wisdom. Thus, individuals and peoples, in general, could apply at all levels and in each moment of his/their life/lives a personal or collective philosophy of life.

Holistic Perspective versus Partial Viewpoint

In doing philosophy, philosophizing, or inquiring philosophically, there are two (2) general perspectives. First, holistic perspective refers to a viewpoint that consists of closely knitted individual parts that make up the whole of a situation prior to arriving at or in making any conclusion. Example of a holistic perspective is weighing both sides of two opposing parties’ arguments and evidences before making a judgment, generalization, or conclusion. Second, partial perspective denotes a point of view that is composed of individual parts of only a particular, but not, entire context. Example of a partial perspective is considering only one-sided, particular claim/s. Generally, philosophical dialogues, discussions, and related conversations utilize the multi-argumentative (pros and cons), unprejudicial and unbiased holistic perspective/s as it, theoretically, exhaustively anchor any conclusions and generalizations as to the “whole of a matter.” Thus, the philosophical exercise of using holistic approach, viewpoint or perspective can further develop in an individual the philosophical robustness of moral, critical- and logical-mindedness in many, if not most, various life’s situations.

Value of Philosophizing

Philosophizing – or more practically stated, doing philosophy – means delighting oneself to realize one’s full potential when unleashing the importance philosophy has in getting a holistic perspective in life. When you reflect on your concrete experiences, you might use a philosophical lens to see “small and far objects” better and in magnified way. To utilize holistic view most, if not all, of the times, a person should acquire and use the various philosophical (e.g., analytical, interpretative) and related (e.g., communicative) skills when understanding the whole aspects of a situation, problem or issue.

Philosophical Reflection

Philosophical reflection, or simply philosophizing, is an intellectual process where an individual becomes simultaneously deeply engrossed with himself/herself while holistically evaluating his/her intention, decision, and situation prior to making an action. As an individual habitually develops this philosophical discipline of deep reflection on a regular basis, he/she in turn arrives at a deeper meaningful understanding of himself/herself when searching for facts, truth, and wisdom.

Having in mind the philosophical process of reflecting as part of daily living, he or she becomes more better attuned with his/her own personhood (such as, personal convictions, local context, moral experiences, reflectiveness and consistency in his/her actions). Aside from knowing and then examining oneself, the fruits of philosophizing or philosophical reflection starts but does not end within oneself, but the self becomes one with others in meaning-making and action-taking.

A few concrete examples on how philosophical reflection results to self-knowledge could be gleaned from the following: (a) learning from your previous mistakes or from the mistakes of other people so as not to repeat doing the same mistakes; (b) using a holistic perspective when choosing from a variety of options before deciding, acting, generalizing, or making any conclusion.

Summary/Generalization (What a student learned so far?)

Philosophy comes from 2 Greek terms with the literal meaning of “love (of)” plus “wisdom;” hence, a philosopher is a person who is a lover of wisdom. The major branches of philosophy are logic, epistemology, axiology, and metaphysics. You will learn more about the detailed treatments of these branches in higher-level, specialized philosophy courses in a university setting. To approach a problem or query in a philosophical way, an individual has to keep in mind that there is no single answer or solution to a particular question that is truly “philosophical in nature.”

For most individuals who are enthusiasts in learning and engaging in philosophy, it is much of an individual intellectual pursuit. Equivocally, individuals or groups can philosophically interact about societal situations in a collective way. Whatever pursuit people might have, it is best to guard oneself with the right mindset, at the right time, and with the right people. Furthermore, when doing philosophy, or simply philosophizing, a holistic view is the preferred, relevant and significant perspective as it avoids the multifaceted pitfalls of impartiality in dealing with issues, problems, dilemmas, and controversies in philosophy and life, in general.

The importance of philosophizing emanates within oneself and from the wisdom of people who endeavored to see the truth. As you put your interest in seeing things from a holistic perspective, coupled with the necessary philosophical skills, you can then muster to your advantage well-thought of decisions and actions in any particular situation, Experiencing the value of philosophy is thus through habitual philosophical reflection, which further develops in an individual’s ever-replenishing self-knowledge and consequent benefits (such as, becoming more prudent in deciding over matter of urgency, seeing the big picture so as not to be misled by hasty generalizations, and so forth).

Theory of Holistic Perspective

Holistic Perspective

The Theory of Holistic Perspective provides a framework for understanding how sentient beings, including humans, perceive and interact with the world. It’s centered around the concept that all beings simplify reality by intuitively assigning three of the six universal dimensions to their experiences, particularly when interacting with their environment. This process is largely unconscious and automatic but can become more conscious with experience and development, especially after language is acquired.

Key Components of the Theory

Six universal reality dimensions.

The Six Universal Reality Dimensions, as presented in the Theory of Holistic Perspective , describe the fundamental aspects through which all sentient beings perceive and engage with reality. These six dimensions are categorized into three complementary pairs that represent the spectrum of our experiences and understandings:

Material and Immaterial – Existence/Space: This dimension differentiates between what is tangible and physical (material) and what is conceptual or ideational (immaterial). It encompasses the physical objects and substances in our world as well as the thoughts, ideas, and concepts that do not have a physical form.
Internal and External – Interconnections/Holons: Incorporating the Internal and External dimension with the concept of holons, which are entities that are simultaneously wholes and parts of other wholes, highlights our interaction with reality through nested layers of complexity. Holons exemplify how we perceive and influence our internal experiences and the external world. This distinction aids in understanding the interconnectedness of self with broader systems, emphasizing that our internal perceptions (thoughts, feelings, and intuitions) and external actions (interactions with the environment and others) are integral parts of a continuous spectrum of reality. By recognizing this we can better navigate the boundaries and interconnections between the internal and external, appreciating the complexity and interdependence of our existence.
Relativistic and Reflexive – Interaction/Time: Relativistic Reality relates to the objective interaction of inanimate objects, following physical and natural laws, devoid of interpretation. The “Law of Least Resistance” describes this kind of interaction. This dimension is always in the present moment. Reflexive Reality, in contrast, involves subjective interactions based on intent, free will, and personal interpretation. The “Law of Eliminating Discrepancies” describes this kind of interaction.This dimension is always in the past or future.

By becoming aware of how these dimensions influence our perceptions, we can better navigate the challenges and opportunities presented by our interactions with the world and with others. This awareness can lead to a more holistic understanding of ourselves and the universe, enhancing our capacity for empathy, ethical decision-making, and meaningful engagement with our environment and society.

Eight Personal Perspective Positions

The Theory suggests that there are eight distinct perspectives that sentient beings can adopt, generated by combining three of the six universal dimensions. These perspectives are:

Sensed Reality (Internal and External) : Sensed Reality is about perceiving the world through direct sensory experiences. The internal aspect focuses on personal sensations like hunger, while the external aspect involves understanding others’ perceptions, such as empathy through mirror neurons.
Observed Reality (Internal and External) : Observed Reality involves understanding cause-and-effect relationships in material and reflexive dimensions. Internally, it deals with controlling personal systems and processes, while externally, it focuses on managing external events, systems, or scenarios.
Intuited Reality (Internal and External) : Intuited Reality is centered on interpreting intangible concepts like values and priorities. Internally, it pertains to personal interpretations and narratives, whereas externally, it relates to understanding others’ interpretations and mental models.
Transimmanent Reality (Internal and External) : Transimmanent Reality encompasses the understanding of potential and possibilities in both tangible and intangible realms. Internally, it involves realizing one’s own full potential, while externally, it is about recognizing the full potential and possibilities in others and the external world.

Personal, Shared, and Universal Truths

Personal Truths are individual narratives shaped by combining three of the six Universal Reality Dimensions.
Shared Truths emerge when individuals perceive something similarly, reflecting collective beliefs or opinions.
Universal Truths are fundamental truths rooted in the three axes of the Theory, representing aspects of reality all sentient beings are bound to experience.
Understanding Biases and Mental Models: The Theory of Holistic Perspective enriches our approach to understanding biases and mental models by emphasizing the conscious recognition of how we intuitively assign the six universal reality dimensions to our experiences. This enhanced awareness is fundamental in identifying potential blind spots and limiting beliefs that can obscure our perception of reality. By acknowledging these automatic cognitive processes, we can begin to challenge and expand our mental models, paving the way for a more accurate and inclusive understanding of the world around us.
Seeing True Reality: The Theory aims to encourage a more holistic view of reality by recognizing and integrating the material and immaterial, the internal and external, and the relativistic and reflexive dimensions of experience. This holistic viewpoint acknowledges the complexity and interconnectedness of all aspects of reality, encouraging a deeper appreciation for the many ways in which we can experience and understand our existence.
Promoting Holistic Decision-Making: In promoting holistic decision-making, the Theory not only enhances personal growth and understanding but also equips us to navigate the complexities of modern life with greater empathy, compassion, and effectiveness. By embracing its framework, we can make decisions that are informed by a fuller appreciation of the diverse facets of reality, leading to outcomes that are beneficial for ourselves and the broader community.

Application

In practice, applying the Theory involves engaging in Mindfulness Awareness practices, developing Causality Awareness through systems thinking, embracing the potential of each moment with Open Awareness, and actively refining our awareness of the world with Witnessing Awareness.

It means integrating these practices into our daily routines, relationships, and decision-making processes, thereby transforming our approach to life into one that is more aware, deliberate, and harmonious. By doing so, we align our actions with a broader understanding and respect for the interconnectedness of all life, leading to a more meaningful, purposeful, and sustainable existence.

The Diamond of Purpose and Meaning

The Diamond of Purpose and Meaning is a supporting model within the Theory of Holistic Perspective. It offers a framework for understanding and developing fundamental mental models that self-aware beings use to create identities and find meaning and purpose in life. The Diamond helps in balancing various aspects of life, guiding individuals towards a fulfilling existence that aligns with their deeper values and aspirations.

Structure of the Diamond of Purpose and Meaning:

Central Top Part – Awareness

Focuses on how self-aware beings create a mental model of self and the world through the Eight Personal Perspective Positions in the Theory of Holistic Perspective.
Explores four well defined awareness exercises; Witnessing, Causality, Mindfulness, and Open Awareness.

Top Left Side – Long-Term Facets

These are more enduring aspects of a person’s life and personality, shaping one’s identity, long-term motivation, worldview, and life trajectory.
Includes elements like Life situation, Needs, Genes, Attitudes, Values, Beliefs, Vision, and Mission.

Top Right Side – Short-Term Facets

These represent immediate, situational aspects of motivation, experiences, and mental models.
Comprises Situation, Desires, Impulses, Feelings, Preferences, Opinions, Priorities, and Focus.

Middle Part Left – Long-term Fulfillment

Encompasses Goals, Character, and Potential.
The interplay between Goals, Character, and Potential is foundational to personal development and fulfillment. Goals represent the aspirations or outcomes we strive to achieve, acting as a compass that guides our decisions and actions over time. These aspirations are deeply influenced by our Character, the qualities and traits that define our ethical and moral nature. Character shapes how we pursue our goals, ensuring that our actions align with our values and principles. Meanwhile, our Potential encompasses the inherent abilities and capacities that may not yet be fully realized.

Middle Part Right – Short-term Achievement

Involves Intent, Integrity, and Mastery.
Intent serves as the foundational driving force, representing our purposeful determination and the conscious motivations behind our actions. Integrity is the ethical framework or compass that ensures our intentions and actions are consistent with our moral and ethical standards. Mastery is the culmination of diligently applying our intent through the lens of integrity, honing our skills, and realizing our talents to the fullest.

Bottom Part – Wisdom and Wuwei

Wisdom is mastery in holistic decision making and epresents the culmination of personal development through the Four Pillars of Wuwei, each consisting of three cornerstones from Ikigai.
Wuwei (effortless action) is achieved through a deep sense of Duty, Calling, Meaning, and Purpose, aligning with elements like what the world needs, what one is good at, what one loves, and what one is paid for.

Key Concepts in the Diamond

Vision and Priorities: Aligning long-term Vision with short-term Priorities to ensure daily decisions support broader life aspirations.
Mission and Focus: Harmonizing long-term Mission with immediate Focus to maintain coherence between efforts and long-term goals.

Importance:

Finding Meaning and Purpose: The Diamond guides individuals in discovering and nurturing their true purpose and meaning in life.
Balancing Life Aspects: It helps in maintaining a balance between immediate needs and long-term goals, ensuring a well-rounded approach to personal development.
Creating a Fulfilling Life: By aligning the Diamond’s facets, individuals can achieve a deep sense of fulfillment and achievement, leading to a sustainable and meaningful existence.

Learn more with 10X University

10X University is a learning community dedicated to learning the Theory of Holistic Perspective with the vision and mission to:

Live with purpose and meaning in everyday-life.

Holistic Approach Essays

Understanding chemical misconceptions in secondary-level education: insights from studies on information processing model, cognitive load, and active learning, strategic framework for equitable education: a holistic approach to mitigate educational inaccessibility, fortifying healthcare data security in the united kingdom: a holistic approach with advanced encryption standard (aes), mental illness impacting the police, managing employee performance: a holistic approach to success, fostering gender equality in the workplace: a holistic approach, transforming child welfare in north carolina: a holistic approach, holistic approach in cardiology, bp’s 2022 sustainability report analysis, popular essay topics.

American Dream
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Child Abusing
Civil Rights Movement
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Cultural Identity
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Death Penalty
Depression Essay
Domestic Violence
Freedom of Speech
Global Warming
Gun Control
Human Trafficking
I Believe Essay
Immigration
Importance of Education
Israel and Palestine Conflict
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Legalizing Marijuanas
Mental Health
National Honor Society
Police Brutality
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Romeo and Juliet
Same Sex Marriages
Social Media
The Great Gatsby
The Yellow Wallpaper
Time Management
To Kill a Mockingbird
Violent Video Games
What Makes You Unique
Why I Want to Be a Nurse
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Holistic Thinking: What It Is, Characteristics And Examples

There are various types of thinking, each of them fulfilling different functions, some of them being the following: inductive, deductive, creative, analytical, critical or holistic thinking, which we will talk about in more detail in this article.

Holistic thinking is an approach to perception and analysis of reality in an integral or global way, being considered a natural and very characteristic mode of thought for the human being, since it consists of making connections between various phenomena, carrying out an abstraction of ideas and also obtain a global vision of all the parts of a complex system.

In the realm of cognitive processes, holistic thinking emerges as a powerful and transformative mindset. This approach transcends conventional methods of problem-solving by considering the interconnectedness of various factors and embracing a comprehensive perspective.

In this article We will see what holistic thinking consists of as well as its influence within the field of psychology.

Table of Contents

What is holistic thinking?

Holistic thinking is a phenomenon that has aroused a lot of interest in recent years within the field of psychology. It is sometimes known as complex thinking or systems thinking.

It is an approach that, from certain theoretical conceptions, has been considered as a type of thinking opposite to the analytical type of thinking in which an analysis of a phenomenon or a system is made through its operation and the sum of its parts, a different method from holistic thinking as we will see later.

According to the Dictionary of the Royal Spanish Academy (RAE), the word ‘holistic’ (from the Greek word “ὅλος” hólos, which means ‘total’ in Spanish), belongs to or is related to “holism”, a philosophical doctrine of thought that is oriented towards the conception of reality as a whole different from the sum of the parts that compose it so an entity would be considered more than the sum of its parts.

This doctrine is linked to holistic psychology, an approach that encompasses the study of psychological phenomena through the analysis of a phenomenon, considering it as a complex entity in itself.

Therefore, holistic thinking could be defined as an approach to perception and analysis of the reality that surrounds the human being in an integral or global way being considered by many theorists as a natural and quite characteristic mode of thought for the human being, since it is capable of making connections between various phenomena, carrying out an abstraction of ideas and also obtaining a global vision of all the parts of a complex system.

Furthermore, holistic thinking is a very practical type of thinking on a day-to-day basis, since makes it possible to solve many tasks , as it can be when building a system within any field, because even if we start with one part, we will be able to understand that it is part of a larger whole. Therefore, by carrying out holistic reasoning we will be able to find how we can connect that part that we have in mind with other parts so that their union can together form the system that we intend to form or build.

An example in which holistic thinking is applied It is the one that is applied when building a model. When we have in our hand one of the pieces of the model that we intend to build, we are aware that it is one of the elements that, together with others, form a larger structure, which is what the model that we want to assemble would be.

Therefore, this type of thinking will allow us to find how the pieces should fit together so that, being related or interconnected, little by little they will form larger and larger parts, until they form the complete structure of the model.

Understanding Holistic Thinking: Principles and Concepts

At its core, holistic thinking revolves around the recognition of interdependencies and interconnectedness within complex systems. Rather than viewing phenomena in isolation, holistic thinkers strive to understand the broader context and underlying patterns that shape reality. Key principles of holistic thinking include:

Systems Thinking : Holistic thinkers approach problems and situations as interconnected systems, recognizing that changes in one part can have ripple effects across the entire system. They analyze relationships, feedback loops, and emergent properties to gain insights into the dynamics of complex phenomena.
Contextual Understanding : Holistic thinking emphasizes the importance of considering the context in which events occur. Rather than focusing solely on individual elements or variables, holistic thinkers take into account environmental factors, historical influences, and cultural dynamics that shape the situation.
Embracing Complexity : Holistic thinkers embrace the inherent complexity of reality, acknowledging that simplistic solutions may overlook essential nuances and interactions. They are comfortable navigating ambiguity and uncertainty, recognizing that holistic solutions often require iterative refinement and adaptation.

Characteristics of Holistic Thinking

1. interconnectedness.

Holistic thinking recognizes the intricate connections and relationships between different elements within a system. Rather than isolating individual components, holistic thinkers understand how they interact and influence one another.

2. Systems Perspective

Holistic thinkers adopt a systems perspective, viewing phenomena as part of larger, interconnected systems. They analyze feedback loops, emergent properties, and dynamic relationships to gain insights into the underlying structure and behavior of complex systems.

3. Contextual Understanding

Holistic thinking emphasizes the importance of considering the broader context in which events unfold. It takes into account environmental factors, historical influences, and cultural dynamics that shape the situation, recognizing that context significantly impacts outcomes.

4. Embracing Complexity

Holistic thinkers embrace the inherent complexity of reality, acknowledging that simplistic solutions may overlook essential nuances and interactions. They are comfortable navigating ambiguity and uncertainty, recognizing that holistic solutions often require iterative refinement and adaptation.

Examples of Holistic Thinking

1. environmental sustainability.

In addressing environmental challenges such as climate change, holistic thinking involves considering the interconnectedness of ecosystems, human activities, and planetary health. Solutions may involve interdisciplinary collaboration, policy changes, and community engagement to promote sustainability and resilience.

2. Healthcare

In healthcare, holistic thinking recognizes the interconnected nature of physical, mental, and social well-being. Instead of focusing solely on treating symptoms, holistic approaches consider the holistic health of individuals, incorporating lifestyle factors, social determinants, and cultural beliefs into treatment plans.

3. Education

Holistic thinking in education involves recognizing the diverse needs and strengths of students and fostering holistic development beyond academic achievement. It emphasizes the importance of social-emotional learning, creativity, critical thinking, and experiential learning to cultivate well-rounded individuals prepared for success in life.

4. Business and Management

In business and management, holistic thinking involves considering the broader impacts of organizational decisions on stakeholders, communities, and the environment. It encourages sustainable practices, ethical leadership, and stakeholder engagement to create value beyond financial profits.

Benefits of Holistic Thinking: Enhancing Problem-Solving and Creativity

The adoption of holistic thinking offers numerous benefits across various domains, including:

Comprehensive Solutions : By considering multiple perspectives and dimensions, holistic thinking enables the development of comprehensive solutions that address underlying causes and systemic issues, rather than just treating symptoms.
Innovative Insights : Holistic thinking fosters creativity and innovation by encouraging individuals to explore unconventional connections and novel approaches. It opens doors to new possibilities and breakthroughs by transcending conventional boundaries and paradigms.
Effective Decision-Making : Holistic thinkers are equipped to make informed and effective decisions by weighing diverse factors and anticipating potential consequences. They take into account the long-term implications and ethical considerations of their choices, striving to achieve outcomes that align with broader goals and values.

Cultivating Holistic Thinking: Strategies and Practices

Cultivating holistic thinking requires intentionality and practice. Some strategies to develop this mindset include:

Interdisciplinary Learning : Engage in interdisciplinary studies and expose yourself to diverse perspectives and disciplines to broaden your understanding of complex phenomena.
Systems Mapping : Use visual tools such as mind maps or systems diagrams to map out relationships and interconnections within complex systems, facilitating holistic analysis and problem-solving.
Reflective Practice : Regularly reflect on your assumptions, biases, and mental models to cultivate self-awareness and openness to alternative viewpoints.

Holistic thinking in Psychology

As we have seen, holistic thinking makes it possible to recognize the interconnection of a wide variety of factors that maintain some relationship through which they end up forming a series of patterns, larger objects and/or more complex systems.

Although holistic thinking has come to be considered the opposite of analytical thinking, because the former try to look at each of the parts as a whole while the second consists of analyzing each of the parts in isolation, the truth is that to carry out certain highly complex tasks we would need to carry out cognitive processing using both types of thinking, since we would need to understand the entire system or structure as a whole, as well as it would be necessary to analyze each of the parts that make up that whole.

In the field of psychology, A health or clinical psychologist can use holistic thinking to understand what the patient needs that he has in front of him, given his current state, which is what could have led him to seek help; and a type of analytical thinking can also help you to try to understand a series of factors related to the patient, their way of life or their closest relationships, among others, to try to find the possible relationship they could have with the problem. .

Therefore, the holistic way of thinking enables people to broaden their horizons, moving your focus away from the simple, in order to be able to understand more complex processes and systems, which may not be presently visible and require more work at the level of reasoning. Furthermore, this type of thinking requires going beyond simple conditioning, being aware that people are part of a more complex whole, making it necessary to analyze a series of interrelationships that affect each person.

It also offers the possibility of analyzing patterns, instead of analyzing each problem as something isolated or unique, thus putting the problems in context to be able to understand them in greater depth and, therefore, in more detail. To do this, it is necessary for a psychologist to try to analyze the origins, triggers and possible interdependencies of the problems with other factors to try to identify some type of pattern that could be behind the problems or difficulties that have brought each patient to consultation.

On the other hand, holistic psychology deals with seek to solve people’s difficulties or problems by analyzing their past the way of living the present and how they face the future**, also trying to analyze the possible interrelationships between each and every one of the stages that have passed throughout the life of each person, trying to study the individual in his set.

There are various schools of thought within the field of psychology that have adopted a type of holistic approach, among which the following should be highlighted: Gestalt psychology, social psychology and humanistic psychology.

The relationship between holistic thinking and analytical thinking

Now that we have seen what are some of the most common characteristics of people who have a greater tendency to use a holistic mode of thinking in their daily lives, instead of analytical thinking, it is worth mentioning that all people could use both types of thinking depending on the requirements of the task being carried out and what is intended to be achieved.

For example, the coach of a football team should have holistic thinking, since to win matches he must organize the entire team as a whole to carry out the tactical system and method of play that he has taught them; Although, on the other hand, he also needs to use analytical thinking to understand the state of fitness and mood of each of the players that make up the team, as well as their abilities to be able to assign each one the role that best fits their needs. aptitudes.

Holistic Thinking: Towards a More Connected and Sustainable Future

Holistic thinking represents a paradigm shift towards a more interconnected and sustainable approach to problem-solving and decision-making. By embracing the principles of systems thinking, contextual understanding, and complexity, individuals and organizations can unlock new opportunities for innovation, creativity, and positive change. As we navigate the complexities of the modern world, cultivating holistic thinking is essential for addressing global challenges and creating a more equitable and thriving society.

Holistic Essays (Examples)

Holistic Care And Nursing How To Care For The Whole Person

Gestalt theory, gestalt therapy counseling psychology history and interventions.

Yontef, G. & Jacobs, L. (n.d.). Gestalt therapy. Retrieved from: https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/1211/3bf06e5fa3208fea4330873403ae65b0891c.pdf

Transitioning From Student To Nurse Leader

Current issue in nursing nursing shortage.

Nurse staffing crisis. (2019). Nursing World. Retrieved from: https://www.nursingworld.org/practice-policy/nurse-staffing/nurse-staffing-crisis/

Domestic Extremism And Terrorism

Doyle, E. (Ed.). (2018). Antifa and the Radical Left. Greenhaven Publishing LLC.

Violence Prevention Programs

Leadership in spiritual dimensions.

Van Velsor, E., McCauley, C. D., & Ruderman, M. N. (2010). Handbook of leadership development. Jossey-Bass.

Enterprise Risk Management In Wells Fargo During The Pandemic

Morgenson, G. (2020). More Wells Fargo customers say the bank decided to pause their mortgage payments without asking. Retrieved from https://www.nbcnews.com/business/personal-finance/more-wells-fargo-customers-say-bank-decided-pause-their-mortgage-n1234610

Self Care Action Plan

Robinson, R. B., & Frank, D. I. (1994). The relation between self-esteem, sexual activity, and pregnancy. Adolescence, 29(113), 27–35.

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Incorporating a Holistic Approach to Nursing Essay

Introduction.

Healthcare standards and competencies navigate the work and approaches of nurses, instructing them on the appropriate measures and methods to communicate with patients, and peers and provide health. The given course gave me insights into the importance of incorporating a holistic approach to healthcare and providing quality care in all possible ways. In this sense, AACN Essentials Domain and NONPF Independent Practice Competency helped me apply cultural diversity concepts and nursing science in healthcare.

When it comes to the AACN Essentials Domain 1, one of the competencies that helped me in my practice is 1.1f. The competency is as follows: “1.1f Demonstrate the application of nursing science to practice” (National Organization of Nurse Practitioner Faculties, 2022, p.1). Such an element contributed immensely to my practice and holistic nursing approach since it accentuates how healthcare must be based on the importance of nursing science in general public well-being ( International Council of Nurses , n.d.). For example, when a 24-year-old female was admitted to the hospital with psychosis, it was vital to provide her with the required therapy. The first step was to provide a calm environment and active listening. Then, I ensured that there was trust between me and the patient, which allowed me to inquire about medication use. After learning that the patient quit using her medication, which ultimately led to hallucinations, my goal was to promote health and advocate for the prevention of psychosis episodes by using medication and trying alternative therapy approaches.

In another situation, my goal was to ensure a safe environment for a disabled 60-year-old female who had decubitus ulcer, also known as pressure sore, from not being active and lying in bed in one position. My actions involved moving the patient and checking and treating the ulcer. In this sense, as an advocate of health for patients, I learned to apply crucial competencies to ensure that patients receive quality healthcare to their needs.

As for the NONPF Independent Practice Competency, one helped me learn more culturally-aware approaches to the patients. The competency is as follows: “Provides patient-centered care recognizing cultural diversity and the patient or designee as a full partner in decision-making” (National Organization of Nurse Practitioner Faculties, 2017, p. 13). One of the examples involves a 78-year-old Chinese male who had been recently diagnosed with diabetes. As a nurse professional, it was my responsibility to educate the patient on the potential consequences and harms he could face if he continued his lifestyle. For example, in Chinese culture, the man was used to walking barefoot. However, this could expose him to potential scarring of the tissue, which might lead to gangrene. Additionally, the patient’s nutrition had to be limited due to the sugar that it contained. For instance, the man was used to eating rice, which is prohibited for those who are diagnosed with diabetes.

In another situation, a 56-year-old Mexican female was hospitalized with a stroke. During her stay at the hospital, I instructed her to follow a specific diet that was low in cholesterol. During our conversation, the woman admitted that in her culture, they are used to eating spicy and oily foods. I educated her on how high cholesterol levels affect the cardiovascular system and that foods rich in fat can cause another stroke. In this sense, the aforementioned competency helped me provide healthcare in terms of cultural diversity while additionally educating patients.

Hence, I was able to use the notion of cultural diversity and nursing science in healthcare with the support of the AACN Essentials Domain and NONPF Independent Practice Competency. One of the competencies in the AACN Essentials Domain 1 that I found useful in my work is 1.1f. As a patient health advocate, I have learned to put essential skills to use to make sure that patients get the high-quality treatment they need. Regarding the NONPF Independent Practice Competency, it taught me how to approach patients in a more culturally-aware manner.

International Council of Nurses. Nursing Definitions . ICN, n.d.

National Organization of Nurse Practitioner Faculties. (2017). Nurse Practitioner Core Competencies Content .

National Organization of Nurse Practitioner Faculties. (2022). AACN Essentials Advanced-Level Nursing Education Domain 1 .

Chicago (A-D)
Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2023, August 10). Incorporating a Holistic Approach to Nursing. https://ivypanda.com/essays/incorporating-a-holistic-approach-to-nursing/

"Incorporating a Holistic Approach to Nursing." IvyPanda , 10 Aug. 2023, ivypanda.com/essays/incorporating-a-holistic-approach-to-nursing/.

IvyPanda . (2023) 'Incorporating a Holistic Approach to Nursing'. 10 August.

IvyPanda . 2023. "Incorporating a Holistic Approach to Nursing." August 10, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/incorporating-a-holistic-approach-to-nursing/.

1. IvyPanda . "Incorporating a Holistic Approach to Nursing." August 10, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/incorporating-a-holistic-approach-to-nursing/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Incorporating a Holistic Approach to Nursing." August 10, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/incorporating-a-holistic-approach-to-nursing/.

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Scored Holistically

The Writing Assessment Program uses a holistic scoring method to score all exams and portfolios.

In holistic scoring, essays are not given low scores just because they contain many mechanical errors, nor are they given high scores just because they are well organized. The reader considers the overall impression created by the student's writing sample and assigns a score consistent with that overall impression.

The score a reader assigns is defined by a set of criteria that define important traits in all writing: at Southeast, the criteria include focus, organization, development, style, correctness, and if necessary, references. These criteria, in turn, define the scoring scale applied to the essay; Southeast's scale runs from 1 (incoherent) to 6 (clearly excellent).

The evaluation scale is divided into two halves: the top half is labeled "mastery," and the bottom half is labeled "non-mastery." The three scores in each of the halves then represent high, medium, or low levels of mastery or non-mastery. Bearing in mind all of the writing traits to be considered, a reader first decides whether the essay shows, overall, some kind of mastery or some kind of non-mastery. This is a yes or no decision. Then, having made that decision, the evaluator decides whether the level of mastery or non-mastery is high, medium, or low. If the reader decides that the test shows low mastery (or just barely "yes"), he or she gives it an overall score of 4. For medium mastery, the score is 5, and for high mastery the score is 6. In the same way, essays demonstrating high non-mastery (or just barely "no") are assigned a 3. For medium non-mastery the score is 2, and for low non-mastery the score is 1.

Each essay is initially scored by two trained readers in a double-blind process: that is, the two readers do not know each other's score or each other's identity, nor do they know who wrote the essay. If the two readers give the essay "matching" or "touching" scores, the essay's score is figured from the first two scores. Otherwise, in the case of "discrepant scores," a third reader scores the essay; the essay's final score is determined by a combination of the three scores.

Essay Scores are Determined as Follows

Organization, development, correctness.

Writing that makes use of outside source materials is called "referential" writing. In Part II of the proficiency test, students demonstrate how logically, insightfully, and elegantly they can incorporate into their own essays paraphrases and direct quotations from the outside materials provided during the test. Every time writers use material that is not their own or that is not common knowledge, they must indicate where they got the information. This is true regardless of whether the writers are paraphrasing or directly quoting the source material. In this testing situation, no particular style of documentation is required, although students must document each use of source material in a consistent and accurate manner.

Holistic Scoring Scale

score in Southeast's holistic scoring scale is described below. Each description begins with the numerical score and a short characterization of that score. Then, each of the holistic scoring criteria is listed with a description of the level of achievement on that criterion for that score. An asterisk indicates a criterion applicable only to Part II of the writing proficiency exam. For scores 3, 4, and 5, the description concludes with a link to a sample essay with commentary.

While the descriptions provided indicate the characteristics of achievement at each level for each writing trait, it is important to remember that a given essay probably will not score in the same category for all criteria; an essay awarded a 5, for example, might rate a 6 on focus and a 3 on style. Test evaluators award scores on the overall impression of the writing using the following scale:

Holistic Scoring Scale: 6 (Clearly Excellent)

A score of 6 designates a clearly excellent piece of expositional or referential writing.

Focus: the main idea is very clearly stated, and the topic is effectively limited.
Organization: a logical plan is signaled by highly effective transitions; the essay's beginning and end are effectively related to the whole.
Development: all major ideas are set off by paragraphs which have clearly stated or implied topics; the main idea and all major topics are supported by concrete, specific evidence.
Style: sentences relate to each other and to the paragraph topic and are subordinate to the topic; word and phrase choice is felicitous; tone is consistent and appropriate.
Correctness: there are no major mechanical errors (e.g., agreement) and only a few minor errors (e.g., spelling).
References: source material is incorporated logically, insightfully and elegantly; sources are documented accurately, elegantly and emphatically.

Part I Sample Topic

Part I Sample | Score 6

Part II Sample Topic

Part II Sample | Score 6

Holistic Scoring Scale: 5 (Still Impressive)

A score of 5 designates a still impressive piece of expositional or referential writing.

Focus: the main idea is clear, and the topic is limited.
Organization: a logical plan is signaled by some transitions; the essay's beginning and end are clearly and effectively related to the whole.
Development: almost all major ideas are set off by paragraphs which for the most part have clearly stated or implied topics; the main idea and all major topics are supported by concrete, specific detail.
Style: paragraphs are built on logically related sentences; word and phrase choice is consistently accurate; tone is nearly consistent and appropriate.
Correctness: there is only one major mechanical error or a few minor errors.
References: source material is incorporated logically and proficiently; sources are documented accurately.

Sample Essay for Part I | Score 5

Sample Essay for Part II | Score 5

Holistic Scoring Scale: 4 (Adequate)

A score of 4 designates an adequate piece of expositional or referential writing.

Focus: the main idea is clear or clearly implicit, and the topic is partially limited.
Organization: a logical plan is signaled by transitions; the essay's beginning and end are somewhat effective.
Development: most major ideas are set off by paragraphs which mainly have stated or implied topics; the main idea and almost all major points are supported by concrete, specific detail.
Style: sentences in paragraphs are subordinate to topics; word choice is almost always accurate; tone is sometimes appropriate.
Correctness: there may be a few major and minor mechanical errors.
References: source material is incorporated logically and adequately; sources are documented accurately for the most part.

Sample Essay for Part I | Score 4

Sample Essay for Part II | Score 4

Holistic Scoring Scale: 3 (Developing)

A score of 3 designates a developing piece of expositional or referential writing.

Focus: the main idea is unclear, and the topic is only partially limited.
Organization: there is an attempted plan which the reader must infer; the essay's beginning and end may be ineffective.
Development: some major ideas are set off by paragraphs which may have stated or implied topics; some major points in paragraphs are supported by concrete, specific detail.
Style: sentences may not be subordinate to topics; word choice is generally accurate; tone is often inappropriate.
Correctness: some major and minor mechanical errors are present.
References: source material is incorporated but sometimes inappropriately or unclearly; documentation is accurate only occasionally.

Sample Essay for Part I | Score 3

Sample Essay for Part II | Score 3

Holistic Scoring Scale: 2 (Rudimentary)

A score of 2 designates a rudimentary piece of expositional or referential writing.

Focus: the main idea is unclear, and the topic is unlimited.
Organization: there is no clear plan; the essay's beginning and end are not effective.
Development: few major ideas are set off by paragraphs; few paragraphs have stated or implied topics; supportive detail is imprecise, unclear or redundant.
Style: sentence relationships at times are confusing; word choice is frequently inaccurate; tone is inappropriate.
Correctness: many major and minor mechanical errors cause confusion.
References: source material is inappropriately or unclearly incorporated; documentation is infrequent.

Sample Essay for Part I | Score 2

Sample Essay for Part II | Score 2

Holistic Scoring Scale: 1 (Incoherent)

A score of 1 designates an incoherent piece of expositional or referential writing.

Focus: the subject and main idea are unclear; no apparent attempt has been made to limit the topic.
Organization: there is no discernible plan; no attempt is made to compose an effective beginning and end.
Development: major ideas are not set off by paragraphs; only one, if any, paragraph has a stated or implied topic; little or no supporting detail is used.
Style: sentence relationships must be inferred; word choice is often confusing; tone is inappropriate or distracting.
Correctness: many varied major and minor errors occur, making the paper difficult to read.
References: source material is never incorporated or incorporated inappropriately or unclearly; documentation is inaccurate.

Sample Essay for Part I | Score 1

Sample Essay for Part II | Score 1

Sample Graded Papers

Using a topic that has been discontinued, we have included here a set of three actual (anonymous) student papers with their scores, along with an analysis of their strengths and weaknesses. There are many ways of obtaining a particular score, so these should not be taken as templates or models to follow. Still, they provide some concrete examples of the ways that the scoring criteria are applied in practice.

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Holistic View Of Your Life

The sample essay on Holistic View Of Your Life deals with a framework of research-based facts, approaches and arguments concerning this theme. To see the essay’s introduction, body paragraphs and conclusion, read on.

By definition, the word “holistic” means: “relating to or concerned with wholes or complete systems rather than with the analysis of, treatment of, or dissection into parts — medicine which attempts to treat both the mind and the body. ” As such, true holistic therapies must include more than just a set of symptoms to be addressed.

They must consider the WHOLE being, whether human or animal, including the emotional, mental, and physical (both internal and external) environments in which they exist.

Some examples of holistic approaches include Herbalism, Homeopathy, Acupuncture, TCM (Traditional Chinese Medicine), and Ayurveda (an ancient approach from India). The modern medical model largely views the body as a collection of pieces and parts to be assessed in isolation rather than as a working unit. Symptoms are viewed as disease, and treatment is aimed at suppressing rather than eliminating those symptoms.

In the Holistic view, symptoms are regarded as the body’s expression of imbalance and an attempt to return to homeostasis (a state of equilibrium).

Mere suppression of these symptoms is likened to telling your body, “Shut-up–I’m not interested in what you have to say. ” Suppression of acute symptoms is believed to result in new, more serious problems in other areas. Treatment consists of supporting and assisting the body to heal itself by seeking out and eliminating the underlying cause(s) of the problem, whether physical, behavioral, environmental, etc.

Proficient in: Alternative Medicine

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, or some combination thereof. This is not to say that you should shun allopathic medicine; indeed it is very useful, even life-saving.

Holistic Perspective Example

There are many situations where allopathic drugs and other treatments are necessary, and some where they are the only reasonable option. In such cases, alternative therapies can serve to support the body and lessen side effects. SOME RULES TO REMEMBER: 1. ALL HEALING COMES FROM WITHIN. 2. The best therapies are those which ASSIST the body in the healing process rather than merely SUPPRESSING symptoms. It is important to note that holistic therapies are just as capable of suppression as their allopathic counterparts. It is not enough to just substitute herbs for pharmaceuticals, or to use homeopathics to “palliate” symptoms.

Although such approaches are necessary in some (i. e. incurable) situations, when used inappropriately, they can actually drive the disease deeper. While herbal or homeopathic therapy would be a step in the right direction, that in itself would not constitute a holistic approach. If you plan to self-prescribe for you or your pet, it is extremely important that you study the modalities you plan to use, and not just try something because you read it in a magazine or in the first book you picked up. There is currently a glut of information/hype on herbs and other alternative therapies.

Much of it is contradictory; some is even false. Do your research. Better still, consult with a qualified practitioner. A FEW WORDS ON DIET Without exception, the cornerstone of the holistic approach is a healthy DIET. This cannot be over-emphasized. If your pet has allergies, a skin condition, or any chronic disease, you must first look to diet. No other therapies, whether holistic or conventional, will truly be of benefit if you do not provide your companion with the necessary nourishment for the body to do its work. A good diet is just as essential to the health of our companion animals as it is to our own.

While a raw foods diet is preferable (visitCharles Loops, DVM for some excellent raw food recipes), many people find the preparation time difficult to incorporate into their busy schedules. If this is your dilemma, there are some healthy prepared foods available either at your local health foods store or by mail order that use human grade, hormone/pesticide-free, and often organic ingredients. Most grocery store brands contain harmful by-products, excess sugar, additives and preservatives that contribute to chronic disease, allergies, etc.

While easy on the pocketbook, as with so many things, you get what you pay for. I have read numerous articles on the horrors of commercial pet food ingredients and processing. Even many prescription diets contain by-products and dangerous preservatives such as Ethoxyquin (linked to cancers and nervous system disorders among other problems). For the price of a bag of one of these diets, you could purchase a good holistic food such as Wysong, Innova, Pet Guard, California Natural, or Flint River Ranch, and reap the benefits in lower vet bills and a healthier, happier pet.

Not to mention a healthier conscience. One last issue I’d like to address is that of feeding your pet a vegetarian diet. While some dogs can adapt to such a diet, cats are NOT designed to be vegetarians, and it is dangerous to force such an unnatural diet on your feline companion. I implore you NOT to impose your personal beliefs on your pet, no matter how strong your political and/or ethical convictions about meat consumption. Your companions depend on you to make healthy choices for them based on their individual needs.

Do what is good for THEM, regardless of what personal compromise you must make to do so. In the end, please be aware that despite your best efforts, there are no guarantees that your companion will live a disease-free life. Just as with humans, you can do everything “right” for your animal companion, and still be faced with a chronic health problem. Some of these diseases seem almost inherent in the breed. Such tendencies are the result of years of inbreeding, and cannot be undone by either conventional or alternative therapies. Still, your best defense is a good offense.

As Dr. Bernard Jensen said: “A strong constitution is a wonderful gift, but can go to ruin with an abusive lifestyle. Likewise, a weak constitution can be made strong through right attitude, attentive living, and good diet. ” In other words, there is nothing to lose in making intelligent choices. CHOOSING A PRACTITIONER There are many practitioners now (for people and for pets) of many modalities. Some are healers; some are not. Some are proficient in their modalities; some took a weekend seminar. Be careful. Ask questions. Look for a good fit.

Over the years I have found that there are some holistic veterinarians who either outright lie about that commitment or do just enough to call themselves holistic but are really commited to the allopathic point of view. In turn, I have also encountered allopathic veterinarians who were open and dedicated enough to the healing process that they were willing to try holistic modalities and work in conjunction with a holistic practitioner where indicated, or where allopathic medicine offered no help. As allopathy is still the predominant veterinary model, such practitioners are true jewels.

There are many veterinarians out there trying to jump on the holistic bandwagon who have no training or understanding of the modalities they claim to practice beyond reading a book or two or attending a seminar. Some claim knowledge of 5-7 modalities which would each require years of study in which to attain proficiency. Please note that even veterinarians listed in the AHVMA (American Holistic Veterinary Medical Association) directory are not necessarily competent in the holistic modalities they claim to practice.

It is not my intention to shed doubt on the holistic community, nor is it my purpose to have you grill every practitioner you interview, only to alert and inform you as an aid in the selection process. I hear horror stories every day from people who sought help from a poorly chosen source. Don’t let that happen to you. As with most situations, referrals by people you trust are preferred. A FINAL WORD There’s a whole lot of holistic partyline chatter out there that is not always practical or even desirable.

Each pet’s needs must be considered individually. That’s what holistic means. Also, beware of the holistic practitioner who, though qualified, is so vehement about his/her view or mode of treatment that the individual case (your pet’s well-being) is as lost as if you had gone to the regular vet. Furthermore, be careful of what you “believe” in. I have seen companion animals die unnecessarily because their caretakers were so committed to a belief system they could not see the imminent danger in it for their friend.

Truth and healing can come from strange places. Don’t prejudice yourself. Be aware. Be open. Listen to your gut. It is often more honest than your mind. True healing takes time. It takes time and an understanding and appreciation of the disease process as well as of the ability of the body to heal itself. We are a very impatient people. If you don’t grasp anything else from this discourse, PLEASE grasp that ALL HEALING IS DONE BY THE BODY. Any form of medicine can potentially suppress or assist that process.

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Published January 8, 2023
9 Minute Read

How to Practice Holistic Leadership

employee at home with daughter representing holistic leadership

Weave a Full Life by Becoming a More Holistic Leader

Imagine one of your shirt buttons: round, with 4 holes, holding your shirt safe and closed. Picture the thread that weaves between the holes, from one to the next, to the next, and so on, connecting the holes to each other and creating a tight attachment. The button may be pulled and twisted as you fasten and unfasten it, but when the 4 holes are interlaced well, the button holds securely to the fabric.

We’ve used this metaphor of a button with our participants as a memorable symbol of what truly holistic leadership looks like ever since the start of our original and now world-renowned Leadership Development Program (LDP)® , back in 1974.

The 4 Facets of Holistic Leadership

Like a button that relies on all 4 holes to secure it, those who take a holistic leadership approach find strength from weaving together 4 key facets of their lives:

Career , and
Community .

Now, we admit the metaphor isn’t a perfect one. If you were to design a button to represent your own life — one hole for self, one for family, one for career, and one for community — it’s unlikely that each hole would be the exact same size. Unlike buttonholes, which are identical and symmetrical, in reality, these 4 facets of your life may be in flux or vary in proportion, especially over the course of your career.

But achieving balance doesn’t mean devoting equal attention to each part of your life at all times. In fact, we often say that “ balance is a faulty metaphor ,” because true balance requires understanding the importance of each facet individually and being intentional about how you prioritize your time and energy in each area.

Our decades of research have consistently found that leaders are most effective when they’re able to lead authentically . When leaders bring their whole selves to their roles, they’re better able to integrate their personal values and sense of purpose into their everyday actions, and support those they lead to do the same.

That’s why all our leadership programs now emphasize building self-awareness about personal values and understanding the ways these 4 elements of your life influence each other and work in tandem. This enables you to approach leadership holistically, with a values-based approach that leads to optimal outcomes.

How to Be a More Holistic Leader

Questions to consider in each facet of your life for more holistic leadership.

While we may be able to compartmentalize certain behaviors — for example, committing to not checking work email while on vacation with family — theres no such thing as compartmentalizing our careers, our families, our communities, or even ourselves. All aspects of our lives are intertwined, interdependent, entangled, and overlapping.

Most leaders recognize the importance of making time for these 4 facets, in a general sense. But it’s easy to lose sight of good intentions, especially when to-do lists feel endless.

To bring a holistic leadership approach to your own life and be sure your behaviors are aligning with your intentions, take some time to think about how you want to show up as a leader and as a person. Ask yourself the following questions to clarify your values and visions as they relate to each facet of your life.

What energizes you?
What gives you peace?
How are you actively designing your desired future?
What will you do to better prepare yourself to help others?
Who are the people who love, support, and honor you? Who nurtures the greatness that resides within you?
Are there people you need to grow closer to, or types of support and relationships that you need to nurture more deeply?
Are there people from whom you need to distance yourself, in an effort to better manage your own energy and wellbeing?
Are you just making money, or are you also making a difference?
What do you want to give to your teams? Your organization? Put another way, what do your teams and organization count on you for?
What is your hope for the future? What will you do to live into that hope?

4. Community:

How do you serve others?
How are you building connections to others?
Are you establishing roots in the place you live?
Are you helping to build a thriving community, whatever that means to you?

Access Our Webinar!

Watch our webinar, Intentional Leadership @ Home , and learn how to make lasting changes in the way you live and interact — both at work and at home.

Integrating the Facets of Holistic Leadership With Intention

In the wake of the global COVID-19 pandemic and its aftermath, any lines that once existed between self, career, family, and community have become even more blurred. For many people who were used to devoting their attention to work when they were in the office and devoting their attention to their families when they were at home, the pandemic meant they no longer had the luxury of that clearly defined boundary as they shifted to remote work or began leading in a hybrid workforce context.

Especially in the absence of physical barriers, it’s important to remember that the goal isn’t to distribute time and effort evenly among your commitments. Rather, you want to make sure your behaviors align with your values. When you have to transition quickly from an urgent work call to a child’s homework question, are you behaving in a way that shows your child you value the time you have decided to take with them?

If you can clarify your values as they relate to these 4 facets of your life, you’ll have a north star to guide your behavior and determine if you’re acting in accordance with those values and living with intention at all times, even when something unexpected comes up.

We believe holistic leadership will become even more important in the coming years, and it’s one of the things we highlight in our (Better) Leadership Project , where we focus on how leadership can (and should) evolve with our changing world.

How to Bring Your Whole Self to Leadership

3 tips for living out holistic leadership.

Now that you’ve clarified your values, take the following 3 steps to adapt how you live out those values as you move through your day and make decisions about your future.

1. Define how you currently devote your energy and attention.

Think about sketching a picture of your personal button. If you were to draw in the 4 buttonholes proportional to your time and attention, what would that look like today? How are you supporting your own wellbeing ?

When you think about how you currently spend your resources, don’t overlook your mental energy — your most valuable asset that fuels your enthusiasm, motivation, drive, and physical energy to live a full life.

2. Ask yourself how you want to allocate your energy in the future .

In 2 to 3 years from now, it’s unlikely that you’ll want those buttonholes to be the same proportions. As your life evolves, your priorities will shift. Take time now to set achievable goals that align with your values and priorities . Ask yourself the following questions to help you define your goals:

Self : What can you commit to for yourself?
Career : What is one thing you can do to increase your positive impact at work?
Family : What do you commit to do to love, support, and honor those you consider family?
Community : What skills, talents, and/or abilities do you have that you can give to your community?

3. Determine the adjustments required to make appropriate shifts.

As a leader, you give life to what you give energy to. If you were to look at your calendar, you’d ideally see a collection of rituals and patterns that reflect your values. Maybe your calendar shows you consistently set aside time to exercise each day. Maybe you do a lunch date with your spouse every Friday. Maybe you call your parents every few days on your way to work. Maybe you serve on a community board for an organization you care about or spend time volunteering on the weekends. Being very intentional about how you spend your time gives you a sense of control and ensures you’re really living your life in accordance with your values.

If rituals and patterns that matter to you aren’t a part of your life right now, and you’re committed to staying accountable and making them a part of your life going forward, you may need to verbalize your commitments to others. Does your supervisor understand that it’s important for you to leave at a certain time every Wednesday to coach your child’s soccer team? Does your family know how important your morning walk is to your mental and physical health?

Communicate your values and priorities to the people in your life so they can help you follow through on your commitment to being a more holistic leader.

Why Holistic Leadership Matters

“Heavy is the head that wears the crown,” Shakespeare’s Henry IV famously said to summarize the burden of kingship. In other words, it can get lonely at the top.

Most leaders can relate to that sentiment. Being in a leadership role, especially as you move up the organizational hierarchy, means dealing with a lot of leadership stress . Left unattended, that stress can cause failed relationships, career derailment, and poor health.

But if you understand that you aren’t defined solely by your career — that it’s but one aspect of your life, and is enhanced when you make time for every other facet of your life — then you’ve laid the foundation for overcoming burnout and becoming a truly holistic leader.

And as over 1,000,000 alumni of our programs over the past 50 years will tell you, the button and its 4 holes can be a helpful symbolic reminder that only by taking care of yourself, as a whole person, can you weave the life you desire and leave the legacy you want.

Ready to Take the Next Step?

You can more intentionally align your actions and outcomes with your personal values, even during uncertain times. Understand yourself better and learn how to practice more holistic leadership at our flagship Leadership Development Program (LDP)® , available both in-person and live online.

This article was written by our Leading Effectively staff, who analyze our decades of pioneering, expert research and experiences in the field to share content that will help leaders at every level. Subscribe to our emails to get the latest research-based leadership articles and insights sent straight to your inbox.

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Marketing Definition

This essay about the definition of marketing in the business context elucidates its comprehensive and strategic nature, beyond the common misconceptions that equate it solely with selling and advertising. It underscores marketing as a vital process of understanding and meeting consumer needs, involving market research, product development, pricing, distribution, and promotion. The essay highlights the scope of marketing as encompassing all aspects of a business, acting as a bridge to the target audience, and adapting to technological and cultural shifts, particularly in the digital realm. It posits that effective marketing is crucial for business growth, brand differentiation, and customer loyalty. By showcasing marketing as a dynamic and integral part of business strategy, the essay affirms its role in driving innovation, competitiveness, and long-term profitability in a constantly evolving marketplace.

How it works

Amidst the vibrant milieu of contemporary commerce, the term ‘marketing’ emerges recurrently, often obscured by misconceptions and oversimplifications. At its essence, marketing transcends mere salesmanship or promotional endeavors; it constitutes a holistic approach aimed at crafting, disseminating, delivering, and exchanging offerings imbued with value for consumers, clientele, associates, and society at large. This discourse endeavors to elucidate the intricate fabric of marketing, delving into its multifaceted nature, breadth, and the pivotal function it assumes in business triumph.

Historically, marketing has been misinterpreted as the culmination of a product’s journey to the consumer, synonymous with promotion and sales.

Nonetheless, this perception is myopic and fails to encapsulate the strategic profundity intrinsic to genuine marketing. Marketing commences with comprehending the needs and aspirations of consumers, long preceding the inception of a product or the conception of a service. It entails scrutinizing and deciphering market trends, consumer behavior, and competitive landscapes to inform product formulation, pricing strategies, distribution channels, and promotional endeavors. Fundamentally, marketing is about discerning and gratifying human and societal needs in a sustainable and lucrative manner.

The purview of marketing transcends the confines of conventional advertising. It constitutes an integrative process that permeates every facet of a business, from product conceptualization and pricing to dissemination and customer relations. At its zenith, marketing serves as a conduit between a company’s offerings and its target demographic, ensuring that products not only cater to extant market needs but also anticipate future exigencies. This proactive approach distinguishes successful enterprises from their counterparts, enabling them to innovate incessantly and preserve relevance in an ever-evolving marketplace.

Furthermore, marketing is inherently fluid, adapting to shifts in technology, culture, and consumer predilections. The advent of digital marketing platforms, such as social media, search engines, and email, has revolutionized the modus operandi through which businesses engage with their audiences, presenting unparalleled prospects for interaction, customization, and evaluation. This digital metamorphosis has not only diversified the toolkit accessible to marketers but also elevated consumer expectations, necessitating more genuine, responsive, and tailored interactions with brands.

The import of marketing in business is immeasurable. It constitutes the lifeblood of any organization, propelling expansion, fortifying brand equity, and nurturing patronage. Through effective marketing, enterprises can set themselves apart in saturated markets, furnish value for their clientele, and secure sustainable competitive advantages. It represents a strategic investment that, when executed with perspicacity and ingenuity, can culminate in enduring prosperity and profitability.

In summation, marketing is a labyrinthine, multidimensional discipline that lies at the crux of business stratagem. It encompasses a diverse array of endeavors aimed at comprehending and satiating the needs of consumers and society. By bridging the chasm between enterprises and their clientele, marketing assumes a pivotal role in propelling innovation, expansion, and consumer contentment. As the commercial sphere continues to evolve, the significance of marketing remains undiminished, prompting enterprises to remain at the vanguard of innovation and sustain resonance in the eyes of their patrons.

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NPR defends its journalism after senior editor says it has lost the public's trust

David Folkenflik

NPR is defending its journalism and integrity after a senior editor wrote an essay accusing it of losing the public's trust. Saul Loeb/AFP via Getty Images hide caption

NPR is defending its journalism and integrity after a senior editor wrote an essay accusing it of losing the public's trust.

NPR's top news executive defended its journalism and its commitment to reflecting a diverse array of views on Tuesday after a senior NPR editor wrote a broad critique of how the network has covered some of the most important stories of the age.

"An open-minded spirit no longer exists within NPR, and now, predictably, we don't have an audience that reflects America," writes Uri Berliner.

A strategic emphasis on diversity and inclusion on the basis of race, ethnicity and sexual orientation, promoted by NPR's former CEO, John Lansing, has fed "the absence of viewpoint diversity," Berliner writes.

NPR's chief news executive, Edith Chapin, wrote in a memo to staff Tuesday afternoon that she and the news leadership team strongly reject Berliner's assessment.

"We're proud to stand behind the exceptional work that our desks and shows do to cover a wide range of challenging stories," she wrote. "We believe that inclusion — among our staff, with our sourcing, and in our overall coverage — is critical to telling the nuanced stories of this country and our world."

NPR names tech executive Katherine Maher to lead in turbulent era

She added, "None of our work is above scrutiny or critique. We must have vigorous discussions in the newsroom about how we serve the public as a whole."

A spokesperson for NPR said Chapin, who also serves as the network's chief content officer, would have no further comment.

Praised by NPR's critics

Berliner is a senior editor on NPR's Business Desk. (Disclosure: I, too, am part of the Business Desk, and Berliner has edited many of my past stories. He did not see any version of this article or participate in its preparation before it was posted publicly.)

Berliner's essay , titled "I've Been at NPR for 25 years. Here's How We Lost America's Trust," was published by The Free Press, a website that has welcomed journalists who have concluded that mainstream news outlets have become reflexively liberal.

Berliner writes that as a Subaru-driving, Sarah Lawrence College graduate who "was raised by a lesbian peace activist mother ," he fits the mold of a loyal NPR fan.

Yet Berliner says NPR's news coverage has fallen short on some of the most controversial stories of recent years, from the question of whether former President Donald Trump colluded with Russia in the 2016 election, to the origins of the virus that causes COVID-19, to the significance and provenance of emails leaked from a laptop owned by Hunter Biden weeks before the 2020 election. In addition, he blasted NPR's coverage of the Israel-Hamas conflict.

On each of these stories, Berliner asserts, NPR has suffered from groupthink due to too little diversity of viewpoints in the newsroom.

The essay ricocheted Tuesday around conservative media , with some labeling Berliner a whistleblower . Others picked it up on social media, including Elon Musk, who has lambasted NPR for leaving his social media site, X. (Musk emailed another NPR reporter a link to Berliner's article with a gibe that the reporter was a "quisling" — a World War II reference to someone who collaborates with the enemy.)

When asked for further comment late Tuesday, Berliner declined, saying the essay spoke for itself.

The arguments he raises — and counters — have percolated across U.S. newsrooms in recent years. The #MeToo sexual harassment scandals of 2016 and 2017 forced newsrooms to listen to and heed more junior colleagues. The social justice movement prompted by the killing of George Floyd in 2020 inspired a reckoning in many places. Newsroom leaders often appeared to stand on shaky ground.

Leaders at many newsrooms, including top editors at The New York Times and the Los Angeles Times , lost their jobs. Legendary Washington Post Executive Editor Martin Baron wrote in his memoir that he feared his bonds with the staff were "frayed beyond repair," especially over the degree of self-expression his journalists expected to exert on social media, before he decided to step down in early 2021.

Since then, Baron and others — including leaders of some of these newsrooms — have suggested that the pendulum has swung too far.

Author Interviews

Legendary editor marty baron describes his 'collision of power' with trump and bezos.

New York Times publisher A.G. Sulzberger warned last year against journalists embracing a stance of what he calls "one-side-ism": "where journalists are demonstrating that they're on the side of the righteous."

"I really think that that can create blind spots and echo chambers," he said.

Internal arguments at The Times over the strength of its reporting on accusations that Hamas engaged in sexual assaults as part of a strategy for its Oct. 7 attack on Israel erupted publicly . The paper conducted an investigation to determine the source of a leak over a planned episode of the paper's podcast The Daily on the subject, which months later has not been released. The newsroom guild accused the paper of "targeted interrogation" of journalists of Middle Eastern descent.

Heated pushback in NPR's newsroom

Given Berliner's account of private conversations, several NPR journalists question whether they can now trust him with unguarded assessments about stories in real time. Others express frustration that he had not sought out comment in advance of publication. Berliner acknowledged to me that for this story, he did not seek NPR's approval to publish the piece, nor did he give the network advance notice.

Some of Berliner's NPR colleagues are responding heatedly. Fernando Alfonso, a senior supervising editor for digital news, wrote that he wholeheartedly rejected Berliner's critique of the coverage of the Israel-Hamas conflict, for which NPR's journalists, like their peers, periodically put themselves at risk.

Alfonso also took issue with Berliner's concern over the focus on diversity at NPR.

"As a person of color who has often worked in newsrooms with little to no people who look like me, the efforts NPR has made to diversify its workforce and its sources are unique and appropriate given the news industry's long-standing lack of diversity," Alfonso says. "These efforts should be celebrated and not denigrated as Uri has done."

After this story was first published, Berliner contested Alfonso's characterization, saying his criticism of NPR is about the lack of diversity of viewpoints, not its diversity itself.

"I never criticized NPR's priority of achieving a more diverse workforce in terms of race, ethnicity and sexual orientation. I have not 'denigrated' NPR's newsroom diversity goals," Berliner said. "That's wrong."

Questions of diversity

Under former CEO John Lansing, NPR made increasing diversity, both of its staff and its audience, its "North Star" mission. Berliner says in the essay that NPR failed to consider broader diversity of viewpoint, noting, "In D.C., where NPR is headquartered and many of us live, I found 87 registered Democrats working in editorial positions and zero Republicans."

Berliner cited audience estimates that suggested a concurrent falloff in listening by Republicans. (The number of people listening to NPR broadcasts and terrestrial radio broadly has declined since the start of the pandemic.)

Former NPR vice president for news and ombudsman Jeffrey Dvorkin tweeted , "I know Uri. He's not wrong."

Others questioned Berliner's logic. "This probably gets causality somewhat backward," tweeted Semafor Washington editor Jordan Weissmann . "I'd guess that a lot of NPR listeners who voted for [Mitt] Romney have changed how they identify politically."

Similarly, Nieman Lab founder Joshua Benton suggested the rise of Trump alienated many NPR-appreciating Republicans from the GOP.

In recent years, NPR has greatly enhanced the percentage of people of color in its workforce and its executive ranks. Four out of 10 staffers are people of color; nearly half of NPR's leadership team identifies as Black, Asian or Latino.

"The philosophy is: Do you want to serve all of America and make sure it sounds like all of America, or not?" Lansing, who stepped down last month, says in response to Berliner's piece. "I'd welcome the argument against that."

"On radio, we were really lagging in our representation of an audience that makes us look like what America looks like today," Lansing says. The U.S. looks and sounds a lot different than it did in 1971, when NPR's first show was broadcast, Lansing says.

A network spokesperson says new NPR CEO Katherine Maher supports Chapin and her response to Berliner's critique.

The spokesperson says that Maher "believes that it's a healthy thing for a public service newsroom to engage in rigorous consideration of the needs of our audiences, including where we serve our mission well and where we can serve it better."

Disclosure: This story was reported and written by NPR Media Correspondent David Folkenflik and edited by Deputy Business Editor Emily Kopp and Managing Editor Gerry Holmes. Under NPR's protocol for reporting on itself, no NPR corporate official or news executive reviewed this story before it was posted publicly.

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1.5 Holism, Anthropology's Distinctive Approach. Highlights. Learning Outcomes. By the end of this section, you will be able to: Define and give examples of holism. Analyze how different elements of society cohere with and reinforce one another. Identify how different elements of society can contradict one another, motivating social change.
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The focus of this report is to examine and understand the physical, social and psychological influences upon health by using the case study and consider how things can be improved by using the holistic approach in contrast to the Biomedical and Biopsychosocial. The first thing that will be considered in this report is emotional issues during ...
Holistic Approach Essay Examples
The holistic assessment framework encompasses a comprehensive approach to patient treatment whereby all dimensions of an individual's well-being, including physical, mental, emotional, social, and spiritual components, are considered. The approach extends beyond the evaluation of physical symptoms, adopting a holistic perspective that ...
Holistic Thinking: What It Is, Characteristics And Examples
Characteristics of Holistic Thinking. 1. Interconnectedness. Holistic thinking recognizes the intricate connections and relationships between different elements within a system. Rather than isolating individual components, holistic thinkers understand how they interact and influence one another. 2. Systems Perspective.
Holistic Essays
These holistic essays include examples, outlines, titles, topics, introductions, conclusions, and resources to assist you. ... The nursing process theory is compatible with my view of health because Orlando's theory is rooted in the holistic approach to health and sees health as something deeper and greater than simply addressing the ...
PDF Social Studies From a Holistic Perspective: a Theoretical and ...
Feelings reflect the confluence of how we process a number of internal and external factors, such as, our self-esteem, philosophy, and life events. Emotions play an important role in creating our perceived reality (Cherry, 2013). Emotional health is illustrated when we have purpose, resilience, and self-efficacy.
Incorporating a Holistic Approach to Nursing Essay
The paper discusses the importance of incorporating a holistic approach to nursing to healthcare and providing quality care in all possible ways. Writing Help Login ... "Incorporating a Holistic Approach to Nursing" is published exclusively on IvyPanda's free essay examples database. You can use it for research and reference purposes to write ...
Scored Holistically
To view a sample of writing holistically is to attempt to view the writing as more than the mere sum of its elementary parts. In considering a sample of writing from a holistic perspective, readers do not judge separately the singular factors--treatment of topic, selection of rhetorical methods, word choice, grammar and mechanics--that constitute a piece of writing.
Holistic View Of Your Life Essay Example
The sample essay on Holistic View Of Your Life deals with a framework of research-based facts, approaches and arguments concerning this theme. ... Holistic Perspective Example. There are many situations where allopathic drugs and other treatments are necessary, and some where they are the only reasonable option. In such cases, alternative ...
Comparing Online and Traditional Classes: a Holistic Perspective
Essay Example: In age possibility connection digitalis, discussions between online despite traditional employments set fire discussions through educational constitutions, rooms, and halls meeting identically. Both courses offer studies legible advantages, so and absences, serves despite one
Holistic Essays: Examples, Topics, & Outlines
Holistic Family Importance of a. PAGES 3 WORDS 1212. This might also be supplemented with a regular multi-vitamin strategy for Tyrone and for his family. This also hints at the need for significant dietary strategy changes for Tyrone. However, as the family profile denotes, many of these issues stem from the habits of his wife Susan, who has ...
How to Practice Holistic Leadership
To bring a holistic leadership approach to your own life and be sure your behaviors are aligning with your intentions, take some time to think about how you want to show up as a leader and as a person. Ask yourself the following questions to clarify your values and visions as they relate to each facet of your life. 1. Self:
Marketing Definition
Essay Example: Amidst the vibrant milieu of contemporary commerce, the term 'marketing' emerges recurrently, often obscured by misconceptions and oversimplifications. At its essence, marketing transcends mere salesmanship or promotional endeavors; it constitutes a holistic approach aimed at
NPR responds after editor says it has 'lost America's trust' : NPR
Berliner says in the essay that NPR failed to consider broader diversity of viewpoint, noting, "In D.C., where NPR is headquartered and many of us live, I found 87 registered Democrats working in ...