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1.1: What is Environmental Science?

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• Melissa Ha and Rachel Schleiger
• Yuba College & Butte College via ASCCC Open Educational Resources Initiative

What is Environmental Science?

Environmental science is the dynamic, interdisciplinary study of the interaction of living and non-living parts of the environment, with special focus on the impact of humans on the environment. The study of environmental science includes circumstances, objects, or conditions by which an organism or community is surrounded and the complex ways in which they interact.

Environmental Science is Interdisciplinary

Environmental science includes disciplines in the physical sciences (like geology, soil science, physical geography, chemistry, and atmospheric sciences), life sciences (like ecology, conservation biology, restoration biology, and population biology), social sciences (like human geography, economics, law, political science, and anthropology), and humanities (philosophy, ethics). As such, environmental scientists are a diverse bunch. However, they all come together for the focus of studying and identifying past, current, and future environmental issues while also exploring solutions to the environmental issues and also considering practical needs.

Why Study Environmental Science?

The need for equitable, ethical, and sustainable use of Earth’s resources by a global population that nears the carrying capacity of the planet requires us not only to understand how human behaviors affect the environment, but also the scientific principles that govern interactions between the living and non-living. Our future depends on our ability to understand and evaluate evidence-based arguments about the environmental consequences of human actions and technologies, and to make informed decisions based on those arguments.

From global climate change to habitat loss driven by human population growth and development, Earth is becoming a different planet—right before our eyes. The global scale and rate of environmental change are beyond anything in recorded human history. Our challenge is to acquire an improved understanding of Earth’s complex environmental systems; systems characterized by interactions within and among their natural and human components that link local to global and short-term to long-term phenomena, and individual behavior to collective action. The complexity of environmental challenges demands that we all participate in finding and implementing solutions leading to long-term environmental sustainability.

The Tragedy of the Commons

In his essay, The Tragedy of the Commons, Garrett Hardin (1968) looked at what happens when humans do not limit their actions by including the land as part of their ethic. The tragedy of the commons develops in the following way: Imagine a pasture open to all (the ‘commons’). It is to be expected that each herdsman will try to keep as many cattle as possible on the commons. As rational beings, each herdsman seeks to maximize their gain. Adding more cattle increases their profit, and they do not suffer any immediate negative consequence because the commons are shared by all. The rational herdsman concludes that the only sensible course is to add another animal to their herd, and then another, and so forth. However, this same conclusion is reached by each and every rational herdsman sharing the commons. Therein lies the tragedy: each person is locked into a system that compels them to increase their herd, without limit, in a world that is limited. Eventually this leads to the ruination of the commons. In a society that believes in the freedom of the commons, freedom brings ruin to all because each person acts selfishly.

Hardin went on to apply the situation to modern commons: overgrazing of public lands, overuse of public forests and parks, depletion of fish populations in the ocean, use of rivers as a common dumping ground for sewage, and fouling the air with pollution.

The “Tragedy of the Commons” is applicable to what is arguably the most consequential environmental problem: global climate change. The atmosphere is a commons into which countries are dumping carbon dioxide from the burning of fossil fuels. Although we know that the generation of greenhouse gases will have damaging effects upon the entire globe, we continue to burn fossil fuels. As a country, the immediate benefit from the continued use of fossil fuels is seen as a positive component (because of economic growth). All countries, however, will share the negative long-term effects.

Some Indicators of Global Environmental Stress

• Forests — Deforestation remains a main issue. 1 million hectares of forest were lost every year in the decade 1980-1990. The largest losses of forest area are taking place in the tropical moist deciduous forests, the zone best suited to human settlement and agriculture. Recent estimates suggest that nearly two-thirds of tropical deforestation is due to farmers clearing land for agriculture. There is increasing concern about the decline in forest quality associated with intensive use of forests and unregulated access.
• Soil — As much as 10% of the earth’s vegetated surface is now at least moderately degraded. Trends in soil quality and management of irrigated land raise serious questions about longer-term sustainability. It is estimated that about 20% of the world’s 250 million hectares of irrigated land are already degraded to the point where crop production is seriously reduced.
• Fresh water — Some 20% of the world’s population lacks access to safe water and 50% lacks access to safe sanitation. If current trends in water use persist, two-thirds of the world’s population could be living in countries experiencing moderate or high water stress by 2025.
• Marine fisheries — 25% of the world’s marine fisheries are being fished at their maximum level of productivity and 35% are overfished (yields are declining). In order to maintain current per capita consumption of fish, global fish harvests must be increased; much of the increase might come through aquaculture which is a known source of water pollution, wetland loss and mangrove swamp destruction.
• Biodiversity — Biodiversity is increasingly coming under threat from development, which destroys or degrades natural habitats, and from pollution from a variety of sources. The first comprehensive global assessment of biodiversity put the total number of species at close to 14 million and found that between 1% and 11% of the world’s species may be threatened by extinction every decade. Coastal ecosystems, which host a very large proportion of marine species, are at great risk with perhaps one-third of the world’s coasts at high potential risk of degradation and another 17% at moderate risk.
• Atmosphere — The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has established that human activities are having a discernible influence on global climate. CO 2 emissions in most industrialized countries have risen during the past few years and countries generally failed to stabilize their greenhouse gas emissions at 1990 levels by 2000 as required by the Climate Change convention.
• Toxic chemicals — About 100,000 chemicals are now in commercial use and their potential impacts on human health and ecological function represent largely unknown risks. Persistent organic pollutants are now so widely distributed by air and ocean currents that they are found in the tissues of people and wildlife everywhere; they are of particular concern because of their high levels of toxicity and persistence in the environment.
• Hazardous wastes — Pollution from heavy metals, especially from their use in industry and mining, is also creating serious health consequences in many parts of the world. Incidents and accidents involving uncontrolled radioactive sources continue to increase, and particular risks are posed by the legacy of contaminated areas left from military activities involving nuclear materials.
• Waste — Domestic and industrial waste production continues to increase in both absolute and per capita terms, worldwide. In the developed world, per capita waste generation has increased threefold over the past 20 years; in developing countries, it is highly likely that waste generation will double during the next decade. The level of awareness regarding the health and environmental impacts of inadequate waste disposal remains rather poor; poor sanitation and waste management infrastructure is still one of the principal causes of death and disability for the urban poor.

Attributions

Modified by Melissa Ha and Rachel Schleiger from  The Earth, Humans, & the Environment ,  Environment and Sustainability , and  Environmental Ethics  from  Environmental Biology  by Matthew R. Fisher (licensed under CC-BY )

Contributors and Attributions

• Essentials of Environmental Science by Kamala Doršner is licensed under CC BY 4.0. Modified from the original by Matthew R. Fisher.

Chapter 1 ~ Introduction

Environmental hazards, biodiversity, biotic factors, abiotic factors, pollution, lithosphere, hydrosphere, population growth, nutrient cycles, global warming, climate change, sustainability, environmental justice, renewable energy, and non-renewable energy.

Learning Objectives

Upon completion of this chapter, students will be able to:

• Trace the history of environmental science at local and global levels, the role of environmental science as an interdisciplinary subject, and its interrelationships with other Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) fields.
• Define characteristics of all living beings (biota) based on the six kingdoms, their role in ecosystems, and their interaction with non-living (abiotic) factors, including the hydrologic cycle and the biogeochemical cycle of major elements: carbon (C), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and sulfur (S).
• Describe renewable and non-renewable energy resources.
• Identify environmental hazards and describe their toxic effects.
• Differentiate between biological, physical, and chemical stressors in the environment and their effects on biodiversity and natural resources.
• Explain the role of human beings in modifying ecosystems and human impacts on global warming, agriculture, food, nutrition, starvation, and environmental justice.

Chapter Overview

Introduction, the history of environmental science, interdisciplinary nature of environmental science.

Biosphere: Lithosphere, Hydrosphere, and Atmosphere

Preserving Biodiversity and the Six Kingdoms of Life

Demographics, non-renewable and renewable energy sources, nutrient cycles, environmental hazards, global warming, environmental agriculture, environmental ethics, quality, and justice, chapter summary.

Environmental science is a broad, important subject that encompasses all life forms (from microbial organisms to elephants and blue whales), as well as inanimate objects (water, air, soil, rocks, volcanoes) and their interactions. This chapter introduces basic environmental science concepts and perspectives that will be expanded in the remaining ten chapters. This chapter begins with a brief history of environmental science followed by the interdisciplinary nature of environmental science, the biosphere, biodiversity, demographics, environmental hazards, energy sources, nutrient cycling, global warming, environmental impact on agriculture, environmental ethics, quality, and justice and ends with a chapter summary.

The history of environmental science can be traced back to ancient civilizations where people had to develop techniques for adapting to their environment to survive. However, the modern field of environmental science emerged in the mid-twentieth century, as concerns over pollution and environmental degradation became more prominent. One of the key milestones in the history of environmental science was the publication of Rachel Carson’s book Silent Spring in 1962. This book highlighted the negative effects of pesticides and other chemicals on the environment and helped to spur the environmental movement in the United States and around the world.

During the 1970s, there was a growing recognition of the need for environmental regulation, and many countries passed laws to protect their air, water, and land resources. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was established on December 2, 1970. In 1970, the United States passed the Clean Air Act and the Clean Water Act of 1972, which set standards for air and water quality and established regulatory agencies to enforce these standards.

In the 1980s and 1990s, there was a growing focus on global environmental issues, such as climate change and biodiversity loss. The United Nations (UN) established the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 1988 to study the causes and impacts of climate change, and in 1992, the UN held the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, where countries pledged to take action to address environmental problems.

Today, environmental science is a multidisciplinary field focused on understanding the interactions between humans and the natural environment and developing solutions to environmental problems.

Dive Deeper into the History of Environmental Science

The Clean Air Act and Clean Water Act were foundational pieces of legislation. Follow the links to read a summary of these laws.

The field has been shaped by many scientists. Read about famous environmental scientists in Top 18 Famous Environmental Scientists You Should Know (2023) .

This documentary, 50 Years of Earth Day , describes the impact of Carson’s work in launching the environmental movement in the US.

As an interdisciplinary field, environmental science involves the study of interactions between humans and the natural environment. It draws upon knowledge and techniques from a variety of scientific disciplines, including biology, chemistry, geology, physics, and ecology, among others. For example, environmental scientists may use their knowledge of biology to study the effects of pollution on plant and animal populations, or they may use chemistry to analyze the composition of air, water, and soil samples. Geology is also important in understanding how natural processes like erosion and volcanic activity impact the environment, and physics is used to study climate change and its effects on the environment.

In addition to the natural sciences, environmental science also incorporates knowledge from social sciences such as economics, politics, and sociology. Environmental economists, for example, study the costs and benefits of different environmental policies, while environmental sociologists may investigate how social factors influence people’s attitudes toward the environment.

This interdisciplinary approach is necessary because environmental problems are often complex and interconnected and require a holistic understanding of the underlying causes and potential solutions. By bringing together knowledge from multiple disciplines, environmental scientists are better able to identify and address these complex problems. Figure 1.2 displays a broader list of academic disciplines that can contribute to environmental studies, a field like environmental science that looks at human interactions and the natural environment.

The biosphere is the region of the earth that encompasses all living organisms: plants, animals, and bacteria. It is a feature that distinguishes the Earth from the other planets in the solar system. “Bio” means life, and the term biosphere was first coined by a Russian scientist (Vladimir Vernadsky) in the 1920s. Another term sometimes used is ecosphere (“eco” meaning home). The biosphere includes the outer region of the earth (the lithosphere) and the lower region of the atmosphere (the troposphere). It also includes the hydrosphere, the region of lakes, oceans, streams, ice, and clouds comprising the earth’s water resources.

Lithosphere

The lithosphere is the outer crust of the Earth, which is composed of the upper mantle and crust and arranged in concentric layers like an onion. Below the lithosphere are three layers: the lower mantle, outer core, and inner core.

The massive core has a diameter of about 3,500 km and is composed of hot, molten metals, particularly iron and nickel. The internal heat of Earth is thought to be generated by the slow, radioactive decay of unstable isotopes of certain elements, such as uranium.

The mantle is a less dense region that encloses the core. It is about 2,800 kilometers thick and composed of minerals in a plastic, semi-liquid state known as magma. The mantle contains relatively light elements, notably silicon, oxygen, and magnesium, occurring as various mineral compounds. Magma from the upper mantle sometimes erupts to the surface at mountainous vents known as volcanoes and is usually spewed to the surface as lava, which cools to form basaltic rock.

The lithosphere is only about 80 kilometers thick. It is composed of rigid, relatively light rocks, especially basaltic, granitic, and sedimentary ones. These rocks contain elements found in the mantle as well as enriched quantities of aluminum, carbon, calcium, potassium, sodium, sulfur, and other lighter elements, because of weathering and other forces. Living organisms change the lithosphere slowly by using non-biodegradable substances.

The outermost layer is known as the crust. The oceanic crust is relatively thin, averaging 10–15 kilometers, while the continental crust is 20–60 kilometers thick.

Hydrosphere

The hydrosphere is the portion of Earth that contains water (H 2 O), including in the oceans, atmosphere, land surface, and underground. The hydrologic cycle (or water cycle) refers to the rates of movement (fluxes) of water among these various reservoirs (compartments). The hydrologic cycle functions at all scales, ranging from local to global. The major elements of the global hydrologic cycle are illustrated in Figure 1.4.

The atmosphere is an envelope of gasses that surrounds the Earth and is held in place by the attractive forces of gravity. The density of the atmospheric mass is much greater close to the surface and decreases rapidly with increasing altitude. The atmosphere consists of four layers, whose boundaries are inexact because they may vary over time and space:

• The troposphere (or lower atmosphere) contains 85–90% of the atmospheric mass and extends from the surface to an altitude of 8–20 kilometers. It is thinner at high latitudes, and thicker at equatorial latitudes, but also varies seasonally, at any place being thicker during the summer than in the winter. It is typical for air temperature to decrease with increasing altitude within the troposphere, and convective air currents (winds) are common. Consequently, the troposphere is sometimes referred to as the “weather layer.”
• The stratosphere extends from the troposphere to as high as about 50 kilometers above the earth, depending on the season and latitude. Air temperature varies little with altitude within the stratosphere, and there are few convective air currents.
• The mesosphere extends beyond the stratosphere to about 75 kilometers.
• The thermosphere extends to 450 kilometers or more.

Preserving the b iodiversity of life forms within each of the six kingdoms of life is essential to maintaining the health and ecological balance of our planet and its inhabitants.

The six kingdoms of life are separated into two groups: prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms. Prokaryotic organisms lack a true nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles and include Domains Archaea and Bacteria. Archaea includes one kingdom, archaebacteria. Archaea is a group of single-celled microorganisms that are distinct from both bacteria and eukaryotes. Archaea are found in a wide range of environments, including extreme environments such as hot springs, deep-sea hydrothermal vents, and highly saline lakes.

Kingdom Bacteria is also known as Eubacteria, which means “true bacteria.” This kingdom includes a diverse group of prokaryotic organisms that are found in virtually every habitat on Earth. They are characterized by their generally small size (usually ranging from 0.2 to 5 micrometers). Eubacteria are responsible for many important processes, such as nitrogen fixation (the conversion of atmospheric nitrogen into a form usable by plants), decomposition, and fermentation.

Eukaryotic organisms have a true nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles and include the Domain Eukarya. Domain Eukarya includes four kingdoms: Protista, Fungi, Plants, and Animals. Protista is a biological kingdom that includes a diverse group of eukaryotic microorganisms. The classification of Protista is somewhat outdated and is no longer recognized as a formal taxonomic group in many modern classifications. Protista are typically unicellular or simple multicellular organisms, and they exhibit a wide range of characteristics and lifestyles.

Fungi are a diverse group of organisms that include yeasts, molds, and mushrooms.  Fungi play important roles in nutrient cycling and the decomposition of organic matter. To preserve biodiversity in this kingdom, we can protect forests and other habitats where fungi are abundant, limit the use of fungicides, and promote pollution able farming practices that incorporate the use of mycorrhizal fungi to enhance soil health.

Plants are critical to the survival of many animal species and play a key role in maintaining the health of ecosystems. To preserve biodiversity in this kingdom, we can work to protect and restore natural habitats, reduce deforestation and habitat destruction, and promote the use of sustainable agricultural practices.

Animals play vital roles in maintaining ecological balance and are also important sources of food and medicine for humans. To preserve biodiversity in this kingdom, we can work to protect and restore natural habitats, reduce overfishing and hunting, and promote sustainable tourism practices that do not harm wildlife.

Human Demography

Demography applies the principles of population ecology to the human population. Demographers study how human populations grow, shrink, and change in terms of age and gender composition using vital statistics about people such as births, deaths, population size, and where people live. Demographers also compare populations in different countries or regions. Currently, there are two disparate demographic worlds. On one end is an old, rich, and relatively stable world often referred to as an “ industrialized ” or “ developed ” world and includes many European nations, the United States, Canada, Japan, and Australia among others. On the other end is a young, poor, and rapidly growing world often referred to as “ less-industrialized ,” “ less-developed ,” or “ developing ” and includes many countries in Asia, Africa, and Latin America. In between these two extremes are countries such as China, India, Brazil, Mexico, South Africa, Russia, and many others that have not quite attained the developed status but have outpaced the so-called developing countries. These nations are sometimes referred to as “ newly industrialized ” or “ emerging market economies .”

Geographical Distribution of Habitats

The geographical distribution of habitats is determined by the global habitable environment. This distribution affects the natural habitats and their biota. The major population growth remains constant in the areas based on habitable environments from which human populations can acquire food.

Human Population and Interference

Humans can alter their environment to increase their carrying capacity sometimes to the detriment of other species (e.g., via artificial selection for crops that have a higher yield). Earth’s human population is growing rapidly, to the extent that some worry about the ability of the earth’s environment to sustain this population, as long-term exponential growth carries the potential risks of famine, disease, and large-scale death. Although humans have increased the carrying capacity of their environment, the technologies used to achieve this transformation have caused unprecedented changes to Earth’s environment, altering ecosystems to the point where some may be in danger of collapse. The depletion of the ozone layer, erosion due to acid rain, and damage from global climate change are caused by human activities. The ultimate effect of these changes on our carrying capacity is unknown. As some point out, it is likely that the negative effects of increasing carrying capacity will outweigh the positive ones—the carrying capacity of the world for human beings might decrease. The world’s human population is currently experiencing exponential growth even though human reproduction is far below its biotic potential. To reach its biotic potential, all females would have to become pregnant every nine months or so during their reproductive years. Also, resources would have to be such that the environment would support such growth. Neither of these two conditions exists. Despite this fact, the human population is still growing exponentially.

Non-renewable Energy Sources

Non-renewable energy resources are those that cannot be easily replenished in a short time, making them finite and unsustainable in the long run. Fossil fuels are generally the remains of plants and animals that died millions of years ago and are found deep underground. These fuels may include coal, oil, and natural gas. Tar sands and shale gas are also considered non-renewable energy resources.

Nuclear energy produced by splitting atoms of uranium or plutonium is a process called nuclear fission. From such an exothermic process, the liberated heat is used to generate electricity. Figure 1.9 shows examples of non-renewable energy sources.

Today, non-renewable energy sources are still widely used despite the environmental, climate change and social impacts associated with their extraction, production, refining, and final use and applications. As we move toward a more sustainable and environmentally viable and preserving energy future, there is a growing need by energy consumers to shift toward cleaner, renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, geothermal, and hydroelectric power.

Renewable Energy Sources

Renewable energy sources are those that can be refilled naturally and in a relatively short time or at continuous bases (solar, wind). These energy resources are sustainable and reusable, environmentally friendly, and carbon footprint-reducing agents. They may be used as alternatives to non-renewable energy sources.

Solar energy is generated by capturing solar radiation from the sun using solar panels. This can be used to generate electricity, water heating, or provide energy for various other applications. Wind turbines generate electricity by harnessing the power of the wind. This is a widely used form of renewable energy that is growing rapidly around the world. Hydroelectric power is generated by capturing the energy of falling water to turn turbines and generate electricity. This can be done using large-scale dams or smaller-scale run-of-the-river systems. Geothermal energy is generated by capturing the heat of the Earth’s interior to generate electricity or heat buildings. This can be done by using geothermal power plants or ground-source heat pumps. Biomass energy is generated by burning organic materials such as wood, agricultural waste, and other plant-based substances. This technology can be used to generate heat or electricity or to produce biofuels for transportation.

Renewable energy sources are becoming increasingly important to humanity, as we seek to transition to a more sustainable, replenishable energy future wit h fewer emissions. I n addition to being less harmful to the environment than non-renewable energy sources, renewable energy also offers a range of economic and social benefits, including job creation, energy independence, and reduced greenhouse gas emissions. Chapter 4 concentrates more on the effects of energy and sustainability across the nation and the state of Louisiana. The chapter will also address best practices of energy preservation within our environment.

The existence of organisms in the environment depends on recycling valuable nutrients including nitrogen, phosphorus, oxygen, and carbon, which are all necessary for life. Nutrients are vital for the metabolism of living things and the survival of ecosystems.

Yet, these nutrients can travel from the Hawaiian Islands to Louisiana’s Gulf of Mexico. This happens as nutrients cyclically move through the environment and travel through the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere.

The movement of nutrients through the environment is known as nutrient cycles or biogeochemical cycles as seen in Figure 1.12. Carbon is recycled and moves through the environment when animals release CO 2 into the atmosphere to be absorbed by plant leaves. This occurrence is seen in aquatic and terrestrial plants that capture CO 2 from the atmosphere to use in the production of food through photosynthesis. The atmosphere contains 78% of gaseous nitrogen (N 2 ). However, nitrogen changes into various forms when it enters the soil from the atmosphere. Soil bacteria must convert N 2 to usable forms for plant uptake. This process is known as nitrogen fixation. After this process, N 2 is released from the soil into the atmosphere, and the nitrogen cycle starts again.

A limited amount of phosphorus can be found in the atmosphere as aerosol particles from the ocean and wind-blown dust particulates. However, the majority of the phosphorus in the environment is bonded to subterranean rocks and is only released during weathering processes. Plants can absorb phosphorus through their root systems when phosphate is dissolved in water. Organisms referred to as decomposers recycle phosphorus back into the soil. Decomposers also recycle nutrients in the ecosystem by dissolving decayed organic materials.

The existence of water dates back millions of years. Water is constantly being recycled through the hydrologic cycle, also known as the water cycle. The recycling of water involves four major processes: evaporation, condensation, precipitation, and infiltration. Evaporation occurs when water is heated by the ambient temperature (temperature in the environment) and turns into a gaseous vapor. When the warm water vapor rises and meets the cold air in the atmosphere, condensation occurs, and clouds are formed. Clouds are composed of water droplets from the condensation. The cycle is repeated when the water droplets get too heavy and fall out of the cloud back to the Earth as precipitation. Precipitation may exist in the form of ice, rain, sleet, and snow.

A wide range of environmental hazards come across in almost all habitats and public and private properties including, but not limited to, the workplace, construction areas, parks and recreational areas, industries, and living beings.

• Biological hazards are caused by a variety of organisms belonging to the six kingdoms of life. The effect of biological hazards such as physiological changes, responses to stimuli, reproductive behavior, and diseases, could cause short (acute) and or long-term (chronic) damage to life forms. Their environmental abiotic factors are also affected depending on the causative agent, dose, length of interaction or exposure, and geographical distribution of the hazard.
• Chemical hazards are mainly two kinds—inorganic such as toxic metals (Lead, Pb; Copper, Cu; Iron, Fe; Mercury, Hg; Aluminum, Al; Cadmium, Cd, etc.) and organic chemicals such as Methyl Mercury (CH 3 Hg); Polychlorinated biphenyls; Benzene; Poly aromatic hydrocarbons, etc. The chemical hazards are toxic, which affects the living organisms and their habitats, including the water, air, and soil quality. They will have long-term consequences for living beings. Radiation will have devastating long-term and generational consequences in life forms due to its mutagenic and carcinogenic properties.
• Physical hazards ranging from a wet floor in buildings, foul odor in the air, depth in water bodies, and extreme temperatures cause thermal pollution. War zones, heavy machinery use in construction areas, and ball games in indoor stadiums cause noise pollution. Excessive rainfall and flooding cause loss of property and life especially in low-lying areas and flood-prone zones. Forest fires cause loss of life, biomass of ecosystems, and toxic gas release.
• Natural disasters, such as hurricanes, tornadoes, earthquakes, and volcano eruptions, cause loss of life and biodiversity, disrupt the harmony in ecosystems, reduce the productivity of food chains and food webs, and damage the environmental quality.

The details of various hazards and their impact on humans and biodiversity will be presented in chapters 5 and 6.

In general, the types of hazards and levels of their toxic intensity and interaction with species in diversified habitats could cause the following changes in life forms (biota):

• Anthropogenic : Toxins and their distribution in the environment and among the biota are due to human activities, which eventually damage the natural resources and human health. Most commonly, anthropogenic (man-made) toxins are associated with numerous activities. One example is the accidental emissions of chemicals into the environment. Another example is the release of substances that react in the environment to synthesize chemicals of greater toxicity. The release of excessive heat from factories and industrial sites into the nearby water bodies increases the water temperature. The discharges of nutrient-rich sewage or fertilizer into water bodies cause eutrophication.

Environmental hazards and toxins may have serious effects:

• Human illness, diseases, and death due to the excessive release of toxic gases such as carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), carbon monoxide (CO), and sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ).
• Loss of habitats, life forms, and biodiversity.
• Chronic respiratory and heart diseases.
• Auto exhaust fumes, smoking, secondhand smoke, laboratory solvents, and particulate matter released into the air from the mining industry will cause health severe and chronic problems to humans.
• Indoor pollution and toxins released from space heaters, furnaces, fireplaces burning wood, kerosene, nitric oxide, and organic vapors cause health problems and loss of man-hours and productivity.
• Smog causes a significant number of problems and toxicity to vegetation, erodes building surfaces and metal sculptures due to acid rain, and causes heart and lung problems such as asthma, bronchitis, and emphysema, in vulnerable populations.

An increase in the Earth’s surface temperature is referred to as global warming , also known as climate change . To be more precise, global warming is the cause of the Earth’s climate change. Natural occurrences on the Earth and anthropogenic activities are responsible for increased surface temperatures. Rising sea levels, sporadic flooding, melting glaciers, wildfires, storms, and the loss of wildlife habitats are just a few of the damaging effects of heightened warming trends. The culprit for extreme weather and climate events can be traced to greenhouse gas emissions in the environment. Greenhouse gases are a product of man-made activities such as agricultural activities, combustion of fossil fuels, deforestation, and industrial manufacturing of products.

Major greenhouse gasses include carbon dioxide, chlorofluorocarbons, methane, ozone, nitrous oxide, and water vapor as shown in Figure 1.13. The greenhouse effect occurs when a layer of greenhouse gasses from man-made activities hovers in the Earth’s atmosphere. Because of this, solar radiation strikes the surface of the Earth and bounces back into the atmosphere. The rays from the sunlight are blocked by the layer of greenhouse gasses. The surface temperature of the Earth increases as a result of this activity. It is important to note that without greenhouses, the Earth would be too cold for life to exist. Nonetheless, the amount of emissions caused by human activity is excessive and has become globally problematic. Once in the atmosphere, greenhouse gasses can linger there for a few years to thousands of years.

The persistent altering of Earth’s climate and weather patterns is evidence of the unsettling impacts of global warming. About 2% of global warming is caused by natural events such as variations in solar radiation levels, tectonic shifts, and the suspension of volcanic ash in the atmosphere. However, on a larger scale, global warming is caused by the human usage of petroleum-based fuels, coal, electricity, fertilizers, and industrial manufactured products. The intensity of storms, the rise in sea levels, and the expansion of the ocean are all signs of climate change.

All around the world, but notably at the Earth’s poles, ice is melting. This global imbalance has affected various wildlife species and their habitats. In some cases, the melting ice has led to the collapse of sections of the landscape because rising sea levels often flood coastal regions. Unusual warm temperatures in the ocean can damage aquatic species, fuel tropical cyclones and hurricanes, and cause the ocean to expand.

Most of the extra heat from global warming is absorbed in the upper crust of the ocean, which is about 700 meters down. Unfortunately, this area of the ocean is home to a diverse population of aquatic species such as fish, plankton, and whales. Scientists believe that increased temperatures cause stress in marine environments. Due to their extreme sensitivity, corals will expel their internal algae in the presence of heated temperatures. This event is known as bleaching in which corals frequently fail to recover as shown in Figure 1.15.

To support healthy ecosystems, we must engage in sustainable practices, as these actions can reduce the effects of global warming. Using renewable energy sources, consuming less water, walking instead of driving, and recycling plastic and aluminum products, among other things, are some practical ways to lessen the impact of global warming and climate change. Advocates for local initiatives addressing global warming have grown in popularity, and many of the environmental projects they support have an impactful transformation on the environment and our planet. On a larger scale, some environmental groups support projects that protect our forest landscape. This is a notable effort because CO 2 is a key greenhouse gas. Protecting our forest ecosystems will sequester significant amounts of CO 2 .

Agriculture can be defined as the science, and art, of cultivating the soil, producing crops, and raising livestock. Even relatively simple agricultural practices can greatly increase food production compared with the hunting and gathering of wild animals and plants. Before the development of agriculture, which first appeared around 10,500 years ago, perhaps 5–10 million people were able to subsist through a hunter-and-gatherer lifestyle.

Today, the world supports an enormous population (more than 7.3 billion in 2015 and 7.9 billion in 2023), and almost all depend on the agricultural production of food (fishing and hunting also provide some food). The development of agricultural practices and technologies, and their improvements over time, are among the most crucial of the “revolutions” that have marked the socio-cultural evolution of Homo sapiens .

In any event, beginning with the cultivation and then domestication of a few useful plants and animals, agricultural technology has advanced to the point where it can support enormous populations of humans and our mutualist species.

Modern agriculture involves several distinct management practices that impact crop plants, production of crops, cultivation practices, and livestock, to name a few. In the case of crop plants, they include selective breeding, tillage, the use of fertilizer and pesticides, irrigation, and reaping. Each practice helps to increase the yield of biomass that can be harvested for food or other uses. The practices are typically used in various combinations, which are undertaken as an integrated system of the ecosystem and species management to achieve a large production of crops. However, the management practices also cause important environmental damage.

Chapter 10 will investigate environmental damages associated with agriculture, with particular attention to effects that occur in the United States.

Environmental impacts on agriculture include declining site capability, nutrient loss, organic matter, soil erosion, compaction, salinization, and desertification.

Agricultural site capability (or site quality) refers to the ability of an ecosystem to sustain the productivity of crops. As plants grow, they take up nutrients from the soil. When a crop is harvested, the nutrients contained in its biomass are removed from the site, resulting in nutrient loss. Soil organic matter is a crucial factor that affects fertility and site capability, since the organic matter has a strong influence on the capacity of soil to hold water and nutrients and on its aeration, drainage, and tilth. Soil is eroded by wind and by the runoff of rain and melted snow. Although erosion is a natural process, its rate can be greatly increased by agricultural practices, and this may be a serious environmental problem. Compaction occurs when the air spaces in the soil are compressed, resulting in waterlogging, oxygen-poor conditions, impaired nutrient cycling, poor root growth, and decreased crop productivity. Salinization is a buildup of soluble minerals in the surface soil that can be a major problem in drier regions. Desertification, the increasing aridity of drylands, is a complex problem, caused by both climate change and other anthropogenic influences. Ultimately, these aforementioned environmental factors interweave and can negatively impact agricultural outcomes.

Pollution caused by agriculture includes groundwater and surface waters, which can become polluted by runoff containing fertilizer, pesticides, and livestock sewage. Inputs of nutrients and organic matter from fertilizer and sewage can cause severe ecological damage to surface waters through eutrophication and oxygen depletion. These changes, coupled with the presence of pathogenic and parasitic organisms, can result in waters becoming unsuitable for drinking by people, perhaps even by livestock, or for use in irrigation. Chapter 10 will explore these impacts on human behaviors.

Environmental Impact of Human Behavior

Human behaviors can positively or negatively impact environmental outcomes. For instance, food supply and nutrition, malnutrition, and starvation. In 2014, more than 7.3 billion people were alive, and almost all were reliant on crops as their prime source of food. There are also relatively minor amounts of food that are harvested from the wild, such as by fisheries, but agricultural production is responsible for the great bulk of the modern human diet. Staple food crops are the main source of dietary energy in the human diet and include rice, wheat, sweet potatoes, maize, and cassava.

However, food security plagues one in nine individuals in the world with more individuals living in poverty, which is defined as living on less than $1.25 per day. Poverty is the major driver of food insecurity. The lack of social and physical economic access to food at national and household levels and inadequate nutrition (or hidden hunger) are major issues for impoverished communities. Food security is built on four pillars: availability, access, utilization, and stability. Individuals lacking food stability may suffer from a lack of essential nutrients or malnutrition.

As a means to counteract crop loss, which could further impact food security, plant physiologists have genetically engineered crops through agricultural biotechnology. The field of agricultural biotechnology uses a range of tools that include both traditional breeding and modernized lab-based methods, which include genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and transgenic crops. Creating GMOs introduces new traits to crops that can allow protection from pests, enhanced nutrition to humans and animals, reduced costs to farmers, and more manageable production. However, there are factors to consider with the cultivation of GMOs such as hybridization with native species, ecological impacts on the pollinating organisms, and human health.

Another recent innovation in agriculture is the use of transgenic crops, which have been genetically modified by the introduction of genetic material (DNA or RNA) from another species. This bioengineering intends to confer some advantage to the crop that cannot be developed through selective breeding, which relies only on the intrinsic genetic information (the genome) that is naturally present in the species. Chapter 10 will further investigate the impacts of the four pillars of food security along with the impacts of agricultural biotechnology on human health.

Environmental Ethics

The choices that people make can influence environmental quality in many ways—by affecting the availability of resources, causing pollution, and causing species and natural ecosystems to become endangered. Decisions influencing environmental quality are influenced by two types of considerations: knowledge and ethics.

In this context, knowledge refers to information and understanding about the natural world, and ethics refers to the perception of right and wrong and the appropriate behavior of people toward each other, other species, and nature. Ethical behaviors are typically associated with social interactions with other members of society. Environmental ethics centers around the responsibility of our society to make ethical and moral decisions in response to the world around us. Of course, people may choose to interact with the environment and ecosystems in various ways. On the one hand, knowledge guides the consequences of choices, including damage that might be caused and actions that could be taken to avoid that effect. On the other hand, ethics provides guidance about which alternative actions should be favored or even allowed to occur.

Because modern humans have enormous power to utilize and damage the environment, the influence of knowledge and ethics on choices is a vital consideration. And we can choose among various alternatives. For example, individual people can decide whether to have children, purchase an automobile, or eat meat, while society can choose whether to allow the hunting of whales, clear-cutting of forests, or construction of nuclear power plants. All of these options have implications for environmental quality.

Perceptions of value (of merit or importance) also profoundly influence how the consequences of human actions are interpreted. Environmental values can be divided into two broad classes: utilitarian and intrinsic.

Utilitarian value (also known as instrumental value) is based on the known importance of something to the welfare of people (see also the discussion of the anthropocentric world view, below).

Intrinsic value is based on the belief that components of the natural environment (such as species and natural ecosystems) have inherent value and a right to exist, regardless of any positive, negative, or neutral relationships with humans.

The environmental values described above underlie this system of ethics. Applying environmental ethics often means analyzing and balancing standards that may conflict, because aesthetic, ecological, intrinsic, and utilitarian values rarely coincide.

Values and ethics, in turn, support larger systems known as worldviews. A worldview is a comprehensive philosophy of human life and the universe and of the relationship between people and the natural world. World views include traditional religions, philosophies, and science, as well as other belief systems. In an environmental context, generally important worldviews are known as anthropocentric, biocentric, and ecocentric, while the frontier and sustainability worldviews are more related to the use of resources. These worldviews will be further explored in chapter 11.

Environmental Quality

Environmental quality deals with anthropogenic pollution and disturbances and their effects on people, their economies, other species, and natural ecosystems. Pollution may be caused by gases emitted by power plants and vehicles, pesticides, or heated water discharged into lakes. Examples of disturbance include clear-cutting, fishing, and forest fires. The consequences of pollution and disturbance for biodiversity, climate change, resource availability, risks to human health, and other aspects of environmental quality are examined in chapters 3, 8, 9, 10, and 11.

In a general sense, the cumulative impact of humans on the biosphere is a function of two major factors: (1) the size of the population and (2) the per capita (per-person) environmental impact. The human population varies greatly among and within countries, as does the per capita impact, which depends on the kind and degree of economic development that has occurred. Sustainable economic development requires meeting and sustaining the needs of the current generation without inhibiting future generations from meeting and sustaining their needs. Meeting goals for environmental quality, specifically sustainable economic development, can be measured by applying the IPAT Equation.

Calculations based on this simple IPAT formula show that affluent, technological societies have a much larger per capita environmental impact than poorer ones. This requires a look at ethical decision-making about the environment and principles, such as the Tragedy of the Commons and environmental justice.

The Tragedy of the Commons is an economic principle that focuses on individuals intentionally or unintentionally using resources in excess. This principle stems from the 1968 essay, “The Tragedy of the Commons” written by Garrett Hardin. The essay presents the following scenario:

Imagine a pasture open to all (the ‘commons’). It is to be expected that each herdsman will try to keep as many cattle as possible on the commons. As rational beings, each herdsman seeks to maximize their gain. Adding more cattle increases their profit, and they do not suffer any immediate negative consequence because the commons are shared by all. The rational herdsman concludes that the only sensible course is to add another animal to their herd, and then another, and so forth. However, this same conclusion is reached by each and every rational herdsman sharing the commons. Therein lies the tragedy: each person is locked into a system that compels them to increase their herd, without limit, in a world that is limited. Eventually this leads to the ruination of the commons. In a society that believes in the freedom of the commons, freedom brings ruin to all because each person acts selfishly (Fisher, 23).

Hardin went on to apply the situation to modern commons: overgrazing of public lands, overuse of public forests and parks, depletion of fish populations in the ocean, use of rivers as a common dumping ground for sewage, and fouling the air with pollution.

Dive Deeper into Environmental Quality in Louisiana

Environmental Justice

Environmental justice is the fair treatment and inclusion of all individuals independent of their demographic characteristics (race, ethnicity, national origin, and socioeconomic status) in the “development, implementation, and enforcement of environmental laws, regulations, and policies.” Therefore, environmental injustice stems from an imbalance in resource access and systemic issues plaguing society. Chapter 11 will further explore historical and modern instances of environmental injustices exhibited within the United States of America.

Environmental science crosses several academic disciplines including atmospheric science, biology, chemistry, ecology, geology, oceanography, physics, and many others. Each discipline can become more specialized and integrated with other disciplines to explain the science of “what is happening in the environment.” Historically, environmental science has been traced to ancient civilizations where people had to learn how to adapt to their environment for survival. Today, the survival of the human population depends on the sustainability and stewardship of natural resources. Environmental science is an interdisciplinary field of study because it allows for the integration of many perspectives on each issue into in-depth analyses of the topic. Anthropology, business, chemistry, law, medical sciences, philosophy, psychology, sociology, and other disciplines can all make contributions to environmental science.

The biosphere is characterized by a substratum of layers that support all living things on the Earth. These layers include the lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere. The lithosphere is the outer crust of the Earth and exists as one of the concentric layers (crust, core, and mantle) that is stacked in an onion-like pattern. The area of Earth that is covered by water (H2O), including the seas, atmosphere, the surface of the land, and subterranean, is known as the hydrosphere. The atmosphere consists of a layer of gasses that envelops the planet and is kept in place by the gravitational pull of the Earth.

The biosphere sustains six kingdoms, which greatly enhances the diversity of life on Earth. These kingdoms include Eubacteria, Archaea, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia. The aquatic and terrestrial environments of the biosphere are home to a wide variety of organisms from the six kingdoms. Our understanding of the biosphere’s limitations has been saturated by the effects of human activity. The manufacturing of global products, agriculture, and new technologies have caused unprecedented changes to the Earth’s ecosystems to the point where some may be in danger of collapsing. However, it is unclear how these persistent changes will ultimately affect the carrying capacity of the planet.

A biological or non-biological substance that poses a risk to human life or health is referred to as a hazard. Human activities or natural processes cause hazards in the environment that exist as a combination of biological, chemical, or physical hazards. Bacteria, mold, fungi, viruses, and natural toxins are organic sources of biological hazards that can adversely affect animal and human health. There are two types of chemical hazards: inorganic and organic. Inorganic substances that contain no carbon are sources of chemical hazards. Organic substances come from chemicals that contain carbon and are sources of chemical hazards as well.

Energy plays a significant and impacting role in the preservation of the environment. Humanity should effectively, responsibly, and efficiently use these energy resources to support current global energy consumption needs. There are two types of energy sources for human consumption: renewable and non-renewable. Renewable energy sources can be replenished. Examples of typical renewable energy sources include wind, solar, hydropower, biomass, and geothermal energy. Non-renewable energy sources are limited and unsustainable over the long term, since they are difficult to quickly replace. Fossil fuels are found deep down in the Earth and are typically the skeletal remnants of plants and animals that perished millions of years ago. Coal, oil, and natural gas are just a few examples of fossil fuels.

Nutrient cycling is the movement of nutrients through a repeated pathway that occurs in the environment. The recycling of nitrogen, phosphorus, oxygen, and carbon is essential for life and allows organisms to exist in the environment. Carbon is recycled when animals release CO 2 into the atmosphere to be absorbed by plant leaves. When nitrogen is moved to the soil from the atmosphere, nitrogen fixation allows soil microorganisms to change N 2 into forms that plants can use. Weathering activities liberate most of the phosphorus that is bound to underground rocks so that plants can absorb it through their root systems. The availability of water for all organisms in the environment depends on the movement of water molecules from lakes, oceans, rivers, and streams to the atmosphere and back to the Earth.

Global warming, often known as climate change, is the term used to describe an increase in the Earth’s surface temperature. Evidence of the unsettling effects of global warming is the continual alteration of Earth’s climate and weather patterns. Greenhouse gas emissions are to blame for extreme weather and climatic occurrences. Major greenhouse gasses include carbon dioxide, chlorofluorocarbons, methane, nitrous oxide ozone, and water vapor. Human activities including deforestation, fossil fuel combustion, agriculture, and industrial product manufacturing all produce greenhouse gases. Once in the atmosphere, greenhouse gasses can linger there for a few years to thousands of years, trapping radiation from the sun. The rise in the Earth’s surface temperature can be seen in the intensity of storms, the rise in sea levels, and the expansion of the ocean.

Agricultural production is responsible for dietary energy in the modern human diet that comes from staple food crops, such as rice, wheat, sweet potatoes, maize, and cassava. Numerous management techniques are used in modern agriculture practices to influence animal and plant crop productivity, cultivation methods, and livestock production. Environmental issues that are associated with agricultural practices are reduced site capacity, nutrient loss, organic matter loss, soil erosion, compaction, salinization, and desertification. Food security is important and is built on four pillars: availability, access, utilization, and stability. Conversely, poor nutrition (or hidden hunger) and lack of social and economic access to food at the national and household levels are significant problems for impoverished communities. Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and transgenic plants are two examples of modern lab-based techniques that are used in the field of agricultural biotechnology. Transgenic crops can resist diseases because of their genetic modification. This results in significant reductions in the application of chemical pesticides, which in turn reduces harmful effects on the environment.

The core idea of environmental ethics is that society must act morally and ethically concerning the environment. Although the perceptions of value are influenced by the consequences of human actions, environmental values are divided into two categories: utilitarian and intrinsic. The foundation of utilitarian value is based on the importance of something that is connected with the welfare of people. Intrinsic value is associated with the belief that components of the natural environment have inherent value and a right to exist independently of human perspectives.

The term “environmental quality” refers to the state of the environment, including anthropogenic pollution, disruptions, and their impact on people, their economies, other species, and natural ecosystems. An economic principle known as “The Tragedy of the Commons” focuses on people consuming resources excessively, whether on purpose or accidentally. This rule is applicable in cases when overgrazing, resource overuse, food supply depletion, water, air, and land pollution, as well as other factors that contribute to climate change, are present. Environmental justice is the equitable treatment and participation of all people, regardless of their racial, ethnic, national, and socioeconomic backgrounds, in the “development, implementation, and enforcement of environmental laws, regulations, and policies.” Therefore, unequal access to resources and societal systemic problems are the root causes of environmental injustice.

Links to Discovery

• Measuring Progress: Water-Related Ecosystems and the SDGs (Sustainable Development Goals)
• Restore a River Back to Life 
• Solar Panels on Farms Make Sheep Happier and Healthier

Critical Thinking

• How do water, air, and soil quality affect agriculture?
• Explain the relationship between air quality and circular economy.
• Explain the generation of electrical energy using wind turbines.
• How does biodiversity impact energy resources?
• Abiotic factors – Non-living factors present in or impacting the environment.
• Biodiversity – The richness of biological variation, including genetic variability as well as species and community richness.
• Biotic factors – living factors present in or impacting the environment.
• Climate change – Long-term changes in air, soil, or water temperature; precipitation regimes; wind speed; or other climate-related factors.
• Environmental hazard – A potential risk factor that negatively impacts the environment.
• Environmental justice – The fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all people regardless of race, color, national origin, or income concerning the development, implementation, and enforcement of environmental laws, regulations, and policies.
• Global warming – The heating of the earth’s surface is believed to be caused by human behaviors that emit fossil fuels and trap gas in the atmosphere.
• Hydrosphere – The parts of the planet that contain water, including the oceans, atmosphere, land, surface water bodies, underground, and organisms.
• Lithosphere – An approximately 80-km thick region of rigid, relatively light rocks that surround Earth’s plastic mantle.
• Non-renewable energy – Energy sources that are present on Earth in finite quantities, so as it is used, its future stocks are diminished.
• Nutrient cycles – The transfers, chemical transformations, and recycling of nutrients.
• Pollution – The exposure of organisms to chemicals or energy in quantities that exceed their tolerance, causing toxicity or other ecological damages.
• Population growth – When the birth rate plus immigration exceeds the death rate plus emigration.
• Renewable energy – Energy sources that can regenerate after harvesting and potentially can be exploited forever.
• Sustainability – Maintaining the current resources without diminishing the availability of resources for future generations.

González-González, R. B., Sharma, P., Pratap Singh, S., Pinê Américo-Pinheiro, J. H., Parra-Saldívar, R., Bilal, M., and H. Iqbal. (2022). Persistence, environmental hazards, and mitigation of pharmaceutically active residual contaminants from water matrices. Science of the Total Environment, 821 . https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.153329

Theis, T., and J. Tomkins (Eds.)  Environmental Science.  OpenStax. Available via Internet Archive.

Zehnder, C., Manoylov, K., Mutiti, S., Mutiti, C., VandeVoort, A., and D. Bennett. (2018). Introduction to Environmental Science (2nd ed.). University System of Georgia. Available via the Open Textbook Library .

Recommended Reading

Biodiversity Heritage Library

Diversity and Biological Balance

Energy and the Environment

Media Attributions

• EPA in Stream © Eric Vance, EPA is licensed under a Public Domain license
• 5637745193_718b4940e3_o
• Environmental Studies Flower © Bill Freedman is licensed under a CC BY-NC (Attribution NonCommercial) license
• 1200px-Earth-crust-cutaway-english.svg
• Coal © Jeffrey Beall is licensed under a CC BY-SA (Attribution ShareAlike) license
• Honda Fit EV at a public charging station in front of San Franci © Mario Duran-Ortiz is licensed under a CC BY-SA (Attribution ShareAlike) license
• Animal_agriculture_is_the_leading_cause_of_global_warming._(23126879740) © Alisdare Hickson is licensed under a CC BY-SA (Attribution ShareAlike) license
• Burgeoning corn crop, East Carroll Parish, LA © Billy Hathorn is licensed under a CC BY (Attribution) license
• Louisiana cattle © Jeremiah Wells is licensed under a CC BY (Attribution) license

Encompassing a wide diversity of kinds of knowledge.

An approximately 80-km thick region of rigid, relatively light rocks that surround Earth's plastic mantle.

The parts of the planet that contain water, including the oceans, atmosphere, land, surface waterbodies, underground, and organisms.

The exposure of organisms to chemicals or energy in quantities that exceed their tolerance, causing toxicity or other ecological damages.

When the birth rate plus immigration exceeds the death rate plus emigration.

Energy sources that are present on Earth in finite quantities, so as it is used, its future stocks are diminished.

Energy sources that can regenerate after harvesting, and potentially can be exploited forever.

Maintaining the current resources without diminishing the availability of resources for future generations.

Refers to the transfers, chemical transformations, and recycling of nutrients.

Pollution caused by chemical, physical, or biological agents in water, soil, and air causes acute or chronic diseases or harm to human health or even death of living beings including humans.

are nonliving factors present in or impacting the environment.

Occurring as a result of a human influence.

The heating of the earth's surface is believed to be caused by human behaviors that emit fossil fuels and trap gas in the atmosphere.

Long-term changes in air, soil, or water temperature; precipitation regimes; wind speed; or other climate-related factors.

Environmental Science Copyright © 2024 by LOUIS: The Louisiana Library Network is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Home — Application Essay — Science School — Environmental Science: A Journey towards Sustainable Solutions

Environmental Science: A Journey towards Sustainable Solutions

• University: Cornell University

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Published: Feb 15, 2024

Words: 590 | Pages: 1 | 3 min read

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Fascination with environmental science, pursuing environmental science at cornell university, extracurricular involvement and academic goals.

I developed a deep passion for environmental science and sustainability. This interest began as a simple curiosity about the natural world around me, but has since grown into a commitment to make a positive impact on the planet. I am eager to pursue this academic interest at Cornell University, as it offers a diverse range of programs and resources that align perfectly with my goals.

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My fascination with environmental science blossomed during my sophomore year of high school when I took an introductory biology class. From learning about ecosystems and the delicate balance of nature, to studying the impact of human actions on the environment, I was captivated by the complexity of our planet and the urgent need for sustainable practices. This initial fascination led me to enroll in additional science courses, such as chemistry and environmental studies, which further fueled my passion.

What truly fascinates me about environmental science is not just the science behind it, but also the potential to create positive change. I am particularly interested in finding innovative solutions to pressing environmental issues, such as climate change and pollution. I strongly believe that through scientific research and interdisciplinary collaboration, we can develop sustainable practices and technologies that will help preserve the planet for future generations.

At Cornell University, I plan to pursue a major in Environmental Science and Sustainability. The College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, which houses the Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, offers an outstanding program in this field. I am excited about the opportunity to immerse myself in a comprehensive curriculum that covers both the scientific and policy aspects of environmental issues.

In addition to the academic courses offered, Cornell University provides numerous opportunities for hands-on research experiences. I am particularly interested in joining the Environmental Science and Sustainability Research Lab, where I can work closely with faculty and fellow students to conduct research that has a direct impact on environmental conservation. This hands-on experience will allow me to develop invaluable skills in data analysis, fieldwork, and problem-solving, while also contributing to the pursuit of knowledge in the field.

Furthermore, Cornell's commitment to interdisciplinary learning and collaboration is another aspect that attracts me to the university. The Atkinson Center for a Sustainable Future, for example, brings together experts from various disciplines to address global sustainability challenges. Through their diverse research initiatives and collaborative projects, I see great potential for cross-pollination of ideas and innovative solutions. I am eager to participate in this vibrant academic community and contribute to the ongoing efforts towards a sustainable future.

Beyond the classroom and research opportunities, Cornell University offers a wide range of extracurricular activities and organizations that align with my academic goals. I am particularly interested in joining the Sustainable Cornell Club, where I can engage in discussions and initiatives focused on sustainable practices within the university and the local community. Additionally, the Environmental Studies Program hosts regular guest lectures and workshops, providing valuable opportunities to learn from experts in the field and expand my knowledge beyond the classroom.

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Overall, Cornell University is the perfect academic environment for me to pursue my passion for environmental science and sustainability. The comprehensive curriculum, hands-on research opportunities, and interdisciplinary approach align perfectly with my academic goals. I am excited about the potential to contribute to the field through research, collaboration, and active involvement in extracurricular activities. I am confident that Cornell will provide me with the knowledge, skills, and resources necessary to make a positive impact on the environment and fulfill my academic ambitions.

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Environmental Issues Essay for Students and Children

500+ words essay on environmental issues.

The environment plays a significant role to support life on earth. But there are some issues that are causing damages to life and the ecosystem of the earth. It is related to the not only environment but with everyone that lives on the planet. Besides, its main source is pollution , global warming, greenhouse gas , and many others. The everyday activities of human are constantly degrading the quality of the environment which ultimately results in the loss of survival condition from the earth.

Source of Environment Issue

There are hundreds of issue that causing damage to the environment. But in this, we are going to discuss the main causes of environmental issues because they are very dangerous to life and the ecosystem.

Pollution – It is one of the main causes of an environmental issue because it poisons the air , water , soil , and noise. As we know that in the past few decades the numbers of industries have rapidly increased. Moreover, these industries discharge their untreated waste into the water bodies, on soil, and in air. Most of these wastes contain harmful and poisonous materials that spread very easily because of the movement of water bodies and wind.

Greenhouse Gases – These are the gases which are responsible for the increase in the temperature of the earth surface. This gases directly relates to air pollution because of the pollution produced by the vehicle and factories which contains a toxic chemical that harms the life and environment of earth.

Climate Changes – Due to environmental issue the climate is changing rapidly and things like smog, acid rains are getting common. Also, the number of natural calamities is also increasing and almost every year there is flood, famine, drought , landslides, earthquakes, and many more calamities are increasing.

Above all, human being and their greed for more is the ultimate cause of all the environmental issue.

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How to Minimize Environment Issue?

Now we know the major issues which are causing damage to the environment. So, now we can discuss the ways by which we can save our environment. For doing so we have to take some measures that will help us in fighting environmental issues .

Moreover, these issues will not only save the environment but also save the life and ecosystem of the planet. Some of the ways of minimizing environmental threat are discussed below:

Reforestation – It will not only help in maintaining the balance of the ecosystem but also help in restoring the natural cycles that work with it. Also, it will help in recharge of groundwater, maintaining the monsoon cycle , decreasing the number of carbons from the air, and many more.

The 3 R’s principle – For contributing to the environment one should have to use the 3 R’s principle that is Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle. Moreover, it helps the environment in a lot of ways.

To conclude, we can say that humans are a major source of environmental issues. Likewise, our activities are the major reason that the level of harmful gases and pollutants have increased in the environment. But now the humans have taken this problem seriously and now working to eradicate it. Above all, if all humans contribute equally to the environment then this issue can be fight backed. The natural balance can once again be restored.

FAQs about Environmental Issue

Q.1 Name the major environmental issues. A.1 The major environmental issues are pollution, environmental degradation, resource depletion, and climate change. Besides, there are several other environmental issues that also need attention.

Q.2 What is the cause of environmental change? A.2 Human activities are the main cause of environmental change. Moreover, due to our activities, the amount of greenhouse gases has rapidly increased over the past few decades.

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Environmental sciences articles from across Nature Portfolio

Environmental science is the multidisciplinary study of all aspects of the Earth’s physical and biological environments. It encompasses environmental chemistry, soil science, ecology, climatology, vegetation cover, marine and freshwater systems, as well as environmental remediation and preservation, and agriculture and land use.

Contribution of fragmented croplands

Cropland fragmentation poses a significant threat to agricultural sustainability in China. Rational crop layout is required for different ecological regions to manage the fragmented croplands.

• Xiaolong Wang

Towards a nutritional balance of fish for feed and fish for food

Wild forage fish can provide nutrients essential for human health, yet some nutrients may be lost when forage fish are used as aquafeeds. Reallocating a third of food-grade forage fish towards direct human consumption can optimize seafood systems to deliver dietary nutrients for feed and food at different scales.

• Richard S. Cottrell

Drought-fuelled overnight burning propels large fires in North America

Burning events that occur at night have been revealed as a driver of large wildfires. Prolonged drought conditions are to blame, making it easier for fires to spread at night when they would ordinarily slow or extinguish completely.

• Jennifer K. Balch
• Adam L. Mahood

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Effect of solution ions on the charge and performance of nanofiltration membranes

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Domestic wastewater treatment by Pistia stratiotes in constructed wetland

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The ‘anthropocene’ is here to stay — and it’s better not as a geological epoch.

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• Alastair Ruffell

The increasing potential and challenges of digital twins

This issue of Nature Computational Science includes a Focus that highlights recent advancements, challenges, and opportunities in the development and use of digital twins across different domains.

Deep-sea mining plans should not be rushed

Why are companies and governments determined to start commercial-scale mining for rare metals, when so little is known about its wider impacts?

‘Exhausted and insulted’: how harsh visa-application policies are hobbling global research

Institutions and individuals from low- and middle-income countries are wasting time, effort and money trying to get visas for research travel, only to be rejected. A new approach is needed.

• Sandra Owusu-Gyamfi

Digital twins of Earth and the computing challenge of human interaction

Digital twins of Earth have the capability to offer versatile access to detailed information on our changing world, helping societies to adapt to climate change and to manage the effects of local impacts, globally. Nevertheless, human interaction with digital twins requires advances in computational science, particularly where complex geophysical data is turned into information to support decision making.

• Peter Bauer
• Torsten Hoefler
• Wilco Hazeleger

Estella Bergere Leopold (1927–2024), passionate environmentalist who traced changing ecosystems

The trailblazing palaeobotanist investigated how climate change affected Earth in the past — and firmly believed science should be used in its defence now.

• Cathy Whitlock

Quick links

• Explore articles by subject
• Guide to authors
• Editorial policies

Research Topics & Ideas: Environment

100+ Environmental Science Research Topics & Ideas

Finding and choosing a strong research topic is the critical first step when it comes to crafting a high-quality dissertation, thesis or research project. Here, we’ll explore a variety research ideas and topic thought-starters related to various environmental science disciplines, including ecology, oceanography, hydrology, geology, soil science, environmental chemistry, environmental economics, and environmental ethics.

NB – This is just the start…

The topic ideation and evaluation process has multiple steps . In this post, we’ll kickstart the process by sharing some research topic ideas within the environmental sciences. This is the starting point though. To develop a well-defined research topic, you’ll need to identify a clear and convincing research gap , along with a well-justified plan of action to fill that gap.

If you’re new to the oftentimes perplexing world of research, or if this is your first time undertaking a formal academic research project, be sure to check out our free dissertation mini-course. Also be sure to also sign up for our free webinar that explores how to develop a high-quality research topic from scratch.

Overview: Environmental Topics

• Ecology /ecological science
• Atmospheric science
• Oceanography
• Soil science
• Environmental chemistry
• Environmental economics
• Environmental ethics
• Examples  of dissertations and theses

Topics & Ideas: Ecological Science

• The impact of land-use change on species diversity and ecosystem functioning in agricultural landscapes
• The role of disturbances such as fire and drought in shaping arid ecosystems
• The impact of climate change on the distribution of migratory marine species
• Investigating the role of mutualistic plant-insect relationships in maintaining ecosystem stability
• The effects of invasive plant species on ecosystem structure and function
• The impact of habitat fragmentation caused by road construction on species diversity and population dynamics in the tropics
• The role of ecosystem services in urban areas and their economic value to a developing nation
• The effectiveness of different grassland restoration techniques in degraded ecosystems
• The impact of land-use change through agriculture and urbanisation on soil microbial communities in a temperate environment
• The role of microbial diversity in ecosystem health and nutrient cycling in an African savannah

Topics & Ideas: Atmospheric Science

• The impact of climate change on atmospheric circulation patterns above tropical rainforests
• The role of atmospheric aerosols in cloud formation and precipitation above cities with high pollution levels
• The impact of agricultural land-use change on global atmospheric composition
• Investigating the role of atmospheric convection in severe weather events in the tropics
• The impact of urbanisation on regional and global atmospheric ozone levels
• The impact of sea surface temperature on atmospheric circulation and tropical cyclones
• The impact of solar flares on the Earth’s atmospheric composition
• The impact of climate change on atmospheric turbulence and air transportation safety
• The impact of stratospheric ozone depletion on atmospheric circulation and climate change
• The role of atmospheric rivers in global water supply and sea-ice formation

Topics & Ideas: Oceanography

• The impact of ocean acidification on kelp forests and biogeochemical cycles
• The role of ocean currents in distributing heat and regulating desert rain
• The impact of carbon monoxide pollution on ocean chemistry and biogeochemical cycles
• Investigating the role of ocean mixing in regulating coastal climates
• The impact of sea level rise on the resource availability of low-income coastal communities
• The impact of ocean warming on the distribution and migration patterns of marine mammals
• The impact of ocean deoxygenation on biogeochemical cycles in the arctic
• The role of ocean-atmosphere interactions in regulating rainfall in arid regions
• The impact of ocean eddies on global ocean circulation and plankton distribution
• The role of ocean-ice interactions in regulating the Earth’s climate and sea level

Tops & Ideas: Hydrology

• The impact of agricultural land-use change on water resources and hydrologic cycles in temperate regions
• The impact of agricultural groundwater availability on irrigation practices in the global south
• The impact of rising sea-surface temperatures on global precipitation patterns and water availability
• Investigating the role of wetlands in regulating water resources for riparian forests
• The impact of tropical ranches on river and stream ecosystems and water quality
• The impact of urbanisation on regional and local hydrologic cycles and water resources for agriculture
• The role of snow cover and mountain hydrology in regulating regional agricultural water resources
• The impact of drought on food security in arid and semi-arid regions
• The role of groundwater recharge in sustaining water resources in arid and semi-arid environments
• The impact of sea level rise on coastal hydrology and the quality of water resources

Topics & Ideas: Geology

• The impact of tectonic activity on the East African rift valley
• The role of mineral deposits in shaping ancient human societies
• The impact of sea-level rise on coastal geomorphology and shoreline evolution
• Investigating the role of erosion in shaping the landscape and impacting desertification
• The impact of mining on soil stability and landslide potential
• The impact of volcanic activity on incoming solar radiation and climate
• The role of geothermal energy in decarbonising the energy mix of megacities
• The impact of Earth’s magnetic field on geological processes and solar wind
• The impact of plate tectonics on the evolution of mammals
• The role of the distribution of mineral resources in shaping human societies and economies, with emphasis on sustainability

Topics & Ideas: Soil Science

• The impact of dam building on soil quality and fertility
• The role of soil organic matter in regulating nutrient cycles in agricultural land
• The impact of climate change on soil erosion and soil organic carbon storage in peatlands
• Investigating the role of above-below-ground interactions in nutrient cycling and soil health
• The impact of deforestation on soil degradation and soil fertility
• The role of soil texture and structure in regulating water and nutrient availability in boreal forests
• The impact of sustainable land management practices on soil health and soil organic matter
• The impact of wetland modification on soil structure and function
• The role of soil-atmosphere exchange and carbon sequestration in regulating regional and global climate
• The impact of salinization on soil health and crop productivity in coastal communities

Topics & Ideas: Environmental Chemistry

• The impact of cobalt mining on water quality and the fate of contaminants in the environment
• The role of atmospheric chemistry in shaping air quality and climate change
• The impact of soil chemistry on nutrient availability and plant growth in wheat monoculture
• Investigating the fate and transport of heavy metal contaminants in the environment
• The impact of climate change on biochemical cycling in tropical rainforests
• The impact of various types of land-use change on biochemical cycling
• The role of soil microbes in mediating contaminant degradation in the environment
• The impact of chemical and oil spills on freshwater and soil chemistry
• The role of atmospheric nitrogen deposition in shaping water and soil chemistry
• The impact of over-irrigation on the cycling and fate of persistent organic pollutants in the environment

Topics & Ideas: Environmental Economics

• The impact of climate change on the economies of developing nations
• The role of market-based mechanisms in promoting sustainable use of forest resources
• The impact of environmental regulations on economic growth and competitiveness
• Investigating the economic benefits and costs of ecosystem services for African countries
• The impact of renewable energy policies on regional and global energy markets
• The role of water markets in promoting sustainable water use in southern Africa
• The impact of land-use change in rural areas on regional and global economies
• The impact of environmental disasters on local and national economies
• The role of green technologies and innovation in shaping the zero-carbon transition and the knock-on effects for local economies
• The impact of environmental and natural resource policies on income distribution and poverty of rural communities

Topics & Ideas: Environmental Ethics

• The ethical foundations of environmentalism and the environmental movement regarding renewable energy
• The role of values and ethics in shaping environmental policy and decision-making in the mining industry
• The impact of cultural and religious beliefs on environmental attitudes and behaviours in first world countries
• Investigating the ethics of biodiversity conservation and the protection of endangered species in palm oil plantations
• The ethical implications of sea-level rise for future generations and vulnerable coastal populations
• The role of ethical considerations in shaping sustainable use of natural forest resources
• The impact of environmental justice on marginalized communities and environmental policies in Asia
• The ethical implications of environmental risks and decision-making under uncertainty
• The role of ethics in shaping the transition to a low-carbon, sustainable future for the construction industry
• The impact of environmental values on consumer behaviour and the marketplace: a case study of the ‘bring your own shopping bag’ policy

Examples: Real Dissertation & Thesis Topics

While the ideas we’ve presented above are a decent starting point for finding a research topic, they are fairly generic and non-specific. So, it helps to look at actual dissertations and theses to see how this all comes together.

Below, we’ve included a selection of research projects from various environmental science-related degree programs to help refine your thinking. These are actual dissertations and theses, written as part of Master’s and PhD-level programs, so they can provide some useful insight as to what a research topic looks like in practice.

• The physiology of microorganisms in enhanced biological phosphorous removal (Saunders, 2014)
• The influence of the coastal front on heavy rainfall events along the east coast (Henson, 2019)
• Forage production and diversification for climate-smart tropical and temperate silvopastures (Dibala, 2019)
• Advancing spectral induced polarization for near surface geophysical characterization (Wang, 2021)
• Assessment of Chromophoric Dissolved Organic Matter and Thamnocephalus platyurus as Tools to Monitor Cyanobacterial Bloom Development and Toxicity (Hipsher, 2019)
• Evaluating the Removal of Microcystin Variants with Powdered Activated Carbon (Juang, 2020)
• The effect of hydrological restoration on nutrient concentrations, macroinvertebrate communities, and amphibian populations in Lake Erie coastal wetlands (Berg, 2019)
• Utilizing hydrologic soil grouping to estimate corn nitrogen rate recommendations (Bean, 2019)
• Fungal Function in House Dust and Dust from the International Space Station (Bope, 2021)
• Assessing Vulnerability and the Potential for Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA) in Sudan’s Blue Nile Basin (Mohamed, 2022)
• A Microbial Water Quality Analysis of the Recreational Zones in the Los Angeles River of Elysian Valley, CA (Nguyen, 2019)
• Dry Season Water Quality Study on Three Recreational Sites in the San Gabriel Mountains (Vallejo, 2019)
• Wastewater Treatment Plan for Unix Packaging Adjustment of the Potential Hydrogen (PH) Evaluation of Enzymatic Activity After the Addition of Cycle Disgestase Enzyme (Miessi, 2020)
• Laying the Genetic Foundation for the Conservation of Longhorn Fairy Shrimp (Kyle, 2021).

Looking at these titles, you can probably pick up that the research topics here are quite specific and narrowly-focused , compared to the generic ones presented earlier. To create a top-notch research topic, you will need to be precise and target a specific context with specific variables of interest . In other words, you’ll need to identify a clear, well-justified research gap.

Need more help?

If you’re still feeling a bit unsure about how to find a research topic for your environmental science dissertation or research project, be sure to check out our private coaching services below, as well as our Research Topic Kickstarter .

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US IB Environmental Systems and Societies: ESS Extended Essay

• ESS Extended Essay
• Criterion Overview
• Criterion A: Focus and method
• Criterion B: Knowledge and Understanding
• Criterion C: Critical thinking
• Criterion D: Presentation
• Criterion E: Engagement

B: Knowledge and understanding

This criterion assesses the extent to which the research relates to the subject area/discipline used to explore the research question; or in the case of the world studies extended essay, the issue addressed and the two disciplinary perspectives applied; and additionally, the way in which this knowledge and understanding is demonstrated through the use of appropriate terminology and concepts.

• Have you explained how your research question relates to a specific subject you selected for the extended essay?
• Have you used relevant terminology and concepts throughout your essay as they relate to your particular area of research?
• Is it clear that the sources you are using are relevant and appropriate to your research question?
• Do you have a range of sources, or have you only relied on one particular type, for example internet sources?
• Is there a reason why you might not have a range? Is this justified?

C: Critical thinking

This criterion assesses the extent to which critical thinking skills have been used to analyze and evaluate the research undertaken.

• Have you made links between your results and data collected and your research question?
• If you included data or information that is not directly related to your research question have you explained its importance?
• Are your conclusions supported by your data?
• If you found unexpected information or data have you discussed its importance?
• Have you provided a critical evaluation of the methods you selected?
• Have you considered the reliability of your sources (peer-reviewed journals, internet, and so on)?
• Have you mentioned and evaluated the significance of possible errors that may have occurred in your research?
• Are all your suggestions of errors or improvements relevant?
• Have you evaluated your research question?
• Have you compared your results or findings with any other sources?
• Is there an argument that is clear and easy to follow and directly linked to answering your research question, and which is supported by evidence?

D: Presentation

This criterion assesses the extent to which the presentation follows the standard format expected for academic writing and the extent to which this aids effective communication.

• Have you read and understood the presentation requirements of the extended essay?
• Have you chosen a font that will be easy for examiners to read on-screen?
• Is your essay double-spaced and size 12 font?
• Are the title and research question mentioned on the cover page?
• Are all pages numbered?
• Have you prepared a correct table of contents?
• Do the page numbers in the table of contents match the page numbers in the text?
• Is your essay subdivided into correct sub-sections, if this is applicable to the subject?
• Are all figures and tables properly numbered and labelled?
• Does your bibliography contain only the sources cited in the text?
• Did you use the same reference system throughout the essay?
• Does the essay have less than 4,000 words?
• Is all the material presented in the appendices relevant and necessary?
• Have you proofread the text for spelling or grammar errors?

E. Engagement

This criterion assesses the student’s engagement with their research focus and the research process. It will be applied by the examiner at the end of the assessment of the essay, after considering the students RPPF.

• Have you demonstrated your engagement with your research topic and the research process?
• Have you highlighted challenges you faced and how you overcame them?
• Will the examiner get a sense of your intellectual and skills development?
• Will the examiner get a sense of your creativity and intellectual initiative?
• Will the examiner get a sense of how you responded to actions and ideas in the research process?
• IB ESS Extended Essay Guide
• World Studies Extended Essay Guide
• World Studies
• Example A: Turtle Conservation
• Example A: Marks
• Example B: Economics of Wolves
• Example B Marks
• Example A: Wildlife Trafficking in China

Using the systems approach

The systems approach is a central theme in ESS. The essay should include an attempt to model, at least partially, the system or systems in question.

The term “model” in this context includes, for example:

• mathematical formulas
• graphical representations
• flow diagrams

Students should use  ESS terminology , where appropriate.

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