research proposal on curriculum development

Curriculum Development Proposal

A curriculum development project creates a cohesive plan of instruction that addresses a curricular goal for the school or classroom. The curriculum plan should encompass classroom instruction in a given subject area for at least one semester or involve the entire school for at least one instructional unit. The curriculum should demonstrate a link between research findings, instruction, and student outcomes. Once created, the curriculum should be implemented and its effectiveness evaluated.

The curriculum development project proposal will be a five- to seven-page paper that communicates the goals and plans to achieve those goals to the advisor and committee members. The following outline may guide the proposal:

I. INTRODUCTION

• Identify the purpose of the project or the problem it seeks to address
• Give evidence of the problem or importance of the project
• State the project goal

II. LITERATURE REVIEW

• A reporting of the literature that frames the problem the curriculum is addressing, gives evidence of other attempts to address this educational issue, studies research on the effectiveness of such attempts, and describes educational theory or practice that serves as a rationale for the curriculum design and methods of instructions and assessment

III. DESIGN

• Describe the procedure for development of the project
• Describe how the curriculum will be implemented
• Outline an assessment or evaluation of the curriculum’s effectiveness
• Convey your plan for assessing the data you collect from the assessment plan
• Describe any limitations your study may have

IV. REFERENCES

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Research and Curricula

• First Online: 13 September 2019

Cite this chapter

• Julie Sarama 4 &
• Douglas H. Clements 4  

Part of the book series: Research in Mathematics Education ((RME))

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Connecting curriculum development and research benefits both. Those designing curricula should ensure that their work is scientifically based and evaluated. Those studying existing curricula should understand the ways in which they were developed and validated (or not) and that a comprehensive evaluation program involves more than final outcomes. We use a curriculum research framework to draw implications for research in both development and evaluation projects. For each phase of the framework, we discuss how publishable research and curriculum development (R&D) might occur, as well as what opportunities there may be for evaluation research alone. In all cases, we briefly suggest methods.

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To us, the sine qua non of evaluation, but not the only approach; others include aesthetic (Eisner, 1998 ), narrative (Bruner, 1986 ), historical (Balfanz, 1999 ; Kilpatrick, 1992 ) and other perspectives.

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Van den Brink, F. J. (1991). Realistic arithmetic education for young children. In L. Streefland (Ed.), Realistic mathematics education in primary school (pp. 77–92). Utrecht, The Netherlands: Freudenthal Institute, Utrecht University.

Van Dooren, W., De Bock, D., Hessels, A., Janssens, D., & Verschaffel, L. (2004). Remedying secondary school students’ illusion of linearity: A teaching experiment aiming at conceptual change. Learning and Instruction, 14 (5), 485–501.

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Whitehurst, G. J. (2009). Don’t forget curriculum . Retrieved from Brown Center on Education Policy, The Brookings Institution website http://www.brookings.edu/papers/2009/1014_curriculum_whitehurst.aspx

Wilson, M. (2012). Responding to a challenge that learning progressions pose to measurement practice: Hypothesized links between dimensions of the outcome progression. In A. C. Alonzo & A. W. Gotwals (Eds.), Learning progressions in science (pp. 317–344). Rotterdam, The Netherlands: Sense Publishers.

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Acknowledgments

This research was supported by the Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education, through grants R305K05157 and R305A110188, and also by the National Science Foundation, through grants ESI-9730804 and REC-0228440. The opinions expressed are those of the authors and do not represent views of the IES or NSF. Although the research is concerned with the scale-up model, not particular curricula, a minor component of the intervention used in this research has been published by the authors, who thus could have a vested interest in the results. An external auditor oversaw the research design, data collection, and analysis, and other researchers independently confirmed findings and procedures. The authors wish to express appreciation to the school districts, teachers, and children who participated in this research.

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Sarama, J., Clements, D.H. (2019). Research and Curricula. In: Leatham, K.R. (eds) Designing, Conducting, and Publishing Quality Research in Mathematics Education. Research in Mathematics Education. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-23505-5_5

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Curriculum proposals.

• Edmund C. Short Edmund C. Short The Pennsylvania State University and University of Central Florida
• https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190264093.013.1500
• Published online: 25 March 2021

Curriculum proposals are sets of visionary statements intended to project what some person or group believes schools or school systems should adopt and utilize in formulating their actual curriculum policies and programs. Curriculum proposals are presented when there is a perceived need for change from curriculum that is currently in place. The specific changes stated in a curriculum proposal can be either quite limited or very comprehensive. If a totally restructured curriculum is recommended, particular prescriptions are necessarily based on some overall conception of what curriculum is by definition and what its constituent elements are, and therefore what topics are to be addressed in a curriculum proposal. Attempts have been made to conceptualize curriculum holistically, as an entity clearly distinguished from all other phenomena, but no agreed upon conception has emerged.

To provide a new theoretical and practically useful framework for how curriculum may be conceived, a 10-component conceptualization of curriculum has been stipulated, elucidated, and illustrated for use in designing curriculum policy, programmatic curriculum plans, or formal curriculum proposals. In this conceptualization, curriculum is defined as having the following interrelated components: (a) focal idea and intended purpose(s), (b) unique objective(s), (c) underlying assumptions and value commitments, (d) program organization, (e) substantive features, (f) the character of the student’s educational situation/activity/process, (g) unique approaches/methods for use by the teacher/educator, (h) program evaluation, (i) supportive arrangements, and (j) justifications/rationale for the whole curriculum. Any proposal for total curriculum change should make prescriptions related to all these components.

Discussion of other aspects related to curriculum proposals include how to locate existing curriculum proposals, how to analyze them in relation to this new conceptualization of curriculum, how to choose suitable ones among them for possible adoption, and how to translate a curriculum proposal into actual curriculum policies or plans.

• curriculum proposals
• curriculum plans
• curriculum policies
• curriculum components
• curriculum theory
• pre-k to 12 curriculum

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Curriculum development: a how to primer

Jill schneiderhan.

Department of Family Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA

Timothy C Guetterman

Margaret l dobson.

Curriculum development is a topic everyone in the field of medical education will encounter. Due to the breadth of ages and types of care provided in Family Medicine, family medicine faculty in particular need to be facile in developing effective curricula for medical students, residents, fellows and for faculty development. In the area of medical education, changing and evolving learning environments, as well as changing requirements necessitate new and innovative curricula to address these evolving needs. The process of developing a medical education curriculum can seem daunting but when broken down into smaller components can become very straightforward and easy to accomplish. This paper focuses on the curriculum development process using a six-step approach: performing a needs assessment, determining content, writing goals and objectives, selecting the educational strategies, implementing the curriculum and, finally, evaluating the curriculum. This process may serve as a template for Family Medicine educators, and all medical educators looking to design (or redesign) their own medical education curriculum.

Introduction

Developing curricula is an important topic at all levels of medical education, from teaching medical students and residents to developing ongoing professional education. Despite its importance, it is easy to slip into a pattern of ad hoc curriculum development with little attention to desired outcomes. To maximise the potential of any medical education initiatives, we present a systematic approach to developing and evaluating curricula. Therefore, the purpose of this article is to describe the curriculum development process over six steps: performing a needs assessment, determining content, writing goals and objectives, selecting the educational strategies, implementing the curriculum and finally, evaluating the curriculum.

The word curriculum originated in classical Latin where the original meaning was ‘running’ or ‘race course’. Over time, it transitioned to meaning ‘a course of study’ or more specifically, ‘a course offered by an educational institution’. 1 Curriculum in medical education can vary widely in size and scope, encompassing individual topics such as learning to take vital signs in the first year of medical school, to very large areas with longitudinal scope such as a curriculum on decreasing errors in hospitalised patients through improved transitions of care. For the purposes of this paper, we will refer to any planned educational experience as an example of a curriculum.

The exact nature of a curriculum should be seen as the ‘what’ of the educational experience, such as the description of the intended learning outcomes or the document used to describe these. The development of this description or document in a systematic and concrete way is the focus of this paper, which should in turn drive implementation.

There are several underlying assumptions in approaching curriculum development that are well articulated by David Kern. 2

First, educational programs have aims or goals, whether or not they are clearly articulated. Second, medical educators have a professional and ethical obligation to meet the needs of their learners, patients and society. Third, medical educators should be held accountable for the outcomes of their interventions. And fourth, a logical, systematic approach to curriculum development will help achieve these ends. (page 5).

The development of educational curriculum is by nature driven by the discipline itself. There have been profound changes to the field of medical education over the last several decades with a shift from simply delivering knowledge to the learner to teaching skills such as clinical reasoning among others. As the process has shifted so has the need for developing appropriate curricula to teach these new skills become more important. Within family medicine, in particular, there has also been a shift to thinking about preventative and population health which along with huge changes in practice environments have driven need for more diverse educational strategies.

Medical education curriculum development has largely drawn from general education curriculum development with refinement over time into a framework that is largely accepted and taught throughout the field of medical education. 2 We will use this framework, combined with our own experiences and published examples of curriculum development, to lay out a format that can be widely applied to whatever educational topic is attempting to be taught.

The framework outlined in this paper is a combination of previously articulated curriculum development approaches by Patricia Thomas and David Kern, 2 as well as the framework used in the University of Michigan Faculty Development Institute’s Workshop on Curriculum Development.

The six steps are:

• Performing a needs assessment and writing a rationale statement.
• Determining and prioritising content.
• Writing goals and objectives.
• Selecting teaching/educational strategies.
• Implementation of the curriculum.
• Evaluation and application of lessons learnt.

The prompts for the development of a curriculum can be multifactorial. They can be external, coming from outside the group, such as the requirements of accrediting bodies or less well-defined ‘movements’ in delivery of care models. Internal motivations may arise as well, for example, from review of learner’s performance evaluations or needs specific to the community being served by the learners.

The following is an example from the experience of one of the authors (JS) of this paper that was initially prompted by learner’s performance. During the review of residents’ performance at a small residency programme, it was noted that there was a slow rate of acquisition of communication skill milestones by a substantial number of learners, making it clear that the issue was less about the individual learners and more systemic in nature. On further reflection, it became clear there was not a specific educational strategy to teach this topic. This led to the formation of a working group to develop a curriculum to teaching communication skills. The group met several times and followed a specific curriculum development process. The process began by discussing if there was broad agreement that this curriculum needed to be developed and on what data that decision was being based on (step 1: performing a needs assessment and writing a rationale statement).

The next step was to determine what exactly was going to be addressed, and a process was undertaken to review both the milestones for communication skills given by the outside accrediting body for our programme and a review of the state of education around teaching communication skills in family medicine residency education (step 2: determining and prioritising content). Once we determined the content we wanted to cover, we expanded to what that would look like to the learner at the end of the curriculum, and then developed a set of goals and objectives for our curriculum (step 3: writing goals and objectives).

Next, we involved an educational specialist from our larger Graduate Medical Education Committee to help us in the selection of educational strategies. As we were a small programme, we did not have a specialist in communication skills; therefore, we were strategic in matching our strategies to the skills of our faculty teachers. From there, we organised the strategies into a formal curriculum with details of what would be taught, by whom and when (step 4: selecting teaching/educational strategies).

The next year, the curriculum was rolled out to the family medicine residents in the form of lectures and workshops, precepting strategies and feedback tools (step 5: implementation of the curriculum). Throughout the course of that year and into the next, we evaluated the individual components and also the milestones pertinent to our curriculum, and then returned to the overall plan and adjusted for improvement (step 6: evaluation and application of lessons learnt). Overall, the process was a success, the new curriculum was in place and over the next several years slow improvement in the attainment of milestones relevant to this curriculum was seen.

In the above example, the steps outlined were followed in a stepwise fashion, but that is not necessary to the success of a curriculum. In the case that a curriculum is already in place, evaluation may lead to revision, which in turn may lead to the development of a new needs assessment, but not necessarily new goals or objectives. It may become unclear why effort is being put into a certain area and a formal needs assessment becomes important to justify an already successful educational strategy. Each of these steps can be important in and of itself and may come into play at different times. The table 1 provides a summary of steps with examples.

Curriculum development steps

Step 1. Needs assessment/statement

The needs assessment helps us answer ‘Why’? In the case of curriculum development, the answer may be quite broad and should point to the distinction between the current teaching strategy surrounding a learning need and what should be changed about it. 2 At the start, it is wise to consider whose needs are the priority. This may start with a learner’s needs (either attitudinal and knowledge-based needs, readiness to learn or timing), but likely extends to the patients and communities for whom the learner will be caring. When justifying time or funding, an articulation of how this curriculum might meet regulatory or board requirements can be useful.

The mechanics of a needs assessment includes readily available information and the collection of new information. 2 The acquisition of new information can be structured (survey or medical knowledge assessment), semi-structured (series of discussions or a call to action based on sentinel event), research/data driven (data on learners’ performance or clinical quality data) or based on regulatory requirements. 3–5

A very basic example (see table 1 ), 2 experienced by one of the authors was the identification of a gap in knowledge leading to the development of a newly structured educational activity.

Once the needs assessment is finalised, and the needs have been articulated, a rationale statement should be agreed on. 3–5 This rationale statement is 1–3 lines that articulates the fundamental findings from the needs assessment to guide the development of the curriculum. The rationale statement can then be used to keep the curriculum on task. It is intended to be modified only if there is a serious oversight in the development. In this way, the needs assessment and rationale statement can truly render a solid foundation for the curriculum in development.

Step 2. Determining and prioritising content

This is the first step in beginning to articulate what is going to be included, a general description of the content, along with a prioritisation of that content. In the example of the communication skills curriculum referenced above, the content was determined both by working backwards from the milestone goals and also from reviewing what experts in the field have identified. In some cases, there will not be expert knowledge or milestones to work from, and in these cases, original research might be needed, such as surveys of experts in the field, or analysis of conversation around a difficult topic needing to be addressed. An example of this last strategy can be seen in a recent publication on addressing the topic of racism in medical education (see table 1 ). 2 6

Step 3. Writing goals and objectives

Although goals and objectives are often thought of as similar, there is a nuanced difference to them that should be considered. A goal is a general statement of the knowledge, skill or attitude to be attained by the learner and is often a description of the important content as determined in your earlier steps. In contrast, an objective is a specific measurable skill or attitude that the learner will be able to demonstrate at the end of the educational activity. While goals are helpful in defining the overall strategy, the objectives are necessary in order to measure if your curriculum is successful.

While writing goals is relatively simple, as they are general statements of knowledge, the writing of an objective is more challenging and will be discussed in more detail. Objectives need to be understood by both learners and instructors, and to that end, need to be as specific and measurable as possible.

This statement asks us to simply consider the basic elements of an objective: ‘Who will do how much of what by when? (page 51)’. 2 Perhaps, the most important component of this is the verb, or the ‘will do’ piece, which should be open to as few interpretations as possible. Good verbs to use may include ‘list’, ‘define’, ‘execute’ and ‘differentiate’, as opposed to verbs that should be avoided such as ‘know’, ‘understand’ or ‘appreciate’, which are vague and difficult to measure. 7

Table 2 below provides examples of how an important content area is translated into a goal and an objective and some examples of both poor and well-written objectives.

Examples of goals and objectives

Step 4. Selecting teaching/educational strategies

Selecting the teaching or educational strategies to deliver new curriculum helps predict its success. One early alignment to consider is the congruence between the topics (knowledge, affective or psychomotor) and teaching method. 2 Options for curriculum delivery are summarised in table 3 . When selecting a strategy, it is helpful to consider both the learner(s) and the teacher(s), as well as the material. If the relationship between teacher and learner is intended to be formative, or longitudinal, the strategy may favour the person teaching and likely incorporates some element of discussion. If the priority is garnering a basic level of skill/understanding of a stable topic and potentially assessing that knowledge, a web-based tool may be the right approach. When planning multiple sessions, it is helpful to consider overall structure to promote cohesiveness, but with variability between the sessions to meet the educational goals and objectives for that session. In Family Medicine, we are also especially attuned to consider the role of the team in implementation of new teaching, as team-based care is central to the practice of Family Medicine. This may push us to consider cross or interdisciplinary educational approaches. See tables 2 and 3 for examples.

Educational strategies

Step 5. Implementation

The implementation phase can be divided into several different steps starting with the identification of resources. Resources fall into four basic categories which include personnel, time, facilities and funding. 2 Personnel are the teaching faculty, administrative support, informational technology (if needed for computerised modules) and patients (if curriculum involves direct patient care). Time is often one of the most precious resources, given all that learners have to accomplish in the short time they are in school or residency, and includes didactic time as well as the time of all the personnel listed above. Facilities are the spaces such as classrooms or clinic sites where the learning will take place. Funding is all the direct financial costs or faculty compensation, along with any other hidden costs. Utilising existing resources (educational materials already developed, time already put aside in the curriculum, rooms already dedicated to teaching) can lower costs and increase the likelihood of success.

The next step is obtaining support internally from stakeholders to the curriculum, and at times externally, when funding or support for other resources is needed. Stakeholders are those most directly impacted by the curriculum and often include learners, the faculty doing the teaching and any administrative personnel needed. Having their support and enthusiasm is crucial to the success of any curriculum. External support becomes necessary when resources beyond what is available to the programme or school are needed, either financially or in terms of facilities. A great example of finding resources and support is seen in Noriea et al , where a curriculum to teach health disparities was developed which used nationally developed resources and partnered with local clinics for the offering of clinical experiences. 8

The next step is the design of the management plan, which details the actual step-by-step process of how the curriculum will be delivered. This should include the who, what, where and how for each component or teaching strategy. This is where anticipating any barriers that might arise during the role out of the curriculum may be anticipated in advance, with a plan to mitigate the barriers. A great example of this level of detailed plan is also seen in Noriea et al ’s study where they include a table that details out each didactic component of their curriculum, along with the assignments to the students and the teaching strategies being employed. 8

The last step in implementation is the actual role out. This is where all the work you have put in so far will pay off. It is important to pilot sections of the curriculum to enthusiastic stakeholders initially to both gain more support and also to identify and rectify any barriers to implementation so that the odds of success are increased. This pilot can be followed by a phasing-in, where new portions are added until the full curriculum is implemented.

Step 6. Evaluation

Evaluation is a process of determining the merit, value or worth of a programme. 9 Evaluation is often considered the final phase of curriculum development, but it should span the entire process and is often cyclical and iterative. Two major types of educational evaluation included here are formative and summative. 10 Formative evaluation is conducted early on, or at key points, during a programme in order to inform changes and identify opportunities for improvement. Summative evaluation, however, is an evaluation of outcomes that occurs in a more final phase of implementation. Summative evaluations are useful to make a judgement about whether a curriculum was successful, and for whom, in order to report back to stakeholders. A preparatory step is to consider early on whether to conduct either formative or summative evaluation, or both. Drawing from utilization-focused evaluation 11 and the steps in any research process, 10 the major steps of an evaluation are: (1) develop a clear plan to use evaluation results; (2) determine how to measure objectives; (3) collect data; (4) analyse data and (5) use evaluation results by applying lessons learnt.

Although it may seem counterintuitive, the first step of an evaluation is to consider who will use the evaluation results and how. Simply, an evaluation that is never used will not be worth the effort. A utilization plan should include and describe the dissemination plan (eg, a written report, presentations, discussion sections) and the specific audience for each. In addition, the utilization plan should detail what types of actions may be anticipated based on the results. For example, could the report lead to changing, ending or expanding the programme? The actual utilization occurs after the evaluation, but having a clear plan ahead of time can help to ensure the evaluation will actually influence the curriculum, with the goal of improving the learning itself, the experience of the learners and teachers and ultimately, patients and community members who will benefit from more skilled providers.

The next step is to determine how to measure learning objectives. This process is often called assessment and consists of operationalising objectives and determining how to collect data. Consider the learning objective: ‘The learner will be able to explain the difference in the pathophysiology of acute versus chronic pain’. Considerations include how to assess this objective, such as through tests, or other learner output. Of course, it must be more specific, such as whether the test is written or uses another form, the timing of the assessment, whether it will be repeated and what is considered proficiency. A norm-based assessment might compare student performance to other students to determine relative differences. A criterion-based assessment would have a particular cut-point that determines acceptable performance.

With planning efforts completed, the next steps are to collect and analyze data. Data collection might involve tests, interviews with students or instructors, performance assessments or other methods. 4 10 12 When using quantitative data, analysis occurs after all data have been collected. Analyzing pre-post differences can be particularly helpful in assessing whether learners may have changed. When using qualitative data, analysis begins as data are being collected and tends to be more iterative, with analysis informing subsequent data collection. 13

The final step is to use the evaluation results and apply lessons learnt to the curriculum. Guided by the utilization plan, this step consists of disseminating information to relevant stakeholders, and making use of the results to improve learning outcomes or the learning experience. This feedback and use of evaluation results is critical for continuing improvement of medical or professional education. Thus, the evaluation process often repeats as educators apply lessons learnt and then evaluate and iterate the improved curriculum.

Conclusions

Following a systematic approach to develop and evaluate curricula provides a structure to frame teaching and learning and in doing so makes this process accessible to all Family Medicine educators regardless of previous experience. The process may be applied to develop an entirely new curriculum or to modify an existing one. Curriculum development begins with conducting a needs assessment and developing a written rationale for the curriculum followed by determining and prioritising what content will be included in the curriculum. The third step is to clearly articulate the goals and write measurable objectives. Remaining goal oriented helps educators refrain from adding superfluous material. The fourth step is focused on how the curriculum will be delivered by selecting educational strategies. In the fifth step, educators determine what resources are needed on a practical level to implement the curriculum followed by the actual implementation. Finally, educators evaluate the curriculum and use those results to make changes.

The process we have presented encourages Family Medicine educators to systematically move through each step of curriculum development rather than take an ad hoc approach. By doing so, the educator becomes an expert in both their clinical subject and how best to educate learners in the topic. A structured approach helps ensure the work already being done can be shared widely through publication and presentation, if desired. Through the sharing of the curriculum development process, evaluation results or educational innovations with the broader scholarly community, Family Medicine educators and medical educators generally learn from one another’s experiences and the entire field is enriched.

Acknowledgments

We wish to thank Rania Ajilat and Lilly Pritula for their editorial assistance in preparing this manuscript.

Contributors: All authors contributed to the conceptualisation, writing and review of this manuscript.

Competing interests: None declared.

Patient consent for publication: Not required.

Provenance and peer review: Not commissioned; internally peer reviewed.

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How to Develop Curriculum Proposals

The curriculum review and approval process has many layers and steps. If you are new to developing curriculum proposals, or if you haven't done it in a while, the H&S Curriculum Committee strongly urges you to review the following documents in advance of preparing proposals:

• HSCC Curriculum Guidelines   - Detailed discussion of the proposal routing, review, and approval process, how to write an effective course/program rationale (excerpted below), procedure and policy on course types and internships
• How To ... Step-By-Step Guide for Proposers Preparing New and Revised PROGRAM Proposals  - reviews required elements and offers a walk-through of the Program Proposal in CIM

How To ... Guide for Proposers Preparing New, Experimental, and Revised COURSE Proposals  - the focus of this guide is how to make sure your proposal is addressing the kinds of questions asked by HSCC and APC in their review of course proposals, including course titles, course numbers, course SLOs, the rationale, and more.

For experimental, new, and revised course proposals, you may also want to consult:

• How to add attributes to courses in CIM  
• How to write effective SLOs
• APC guidelines and policies on course prerequisites , course descriptions , and syllabi .

Please consult with the HSCC Chair and/or the Associate Dean if you need additional information or guidance.

Below, we excerpt the section from the HSCC Guidelines about how to craft a robust rationale in support of your curriculum proposals. The rationale in CIM is the section most carefully considered by HSCC and APC.

Writing the Rationale for Curriculum Proposals

The rationale is one of the most important elements of a proposal. This is where new curricular additions or modifications are explained and justified. The committees that review these proposals will rarely be in the same or even a related disciplinary area as the proposer, so clarity, accuracy, and concision are key qualities. We suggest you answer or adapt the statements below in your rationale for new or revised proposals.

General principle : while it may be the case that a specific course reflects a faculty member’s particular scholarly expertise, our expectation is that courses being added to the curriculum are supported by the whole department and play a role in the overall curriculum. Therefore, rationales are better phrased in terms of “we” or “the department” rather than “I,” and the justification should be about the role of the course in the curriculum, not the expertise of the faculty colleague. We assume our colleagues are prepared and qualified to teach the courses they offer!

A. New course proposal rationale

The rationale should address the following questions:

• What does the course add to the department’s major and/or minor programs or concentrations in terms of content, skills, or a combination? 
• If the course is targeted to a general education audience, what does this add to the broader educational experience of Ithaca College students? 
• How are the learning outcomes for the course (which must be specified) aligned with program learning outcomes and consistent with the level of the course? 
• If the course is being added in response to program review or SLO assessment – what specifically did the department learn and how would this course address that need? 

Remember that the rationale is also the place to explain how the prerequisites or restrictions support students to be successful in the course, and why the course is placed at the level that it is. If the course will be taught with an alternative type of pedagogy to a standard lecture, seminar, studio, or lab course, the rationale is also the place to characterize that, and explain why this pedagogy is appropriate to the course.

If the course was previously an experimental course : The rationale can include information about the success of the course when it was offered, but popularity of a course is not a curricular justification, and so should not be the primary rationale provided. Further, the rationale does not need to address how the course has changed or is changing since it was offered experimentally, but rather should treat the course as a new proposal with the particulars (in terms of course description, prereq, syllabus, etc.) provided.

B. Course revision proposal rationale

For existing courses, it is not necessary to include a detailed history of how the course has been taught in the past. The key task in the revised course rationale is to describe the changes and justify them. In this case, changes may be:

• due to modifications in departmental curricular priorities, 
• in response to new developments in professional or academic practice,  
• following from program or SLO assessment.

Questions to address include:

• What is being added to or removed from a course? 
• Are the learning outcomes changing, and if so, how and why? How does the change to this course impact the major, minor, or general education program? 

C. New and revised program (major and minor) proposals rationales

New major and minor programs need to be created before a curriculum proposal can be submitted. The New Program Authorization Proposal, available through CIM, provides the opportunity to propose the creation of a new program. This proposal will be reviewed and approved by the Dean and the Provost before the curriculum proposal can be created in CIM. If you are planning to create a new program, please consult with the Associate Dean before getting started. 
Once the program has been authorized, you can then prepare the curriculum proposal.

See the How to…. Step-By-Step Guide for Proposers Preparing New and Revised Program Proposals  (located in the Curriculum Guides for Faculty folder) for detailed guidance on preparing program proposals in CIM.

New program curriculum rationale

This should include: 

• General description of the overall structure of the requirements, and an explanation of how this structure reflects or addresses the goals of the program in terms of learning outcomes, content, and skills.
• Specific discussion of each component of the program requirements, that explains the role each requirement plays — whether a course or set of courses, a set of restricted electives, or a required experience — in supporting students to achieve the learning outcomes expected.
• If using attributes, a discussion of the criteria to be used to determine whether a course meets the intended outcomes associated with the attribute is also expected.

Revised program curriculum rationale

As with revised course proposals, these rationales should describe the changes being made and an explanation for each of them. Program changes may be:

• in response to new developments in professional or academic practice,
• following from program or SLO assessment, or
• in response to School or College-wide guidance. 

Questions to address include: 

• What is being added to or removed from a program? 
• (How) are the program learning outcomes changing? 
• How does this change affect the school or college? 
• How does the proposed revision respond to School or College-wide guidance while maintaining curricular coherence and disciplinary expectations?

Additional questions for all program proposals include:

• how does the new or revised program contribute to the overall curriculum of H&S and to Ithaca College?
• how does the new or revised program reflect current academic standards, including types of courses offered, sequencing of courses, and assessment procedures? 

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5 Curriculum Design, Development and Models: Planning for Student Learning

“. . . there is always a need for newly formulated curriculum models that address contemporary circumstance and valued educational aspirations.” –Edmond Short

Introduction

Curriculum design refers to the structure or organization of the curriculum, and curriculum development includes the planning, implementation, and evaluation processes of the curriculum. Curriculum models guide these processes.

Essential Questions

• What is curriculum design?
• What questions did Tyler pose for guiding the curriculum design process?
• What are the major curriculum design models?
• What unique element did Goodlad add to his model?
• In addition to the needs of the learner, what did Hilda Taba add to her model?

Meaning of Curriculum Design

From Curriculum Studies, pp. 65-68

Curriculum design is largely concerned with issues such as what to include in the curriculum and how to present it in such a way that the curriculum can be implemented with understanding and success (Barlow et al., 1984). Therefore, curriculum design refers to how the components of the curriculum have been arranged in order to facilitate learning (Shiundu & Omulando, 1992).

Curriculum design is concerned with issues of choosing what the organizational basis or structural framework of the curriculum is. The choice of a design often implies a value position.

As with other curriculum-related concepts, curriculum design has a variety of definitions, depending on the scholars involved. For example, Doll (1992) says that curriculum design is a way of organizing that permits curriculum ideas to function. She also adds that curriculum design refers to the structure or pattern of the organization of the curriculum.

The curriculum design process results in a curriculum document that contains the following:

• a statement of purpose(s),
• an instructional guide that displays behavioral objectives and content organization in harmony with school organization,
• a set of guidelines (or rules) governing the use of the curriculum, and
• an evaluation plan.

Thus, curriculum is designed to fit the organizational pattern of the school/institution for which it is intended.

How a curriculum is conceptualized, organized, developed, and implemented depends on a particular state’s or district’s educational objectives. Whatever design is adopted depends also on the philosophy of education.

There are several ways of designing school curriculum. These include subject-centered, learner-centered, integrated, or broad fields (which combines two or more related subjects into one field of study; e.g., language arts combine the separate but related subjects of reading, writing, speaking, listening, comprehension, and spelling into a core curriculum).

Subject-Centered Curriculum Design

This curriculum design refers to the organization of curriculum in terms of separate subjects, e.g., geography, math, and history, etc. This has been the oldest school curriculum design and the most common in the world. It was even practiced by the ancient Greek educators. The subject-centered design was adapted by many European and African countries as well as states and districts in the United States. An examination of the subject-centered curriculum design shows that it is used mainly in the upper elementary and secondary schools and colleges. Frequently, laypeople, educators, and other professionals who support this design received their schooling or professional training in this type of system. Teachers, for instance, are trained and specialized to teach one or two subjects at the secondary and sometimes the elementary school levels.

There are advantages and disadvantages of this approach to curriculum organization. There are reasons why some educators advocate for it while others criticize this approach.

Advantages of Subject-Centered Curriculum Design

It is possible and desirable to determine in advance what all children will learn in various subjects and grade levels. For instance, curricula for schools in centralized systems of education are generally developed and approved centrally by a governing body in the education body for a given district or state. In the U.S., the state government often oversees this process which is guided by standards.

• It is usually required to set minimum standards of performance and achievement for the knowledge specified in the subject area.
• Almost all textbooks and support materials on the educational market are organized by subject, although the alignment of the text contents and the standards are often open for debate.
• Tradition seems to give this design greater support. People have become familiar and more comfortable with the subject-centered curriculum and view it as part of the system of the school and education as a whole.
• The subject-centered curriculum is better understood by teachers because their training was based on this method, i.e., specialization.
• Advocates of the subject-centered design have argued that the intellectual powers of individual learners can develop through this approach.
• Curriculum planning is easier and simpler in the subject-centered curriculum design.

Disadvantages of Subject-Centered Curriculum Design

Critics of subject-centered curriculum design have strongly advocated a shift from it. These criticisms are based on the following arguments:

• Subject-centered curriculum tends to bring about a high degree of fragmentation of knowledge.
• Subject-centered curriculum lacks integration of content. Learning in most cases tends to be compartmentalized. Subjects or knowledge are broken down into smaller seemingly unrelated bits of information to be learned.
• This design stresses content and tends to neglect the needs, interests, and experiences of the students.
• There has always been an assumption that information learned through the subject-matter curriculum will be transferred for use in everyday life situations. This claim has been questioned by many scholars who argue that the automatic transfer of the information already learned does not always occur.

Given the arguments for and against subject-centered curriculum design, let us consider the learner-centered or personalized curriculum design.

Learner-Centered/Personalized Curriculum Design

Learner-centered curriculum design may take various forms such as individualized or personalized learning. In this design, the curriculum is organized around the needs, interests, abilities, and aspirations of students.

Advocates of the design emphasize that attention is paid to what is known about human growth, development, and learning. Planning this type of curriculum is done along with the students after identifying their varied concerns, interests, and priorities and then developing appropriate topics as per the issues raised.

This type of design requires a lot of resources and manpower to meet a variety of needs. Hence, the design is more commonly used in the U.S. and other western countries, while in the developing world the use is more limited.

To support this approach, Hilda Taba (1962) stated, “Children like best those things that are attached to solving actual problems that help them in meeting real needs or that connect with some active interest. Learning in its true sense is an active transaction.”

Advantages of the Learner-Centered Curriculum Design

• The needs and interests of students are considered in the selection and organization of content.
• Because the needs and interests of students are considered in the planning of students’ work, the resulting curriculum is relevant to the student’s world.
• The design allows students to be active and acquire skills and procedures that apply to the outside world.

Disadvantages of the Learner-Centered Curriculum Design

• The needs and interests of students may not be valid or long lasting. They are often short-lived.
• The interests and needs of students may not reflect specific areas of knowledge that could be essential for successful functioning in society. Quite often, the needs and interests of students have been emphasized and not those that are important for society in general.
• The nature of the education systems and society in many countries may not permit learner-centered curriculum design to be implemented effectively.
• As pointed out earlier, the design is expensive in regard to resources, both human and fiscal, that are needed to satisfy the needs and interests of individual students.
• This design is sometimes accused of shallowness. It is argued that critical analysis and in-depth coverage of subject content is inhibited by the fact that students’ needs and interests guide the planning process.

Broad Fields/Integrated Curriculum

From Curriculum Studies , pp. 69-80

In the broad fields/integrated curriculum design, two, three, or more subjects are unified into one broad course of study. This organization is a system of combining and regrouping subjects that are related to the curriculum.

This approach attempts to develop some kind of synthesis or unity for the entire branch or more branches of knowledge into new fields.

Examples of Broad Fields

• Language Arts : Incorporates reading, writing, grammar, literature, speech, drama, and international languages.
• General Science : Includes natural and physical sciences, physics, chemistry, geology, astronomy, physical geography, zoology, botany, biology, and physiology
• Other : Include environmental education and family-life education

Advocates of the broad fields/integrated designs believe that the approach brings about unification and integration of knowledge. However, looking at the trend of events in curriculum practice in many states and countries, this may not have materialized effectively. The main reason is that teachers are usually trained in two subjects at the university level, thus making it difficult for them to integrate more areas than that. For instance, general science might require physics, chemistry, biology, and geology, but science teachers may have only studied two of these areas in depth.

Advantages of Broad Field/Integrated Curriculum Design

• It is based on separate subjects, so it provides for an orderly and systematic exposure to the cultural heritage.
• It integrates separate subjects into a single course; this enables learners to see the relationships among various elements in the curriculum.
• It saves time in the school schedule.

Disadvantages of Broad Field/Integrated Curriculum Design

• It lacks depth and cultivates shallowness.
• It provides only bits and pieces of information from a variety of subjects.
• It does not account for the psychological organization by which learning takes place.

Core Curriculum Design

Meaning of core curriculum.

The concept core curriculum is used to refer to areas of study in the school curriculum or any educational program that is required by all students. The core curriculum provides students with “common learning” or general education that is considered necessary for all. Thus, the core curriculum constitutes the segment of the curriculum that teaches concepts, skills, and attitudes needed by all individuals to function effectively within the society.

Characteristics of Core Curriculum Design

The basic features of the core curriculum designs include the following:

• They constitute a section of the curriculum that all students are required to take.
• They unify or fuse subject matter, especially in subjects such as English, social studies, etc.
• Their content is planned around problems that cut across the disciplines. In this approach, the basic method of learning is problem-solving using all applicable subject matter.
• They are organized into blocks of time, e.g. two or three periods under a core teacher. Other teachers may be utilized where it is possible.

Types of Core Curriculum Designs

The following types of core curriculum are commonly found in secondary schools and college curriculums.

Separate subjects taught separately with little or no effort to relate them to each other (e.g., mathematics, science, languages, and humanities may be taught as unrelated core subjects in high schools).

The integrated or “fused” core design is based on the overall integration of two or more subjects, for example:

• Physics, chemistry, biology, and zoology may be taught as general science.
• Environmental education is an area with an interdisciplinary approach in curriculum planning.
• History, economics, civics, and geography may be combined and taught as social studies.

Curriculum Design Models

There are a variety of curriculum design models to guide the process. Most of the designs are based on Ralph Tyler’s work which emphasizes the role and place of objectives in curriculum design.

Ralph Tyler’s Model

Tyler’s Model (1949) is based on the following four (4) fundamental questions he posed for guiding the curriculum design process. They are as follows:

• What educational purposes is the school seeking to attain?
• What educational experiences are potentially provided that are likely to attain these purposes?
• How can these educational experiences be effectively organized?
• How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained?

Schematically, Tyler’s model is presented as follows.

Application of Ralph Tyler’s Model in Curriculum Design

In applying Tyler’s model to curriculum design, the process begins with framing objectives for the curriculum. Because of its emphasis on the importance of objectives, it is considered an objective-based model. This process starts with analyzing information from various data sources. Data sources for curriculum according to Tyler include:

• For this source, the designer analyzes the issues affecting society that could be solved through education.
• Examples are cultural issues, socio-economic issues, and health issues such as HIV/AIDS among.
• Learner’s needs and interests
• Subject specialists/subject matter

From these sources, the designer develops general objectives. These are subjected to a screening process, using the philosophy of education and psychology of learning as the major screens. Social values are also used as a screen, but sometimes these are subsumed in the philosophy of education. This yields a feasible number of objectives that are focused on in education.

Specific objectives are then derived from the general objectives. For each of the specific objectives, learning experiences are identified. In this context, the learning experiences include the subject matter/content and learning activities.

The next step is the organization of learning experiences. This is done to ensure effective learning takes place. The various principles of the organization include scope, sequence, integration, and continuity, among others. The final step involves evaluation, to determine the extent to which the objectives have been met.

Feedback from the evaluation is then used to modify the learning experiences and the entire curriculum as found necessary.

Learning Experiences

Learning experiences refer to the interaction between the learner and the external conditions in the environment which they encounter. Learning takes place through the active participation of the students; it is what the students are involved in that they learn, not what the teacher does.

The problem of selecting learning experiences is the problem of determining the kind of experiences likely to produce given educational objectives and also the problem of how to set up opportunity situations that evoke or provide within the student the kinds of learning experiences desired.

General Principles in Selecting Learning Experiences

• Provide experiences that give students opportunities to practice the behavior and deal with the content implied.
• Provide experiences that give satisfaction from carrying on the kind of behavior implied in the objectives.
• Provide experiences that are appropriate to the student’s present attainments, his/her predispositions.
• Keep in mind that many experiences can be used to attain the same educational objectives.
• Remember that the same learning experience will usually bring about several outcomes.

Selection of Subject Matter/Content

The term subject matter/content refers to the data, concepts, generalizations, and principles of school subjects such as mathematics, biology, or chemistry that are organized into bodies of knowledge sometimes called disciplines. For instance, Ryman (1973) specifically defines content as:

Knowledge such as facts, explanations, principles, definitions, skills, and processes such as reading, writing, calculating, dancing, and values such as the beliefs about matters concerned with good and bad, right and wrong, beautiful and ugly.

The selection of content and learning experiences is one crucial part of curriculum making. This is mainly because of the explosion of knowledge that made the simplicity of school subjects impossible. As specialized knowledge increases, it is necessary either to add more subjects or to assign new priorities in the current offerings to make room for new knowledge and new concepts.

New requirements for what constitute literacy have also emerged. In secondary schools, the usual method of accommodating new demands is to introduce new subjects or to put new units into existing subjects.

Improved educational technology such as the use of television, radio, computers, and multi-media resources support an expansion of what can be learned in a given period. New technological aids for self- teaching, for communicating information, and for learning a variety of skills are shifting the balance of time and effort needed for acquiring a substantial portion of the curriculum. What then are the criteria for the selection of content?

Criteria for the Selection of Content

Several criteria need to be considered in selecting content. These include the validity, significance, needs, and interests of learners.

The term validity implies a close connection between content and the goals which it is intended to serve. In this sense, content is valid if it promotes the outcomes that it is intended to promote. In other words, does the curriculum include concepts and learnings that it states it does?

Significance

The significance of curriculum content refers to the sustainability of the material chosen to meet certain needs and ability levels of the learners.

Needs and Interests of the Learner

The needs and interests of the learners are considered in the selection of content to ensure a relevant curriculum to the student’s world. This also ensures that the students will be more motivated to engage with the curriculum.

In this context, the subject matter of a curriculum is selected in the light of its usefulness to the learner in solving his/her problems now and in the future.

Learnability

Curriculum content is learnable and adaptable to the students’ experiences. One factor in learnability is the adjustment of the curriculum content and the focus of learning experiences on the abilities of the learners. For effective learning, the abilities of students must be taken into account at every point of the selection and organization.

Consistency with Social Realities

If the curriculum is to be a useful prescription for learning, its content, and the outcomes it pursues need to be in tune with the social and cultural realities of the culture and the times.

John Goodlad’s Model

The Goodlad model deviates a bit from the Ralph Tyler’s model. It is particularly unique in its use of social values. Whereas Tyler considers them as a screen, Goodlad proposes they are used as data sources. Hence, Goodlad proposes four data sources:

• funded knowledge,
• conventional wisdom, and
• student needs and interests.

John Goodlad was a Canadian-born educator and author who believed that the most important focus of education should not be based on standardized testing, but rather to prepare young people to be well-informed citizens in democracy. His inclusion of values in the curriculum-development chart reflects his belief that educational systems must be driven by goals or values.  He believed that education has a moral dimension, and those who teach are “moral agents.” To be a professional teacher means that one is a moral agent with a moral obligation, including initiating the young into a culture. In the United States, this means “critical enculturation into a political democracy”  because a democratic society depends on the renewal and blending of self-interests and the public welfare (Goodlad, 1988).  For that reason, Goodlad places “values” at the very top of his model.

Funded Knowledge

Funded knowledge is knowledge which is gained from research. Generally, research is heavily funded by various organizations. Information from research is used to inform educational practice in all aspects, particularly in curriculum design.

Conventional Wisdom

Conventional wisdom includes specialized knowledge within the society, for example from experts in various walks of life and ‘older’ people with life experiences. Students’ needs and interests are also considered in the design process.

Data from the various sources are then used to develop general aims of education from which general educational objectives are derived. These objectives are stated in behavioral terms. A behavioral objective has two components: a behavioral element and a substantive element. The behavioral element refers to the ‘action’ that a learner is able to perform, while the substantive element represents the ‘content’ or “substance” of the behavior.

From the general objectives, the curriculum designer identifies learning opportunities that facilitate the achievement of the general objectives. This could, for example, be specific courses of study.

The next step involves deriving specific educational objectives stated behaviorally. These are akin to instructional objectives. They are used to identify “organizing centers” which are specific learning opportunities, for example, a specific topic, a field trip, an experiment, etc.

Regarding evaluation, Goodlad proposed continuous evaluation at all stages of the design process. In the model, evaluation is represented by the double-edged arrows that appear throughout the model.

How then does Tyler’s model differ with that of John Goodlad’s?

Goodlad’s model departs from the traditional model based on Tyler’s work in several ways:

• recognition of references to scientific knowledge from research,
• use of explicit value statements as primary data sources,
• introduction of organizing centers i.e., the specific learning opportunities,
• continuous evaluation is used as a constant data source, not only as a final monitor of students’ progress (formative evaluation) but also for checking each step in the curriculum planning process. Hence, the model insists upon both formative and process evaluation.

Curriculum literature still has many more models for design. We shall highlight a few of them.

Other Curriculum Designs

There are many other curriculum design models developed by different scholars. Most of these models are objectives-based, i.e. they focus on objectives as the basis upon which the entire design process is based, and draw a lot from the work of Ralph Tyler. Those include the Wheeler, Kerr, and Taba models.

The Wheeler Model

D.K. Wheeler developed a cyclic model in reaction to criticism leveled at Ralph Tyler’s model. The latter was seen as being too simplistic and vertical. By being vertical, it did not recognize the relationship between various curriculum elements. His cyclic proposal was therefore aimed at highlighting the interrelatedness of the various curriculum elements. It also emphasizes the need to use feedback from evaluation in redefining the goals and objectives of the curriculum.

The Models of John Kerr and Hilda Taba

Other scholars who were also convinced of the ‘objectives’ approach to curriculum design were John Kerr and Hilda Taba. Their work is summarized in the simplified models presented in the graphic presentations that follow. Both of them emphasize the interrelatedness of the various curriculum elements.

John Kerr’s Model

John Kerr, a British Curriculum specialist in the 1960s, was particularly concerned with the following issues: objectives, knowledge, school learning experiences, and evaluation. This is reflected in the sketch below.

Kerr’s model is in many ways similar to that of Ralph Tyler and Wheeler. The difference is the emphasis on the interrelatedness of the various components in terms of the flow of the data between each component.

Hilda Taba’s Model

Hilda Taba was born in Europe and emigrated to the United States during a tumultuous time in history that had a great effect on her view of education. She was initially influenced by progressivists: John Dewey and Ralph Tyler, and one of her goals was to nurture the development of students and encourage them to actively participate in a democratic society. Taba’s model was inductive rather than deductive in nature, and it is characterized by being a continuous process.

Taba’s model emphasized concept development in elementary social studies curriculum and was used by teachers in her workshops. She was able to make connections between culture, politics, and social change as well as  cognition, experience, and evaluation in curriculum development, particularly in the areas of  teacher preparation and civic education. Taba’s work with teachers in communities around the United States  and in Europe has provided a blueprint for curriculum development that continues to be used by curriculum developers today. To explore more information about Taba and her work, you may access Taba’s Bio .

Hilda Taba, on her part, was also influenced by Ralph Tyler. Her conceptual model follows. The interrelatedness of the curriculum elements from both models suggests the process is continuous.

Factors that Influence Curriculum Design

Several factors need to be taken into account when designing a curriculum. These include:

• teacher’s individual characteristics,
• application of technology,
• student’s cultural background and socio-economic status,
• interactions between teachers and students, and
• classroom management; among many other factors.

Insight 5.0

There is no “silver bullet” in designing curriculum. What is best for one classroom or one district may not work somewhere else. When setting up the process, using a combination of designs might work best.

If you were leading a curriculum committee, which model would you use for the curriculum development process?

Respond using the Hypothesis ILA Responses Group annotation tool. Choose the content area(s) and grade level(s), a specific model or a combination of models, and include rationale for your choices.

Curriculum design is central to the development of curriculum, and it can be done in several ways. Each design has advantages and disadvantages for both learners and teachers. Ralph Tyler included four questions that guided his curriculum design model. Tyler’s model influenced later curriculum designs by John Goodlad, D.K. Wheeler, John Kerr, Hilda Taba, and others. In the next chapter, we look at how curriculum is developed and its scope.

Curriculum Essentials: A Journey Copyright © 2021 by Linda J. Button, Ed.D. is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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This research is a research that contributes ideas in developing curriculum in Madrasah. This is because the progress of the times has penetrated all areas of life, including the field of education. Of course the progress of the times demands progress that affects all aspects in it, including the curriculum as a reference in the education process. So there is a need for curriculum development, especially in Madrasas which in fact prioritize religious education in it. This is of course related to the demands of the times for graduates from Madrasas to be able to compete and not be out of date. The method in this study uses qualitative research and the type of research is library research. The results of this study are the curriculum development process includes: Determining the Model in Development, analyzing Needs and Situations, Determining Objectives, Goals, Goals, Formulating Content in the Curriculum, Selecting Methods in Developing Curriculum, Evaluating Curriculum, Implementing Curriculum, Curriculum Changes Providing Feedback.

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This paper aims to analyze the historical development of the geography education curriculum. Geography has been occupying an important place since its inception at the Faculty of Education, Tribhuvan University in Nepal. This paper is a review paper. Reviewed materials were collected from different sources, such as official records of the Faculty of Education (FoE), Curriculum Development Centers (CDC) of TU, and archive documents. The findings show that geography has taught as an optional subject at the Bachelor and Master levels in the Faculty of Education. The curriculum covers a broad spectrum of geographic fields, such as physical, human, regional, tools and techniques, and applied concepts, themes, and issues. They are tourism, environments, disaster, climate change, mountains, and so on at both levels. This paper concludes that the curriculum of geography education focuses on content rather than pedagogy. However, it is equally important and necessary to enhance the knowledge on pedagogical content for teachers, educators, educational planners, researchers, and freelancers who are engaged in geography education.

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11.2 Steps in Developing a Research Proposal

Learning objectives.

• Identify the steps in developing a research proposal.
• Choose a topic and formulate a research question and working thesis.
• Develop a research proposal.

Writing a good research paper takes time, thought, and effort. Although this assignment is challenging, it is manageable. Focusing on one step at a time will help you develop a thoughtful, informative, well-supported research paper.

Your first step is to choose a topic and then to develop research questions, a working thesis, and a written research proposal. Set aside adequate time for this part of the process. Fully exploring ideas will help you build a solid foundation for your paper.

Choosing a Topic

When you choose a topic for a research paper, you are making a major commitment. Your choice will help determine whether you enjoy the lengthy process of research and writing—and whether your final paper fulfills the assignment requirements. If you choose your topic hastily, you may later find it difficult to work with your topic. By taking your time and choosing carefully, you can ensure that this assignment is not only challenging but also rewarding.

Writers understand the importance of choosing a topic that fulfills the assignment requirements and fits the assignment’s purpose and audience. (For more information about purpose and audience, see Chapter 6 “Writing Paragraphs: Separating Ideas and Shaping Content” .) Choosing a topic that interests you is also crucial. You instructor may provide a list of suggested topics or ask that you develop a topic on your own. In either case, try to identify topics that genuinely interest you.

After identifying potential topic ideas, you will need to evaluate your ideas and choose one topic to pursue. Will you be able to find enough information about the topic? Can you develop a paper about this topic that presents and supports your original ideas? Is the topic too broad or too narrow for the scope of the assignment? If so, can you modify it so it is more manageable? You will ask these questions during this preliminary phase of the research process.

Identifying Potential Topics

Sometimes, your instructor may provide a list of suggested topics. If so, you may benefit from identifying several possibilities before committing to one idea. It is important to know how to narrow down your ideas into a concise, manageable thesis. You may also use the list as a starting point to help you identify additional, related topics. Discussing your ideas with your instructor will help ensure that you choose a manageable topic that fits the requirements of the assignment.

In this chapter, you will follow a writer named Jorge, who is studying health care administration, as he prepares a research paper. You will also plan, research, and draft your own research paper.

Jorge was assigned to write a research paper on health and the media for an introductory course in health care. Although a general topic was selected for the students, Jorge had to decide which specific issues interested him. He brainstormed a list of possibilities.

If you are writing a research paper for a specialized course, look back through your notes and course activities. Identify reading assignments and class discussions that especially engaged you. Doing so can help you identify topics to pursue.

• Health Maintenance Organizations (HMOs) in the news
• Sexual education programs
• Hollywood and eating disorders
• Americans’ access to public health information
• Media portrayal of health care reform bill
• Depictions of drugs on television
• The effect of the Internet on mental health
• Popularized diets (such as low-carbohydrate diets)
• Fear of pandemics (bird flu, HINI, SARS)
• Electronic entertainment and obesity
• Advertisements for prescription drugs
• Public education and disease prevention

Set a timer for five minutes. Use brainstorming or idea mapping to create a list of topics you would be interested in researching for a paper about the influence of the Internet on social networking. Do you closely follow the media coverage of a particular website, such as Twitter? Would you like to learn more about a certain industry, such as online dating? Which social networking sites do you and your friends use? List as many ideas related to this topic as you can.

Narrowing Your Topic

Once you have a list of potential topics, you will need to choose one as the focus of your essay. You will also need to narrow your topic. Most writers find that the topics they listed during brainstorming or idea mapping are broad—too broad for the scope of the assignment. Working with an overly broad topic, such as sexual education programs or popularized diets, can be frustrating and overwhelming. Each topic has so many facets that it would be impossible to cover them all in a college research paper. However, more specific choices, such as the pros and cons of sexual education in kids’ television programs or the physical effects of the South Beach diet, are specific enough to write about without being too narrow to sustain an entire research paper.

A good research paper provides focused, in-depth information and analysis. If your topic is too broad, you will find it difficult to do more than skim the surface when you research it and write about it. Narrowing your focus is essential to making your topic manageable. To narrow your focus, explore your topic in writing, conduct preliminary research, and discuss both the topic and the research with others.

Exploring Your Topic in Writing

“How am I supposed to narrow my topic when I haven’t even begun researching yet?” In fact, you may already know more than you realize. Review your list and identify your top two or three topics. Set aside some time to explore each one through freewriting. (For more information about freewriting, see Chapter 8 “The Writing Process: How Do I Begin?” .) Simply taking the time to focus on your topic may yield fresh angles.

Jorge knew that he was especially interested in the topic of diet fads, but he also knew that it was much too broad for his assignment. He used freewriting to explore his thoughts so he could narrow his topic. Read Jorge’s ideas.

Conducting Preliminary Research

Another way writers may focus a topic is to conduct preliminary research . Like freewriting, exploratory reading can help you identify interesting angles. Surfing the web and browsing through newspaper and magazine articles are good ways to start. Find out what people are saying about your topic on blogs and online discussion groups. Discussing your topic with others can also inspire you. Talk about your ideas with your classmates, your friends, or your instructor.

Jorge’s freewriting exercise helped him realize that the assigned topic of health and the media intersected with a few of his interests—diet, nutrition, and obesity. Preliminary online research and discussions with his classmates strengthened his impression that many people are confused or misled by media coverage of these subjects.

Jorge decided to focus his paper on a topic that had garnered a great deal of media attention—low-carbohydrate diets. He wanted to find out whether low-carbohydrate diets were as effective as their proponents claimed.

Writing at Work

At work, you may need to research a topic quickly to find general information. This information can be useful in understanding trends in a given industry or generating competition. For example, a company may research a competitor’s prices and use the information when pricing their own product. You may find it useful to skim a variety of reliable sources and take notes on your findings.

The reliability of online sources varies greatly. In this exploratory phase of your research, you do not need to evaluate sources as closely as you will later. However, use common sense as you refine your paper topic. If you read a fascinating blog comment that gives you a new idea for your paper, be sure to check out other, more reliable sources as well to make sure the idea is worth pursuing.

Review the list of topics you created in Note 11.18 “Exercise 1” and identify two or three topics you would like to explore further. For each of these topics, spend five to ten minutes writing about the topic without stopping. Then review your writing to identify possible areas of focus.

Set aside time to conduct preliminary research about your potential topics. Then choose a topic to pursue for your research paper.

Collaboration

Please share your topic list with a classmate. Select one or two topics on his or her list that you would like to learn more about and return it to him or her. Discuss why you found the topics interesting, and learn which of your topics your classmate selected and why.

A Plan for Research

Your freewriting and preliminary research have helped you choose a focused, manageable topic for your research paper. To work with your topic successfully, you will need to determine what exactly you want to learn about it—and later, what you want to say about it. Before you begin conducting in-depth research, you will further define your focus by developing a research question , a working thesis, and a research proposal.

Formulating a Research Question

In forming a research question, you are setting a goal for your research. Your main research question should be substantial enough to form the guiding principle of your paper—but focused enough to guide your research. A strong research question requires you not only to find information but also to put together different pieces of information, interpret and analyze them, and figure out what you think. As you consider potential research questions, ask yourself whether they would be too hard or too easy to answer.

To determine your research question, review the freewriting you completed earlier. Skim through books, articles, and websites and list the questions you have. (You may wish to use the 5WH strategy to help you formulate questions. See Chapter 8 “The Writing Process: How Do I Begin?” for more information about 5WH questions.) Include simple, factual questions and more complex questions that would require analysis and interpretation. Determine your main question—the primary focus of your paper—and several subquestions that you will need to research to answer your main question.

Here are the research questions Jorge will use to focus his research. Notice that his main research question has no obvious, straightforward answer. Jorge will need to research his subquestions, which address narrower topics, to answer his main question.

Using the topic you selected in Note 11.24 “Exercise 2” , write your main research question and at least four to five subquestions. Check that your main research question is appropriately complex for your assignment.

Constructing a Working ThesIs

A working thesis concisely states a writer’s initial answer to the main research question. It does not merely state a fact or present a subjective opinion. Instead, it expresses a debatable idea or claim that you hope to prove through additional research. Your working thesis is called a working thesis for a reason—it is subject to change. As you learn more about your topic, you may change your thinking in light of your research findings. Let your working thesis serve as a guide to your research, but do not be afraid to modify it based on what you learn.

Jorge began his research with a strong point of view based on his preliminary writing and research. Read his working thesis statement, which presents the point he will argue. Notice how it states Jorge’s tentative answer to his research question.

One way to determine your working thesis is to consider how you would complete sentences such as I believe or My opinion is . However, keep in mind that academic writing generally does not use first-person pronouns. These statements are useful starting points, but formal research papers use an objective voice.

Write a working thesis statement that presents your preliminary answer to the research question you wrote in Note 11.27 “Exercise 3” . Check that your working thesis statement presents an idea or claim that could be supported or refuted by evidence from research.

Creating a Research Proposal

A research proposal is a brief document—no more than one typed page—that summarizes the preliminary work you have completed. Your purpose in writing it is to formalize your plan for research and present it to your instructor for feedback. In your research proposal, you will present your main research question, related subquestions, and working thesis. You will also briefly discuss the value of researching this topic and indicate how you plan to gather information.

When Jorge began drafting his research proposal, he realized that he had already created most of the pieces he needed. However, he knew he also had to explain how his research would be relevant to other future health care professionals. In addition, he wanted to form a general plan for doing the research and identifying potentially useful sources. Read Jorge’s research proposal.

Before you begin a new project at work, you may have to develop a project summary document that states the purpose of the project, explains why it would be a wise use of company resources, and briefly outlines the steps involved in completing the project. This type of document is similar to a research proposal. Both documents define and limit a project, explain its value, discuss how to proceed, and identify what resources you will use.

Writing Your Own Research Proposal

Now you may write your own research proposal, if you have not done so already. Follow the guidelines provided in this lesson.

Key Takeaways

• Developing a research proposal involves the following preliminary steps: identifying potential ideas, choosing ideas to explore further, choosing and narrowing a topic, formulating a research question, and developing a working thesis.
• A good topic for a research paper interests the writer and fulfills the requirements of the assignment.
• Defining and narrowing a topic helps writers conduct focused, in-depth research.
• Writers conduct preliminary research to identify possible topics and research questions and to develop a working thesis.
• A good research question interests readers, is neither too broad nor too narrow, and has no obvious answer.
• A good working thesis expresses a debatable idea or claim that can be supported with evidence from research.
• Writers create a research proposal to present their topic, main research question, subquestions, and working thesis to an instructor for approval or feedback.

Writing for Success Copyright © 2015 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Curriculum research

Curriculum research studies support the review of curricula across the IB's programmes, improve the effectiveness of teaching and learning, and explore initiatives, strategies and challenges encountered by schools, students and teachers.

Read about curriculum research in the:

• Primary Years Programme (PYP)
• Middle Years Programme (MYP)
• Diploma Programme (DP)
• Career-related Programme (CP)

We also publish studies examining more than one IB programme . 

The studies discuss a range of topics, including international mindedness, student wellbeing, transdisciplinarity, and language policies.

These studies are published in a range of formats, in order to approach the question of programme development and the review of curricula. We approach these research areas through a series of literature reviews to keep us updated on contemporary educational thinking and practice, while surveys and case studies investigate major trends and relate theory to effective practice.

Curriculum research areas

The studies cover four key areas, and each area has a distinctive aim: 

• Fostering curriculum implementation , by exploring and analyzing educational innovation and initiatives, strategies, challenges and lessons learned through enhancing the implementation of the IB’s four programmes in diverse school contexts and developing timely resources for the effectiveness of teaching and learning.
• Supporting the continuum of the programmes , by investigating theory and practice of curriculum alignment and articulation to support learning continuum between and across the four programmes.
• Responding proactively to potentials of and challenges for students in the 21st century,  by examining initiatives in cultivating international-mindedness and how it relates to students’ development towards holistic individuals, lifelong learners, and global citizens.
• Building research capacity for curriculum development ,   by providing research training to sustain research competences and thus rigorous educational research throughout the continuous curriculum development process of the four programmes.

For information on curriculum research, please contact IB Research .