how critical thinking affect decision making

• Skip to primary navigation
• Skip to main content
• Skip to primary sidebar
• Skip to footer

Global Cognition

Critical thinking in decision making.

by Winston Sieck updated September 12, 2021

Critical thinking is often talked about as a stand-alone activity. Like some other individual activities, thinking critically may just feel good. Yet, critical thinking seems most useful when it aids other cognitive processes, such as applying critical thinking in decision making.

Anne Helsdingen from the Open University of the Netherlands and her colleagues studied an interesting issue about critical thinking in decision making. They wanted to know whether teaching critical thinking skills can improve judgment and decision making in general.

Helsdingen and her team define critical thinking as reasoned thinking with a purpose. They also describe some core critical thinking skills and abilities, such as being able to:

• Appreciate that your own opinions may be wrong
• Accept statements as true even when they conflict with your own views
• Temporarily adopt an initial position with which you disagree, and then reason from that starting point

A challenge, according to these researchers, is how to teach skills for critical thinking in decision making so that they transfer to new decision making problems. Transfer means being able to apply what you have learned to new tasks or new situations.

To tackle this problem, they start with a useful cognitive model of how decisions are made . Numerous researchers have worked with similar versions of the model of the years. One version is called “explanation-based decision making,” or the “story model.”

The idea is that people encounter situations. When they do, they recognize important parts of the situation from past experience. They then create a story (or explanation) about what’s going on and what will happen. They make decisions based on their story, and how things have turned out in similar stories past.

A problem with making decisions this way is that our stories tend to be less complete than we think – a failure of metacognition. We also overlook inconsistent details because we’re sucked in by the good story. According to Helsdingen, we might improve our intuitive approach by bringing critical thinking in the decision making process.

The researchers tested a method for including critical thinking in decision making. First, they explained the story model of decision making. Then, they prompted the learners to reflect on their story and thinking critically about it. Some of the questions they included to prompt critical thinking were:

• Do you have all the necessary information?
• Is there any conflict in the evidence?
• The devil’s advocate tells you that your story is wrong. Make up an alternative story. Is it more plausible than the original?

The students in the study read through cases about crimes that had been committed. Their job was to decide on the priority of each case for the police. They got feedback, so they could learn what makes cases more important in police work.

Some of the students received the critical thinking skills training while making these decisions. Others did not.

How well they made these crime decisions was not the most important thing, though. The main thing was how well they would do in a different situation after learning about critical thinking in decision making. That is, would their new skills transfer?

The researchers tested for transfer by having the students make different decisions about traffic offenses. The overall results suggested that the training on how to include critical thinking in decision making was effective. The benefits did transfer to the new decision making task.

As you come across decisions that you need to make, pay some attention to the stories you are telling yourself in the process. Use some of the ideas above and other critical thinking skills to improve your story and decision. Writing is also an excellent strategy for making good decisions . It may seem like a bit of extra work at first, but with practice will become more natural for your future decisions.

Image Credit:  Critical thinking asylum

Helsdingen, A., van Gog, T., & van Merriënboer, J. (2011). The effects of practice schedule and critical thinking prompts on learning and transfer of a complex judgment task. Journal of Educational Psychology, 103 (2), 383-398 DOI: 10.1037/a0022370

About Winston Sieck

Dr. Winston Sieck is a cognitive psychologist working to advance the development of thinking skills. He is founder and president of Global Cognition, and director of Thinker Academy .

Reader Interactions

January 13, 2013 at 6:36 pm

Thanks for sharing this research and the ‘story’. We are often asked whether you can learn to be a better critical thinker – I wouldn’t be teaching it if I didn’t believe it to be the case! But it helps to have research to support this belief.

Our work is focused on critical thinking in organizational, workplace settings with all sorts of employees, including managers and executives. My experience is pretty similar to that you gave in the case; in the moment, on a particular case, the ‘decision’ may not be improved.

As the researchers and you point out, the proof is in the pudding. Can people learn and apply simple critical thinking techniques, consistently and effectively, and, does this lead to better outcomes?

We find that it can be overwhelming to try to teach too much at a clip. We boil it down to simple questions, job aids, and worksheets that can help people – especially people working on teams – to establish a common vocabulary, and create an environment that reinforces critical thinking rather than viewing it as generating conflict and controversy.

February 21, 2014 at 4:02 am

I am interested in teaching critical thinking skills to Law Enforcement, specifically to a group of people age 14 to 18 who are interested in pursuing a Law Enforcement Career (The Police Explorer Program) but then later to already established officers.

A law enforcement officer (LEO) is called upon to make decisions and wield power which effect others lives, and they are often required to do this on the spot, with a limited amount of time and information available. They make these decisions every day and I am looking for ways to sharpen their skills and help them make the best decisions possible with the information they have on hand.

I couldn’t help but notice that this study happened to be centered on LEO scenarios. I was wondering if I could adapt this study to a class for young people. Any thoughts?

Also, how could I get the specifics of this study, to include the specific scenarios used?

February 21, 2014 at 9:34 am

That sounds really interesting, Eric. I contacted Anne Helsdingen on your behalf, and shared your contact information with her.

February 28, 2016 at 11:40 pm

For the last five years I have taught CT to serving LEOs, although only slowly at first; it is a sharp departure from traditional police training. While new theories come out on how to fix a profession currently under enormous pressure, many of them have been around for 10 or 20 years whereas CT has been developed over at least 25 centuries. I would be happy to share my work and experiences to to hear of others’ work too.

• Save Your Ammo
• Publications

GC Blog Topics

• Culture & Communication
• Thinking & Deciding
• Learning Skills
• Learning Science

Online Courses

• Thinker Academy
• Study Skills Course
• For Parents
• For Teachers

• SUGGESTED TOPICS
• The Magazine
• Newsletters
• Managing Yourself
• Managing Teams
• Work-life Balance
• The Big Idea
• Data & Visuals
• Reading Lists
• Case Selections
• HBR Learning
• Topic Feeds
• Account Settings
• Email Preferences

How to Make Great Decisions, Quickly

• Martin G. Moore

It’s a skill that will set you apart.

As a new leader, learning to make good decisions without hesitation and procrastination is a capability that can set you apart from your peers. While others vacillate on tricky choices, your team could be hitting deadlines and producing the type of results that deliver true value. That’s something that will get you — and them — noticed. Here are a few of a great decision:

• Great decisions are shaped by consideration of many different viewpoints. This doesn’t mean you should seek out everyone’s opinion. The right people with the relevant expertise need to clearly articulate their views to help you broaden your perspective and make the best choice.
• Great decisions are made as close as possible to the action. Remember that the most powerful people at your company are rarely on the ground doing the hands-on work. Seek input and guidance from team members who are closest to the action.
• Great decisions address the root cause, not just the symptoms. Although you may need to urgently address the symptoms, once this is done you should always develop a plan to fix the root cause, or else the problem is likely to repeat itself.
• Great decisions balance short-term and long-term value. Finding the right balance between short-term and long-term risks and considerations is key to unlocking true value.
• Great decisions are timely. If you consider all of the elements listed above, then it’s simply a matter of addressing each one with a heightened sense of urgency.

Where your work meets your life. See more from Ascend here .

Like many young leaders, early in my career, I thought a great decision was one that attracted widespread approval. When my colleagues smiled and nodded their collective heads, it reinforced (in my mind, at least) that I was an excellent decision maker.

• MM Martin G. Moore is the founder of Your CEO Mentor and author of No Bullsh!t Leadership and host of the No Bullsh!t Leadership podcast. His purpose is to improve the quality of leaders globally through practical, real world leadership content. For more information, please visit, www.martingmoore.com.

Partner Center

Tips for Online Students , Tips for Students

Why Is Critical Thinking Important? A Survival Guide

Why is critical thinking important? The decisions that you make affect your quality of life. And if you want to ensure that you live your best, most successful and happy life, you’re going to want to make conscious choices. That can be done with a simple thing known as critical thinking. Here’s how to improve your critical thinking skills and make decisions that you won’t regret.

What Is Critical Thinking?

You’ve surely heard of critical thinking, but you might not be entirely sure what it really means, and that’s because there are many definitions. For the most part, however, we think of critical thinking as the process of analyzing facts in order to form a judgment. Basically, it’s thinking about thinking.

How Has The Definition Evolved Over Time?

The first time critical thinking was documented is believed to be in the teachings of Socrates , recorded by Plato. But throughout history, the definition has changed.

Today it is best understood by philosophers and psychologists and it’s believed to be a highly complex concept. Some insightful modern-day critical thinking definitions include :

• “Reasonable, reflective thinking that is focused on deciding what to believe or do.”
• “Deciding what’s true and what you should do.”

The Importance Of Critical Thinking

Why is critical thinking important? Good question! Here are a few undeniable reasons why it’s crucial to have these skills.

1. Critical Thinking Is Universal

Critical thinking is a domain-general thinking skill. What does this mean? It means that no matter what path or profession you pursue, these skills will always be relevant and will always be beneficial to your success. They are not specific to any field.

2. Crucial For The Economy

Our future depends on technology, information, and innovation. Critical thinking is needed for our fast-growing economies, to solve problems as quickly and as effectively as possible.

3. Improves Language & Presentation Skills

In order to best express ourselves, we need to know how to think clearly and systematically — meaning practice critical thinking! Critical thinking also means knowing how to break down texts, and in turn, improve our ability to comprehend.

4. Promotes Creativity

By practicing critical thinking, we are allowing ourselves not only to solve problems but also to come up with new and creative ideas to do so. Critical thinking allows us to analyze these ideas and adjust them accordingly.

5. Important For Self-Reflection

Without critical thinking, how can we really live a meaningful life? We need this skill to self-reflect and justify our ways of life and opinions. Critical thinking provides us with the tools to evaluate ourselves in the way that we need to.

6. The Basis Of Science & Democracy

In order to have a democracy and to prove scientific facts, we need critical thinking in the world. Theories must be backed up with knowledge. In order for a society to effectively function, its citizens need to establish opinions about what’s right and wrong (by using critical thinking!).

Benefits Of Critical Thinking

We know that critical thinking is good for society as a whole, but what are some benefits of critical thinking on an individual level? Why is critical thinking important for us?

1. Key For Career Success

Critical thinking is crucial for many career paths. Not just for scientists, but lawyers , doctors, reporters, engineers , accountants, and analysts (among many others) all have to use critical thinking in their positions. In fact, according to the World Economic Forum, critical thinking is one of the most desirable skills to have in the workforce, as it helps analyze information, think outside the box, solve problems with innovative solutions, and plan systematically.

2. Better Decision Making

There’s no doubt about it — critical thinkers make the best choices. Critical thinking helps us deal with everyday problems as they come our way, and very often this thought process is even done subconsciously. It helps us think independently and trust our gut feeling.

3. Can Make You Happier!

While this often goes unnoticed, being in touch with yourself and having a deep understanding of why you think the way you think can really make you happier. Critical thinking can help you better understand yourself, and in turn, help you avoid any kind of negative or limiting beliefs, and focus more on your strengths. Being able to share your thoughts can increase your quality of life.

4. Form Well-Informed Opinions

There is no shortage of information coming at us from all angles. And that’s exactly why we need to use our critical thinking skills and decide for ourselves what to believe. Critical thinking allows us to ensure that our opinions are based on the facts, and help us sort through all that extra noise.

5. Better Citizens

One of the most inspiring critical thinking quotes is by former US president Thomas Jefferson: “An educated citizenry is a vital requisite for our survival as a free people.” What Jefferson is stressing to us here is that critical thinkers make better citizens, as they are able to see the entire picture without getting sucked into biases and propaganda.

6. Improves Relationships

While you may be convinced that being a critical thinker is bound to cause you problems in relationships, this really couldn’t be less true! Being a critical thinker can allow you to better understand the perspective of others, and can help you become more open-minded towards different views.

7. Promotes Curiosity

Critical thinkers are constantly curious about all kinds of things in life, and tend to have a wide range of interests. Critical thinking means constantly asking questions and wanting to know more, about why, what, who, where, when, and everything else that can help them make sense of a situation or concept, never taking anything at face value.

8. Allows For Creativity

Critical thinkers are also highly creative thinkers, and see themselves as limitless when it comes to possibilities. They are constantly looking to take things further, which is crucial in the workforce.

9. Enhances Problem Solving Skills

Those with critical thinking skills tend to solve problems as part of their natural instinct. Critical thinkers are patient and committed to solving the problem, similar to Albert Einstein, one of the best critical thinking examples, who said “It’s not that I’m so smart; it’s just that I stay with problems longer.” Critical thinkers’ enhanced problem-solving skills makes them better at their jobs and better at solving the world’s biggest problems. Like Einstein, they have the potential to literally change the world.

10. An Activity For The Mind

Just like our muscles, in order for them to be strong, our mind also needs to be exercised and challenged. It’s safe to say that critical thinking is almost like an activity for the mind — and it needs to be practiced. Critical thinking encourages the development of many crucial skills such as logical thinking, decision making, and open-mindness.

11. Creates Independence

When we think critically, we think on our own as we trust ourselves more. Critical thinking is key to creating independence, and encouraging students to make their own decisions and form their own opinions.

12. Crucial Life Skill

Critical thinking is crucial not just for learning, but for life overall! Education isn’t just a way to prepare ourselves for life, but it’s pretty much life itself. Learning is a lifelong process that we go through each and every day.

How to Think Critically

Now that you know the benefits of thinking critically, how do you actually do it?

How To Improve Your Critical Thinking

• Define Your Question: When it comes to critical thinking, it’s important to always keep your goal in mind. Know what you’re trying to achieve, and then figure out how to best get there.
• Gather Reliable Information: Make sure that you’re using sources you can trust — biases aside. That’s how a real critical thinker operates!
• Ask The Right Questions: We all know the importance of questions, but be sure that you’re asking the right questions that are going to get you to your answer.
• Look Short & Long Term: When coming up with solutions, think about both the short- and long-term consequences. Both of them are significant in the equation.
• Explore All Sides: There is never just one simple answer, and nothing is black or white. Explore all options and think outside of the box before you come to any conclusions.

How Is Critical Thinking Developed At School?

Critical thinking is developed in nearly everything we do. However, much of this important skill is encouraged to be practiced at school, and rightfully so! Critical thinking goes beyond just thinking clearly — it’s also about thinking for yourself.

When a teacher asks a question in class, students are given the chance to answer for themselves and think critically about what they learned and what they believe to be accurate. When students work in groups and are forced to engage in discussion, this is also a great chance to expand their thinking and use their critical thinking skills.

How Does Critical Thinking Apply To Your Career?

Once you’ve finished school and entered the workforce, your critical thinking journey only expands and grows from here!

Impress Your Employer

Employers value employees who are critical thinkers, ask questions, offer creative ideas, and are always ready to offer innovation against the competition. No matter what your position or role in a company may be, critical thinking will always give you the power to stand out and make a difference.

Careers That Require Critical Thinking

Some of many examples of careers that require critical thinking include:

• Human resources specialist
• Marketing associate
• Business analyst

Truth be told however, it’s probably harder to come up with a professional field that doesn’t require any critical thinking!

Photo by  Oladimeji Ajegbile  from  Pexels

What is someone with critical thinking skills capable of doing.

Someone with critical thinking skills is able to think rationally and clearly about what they should or not believe. They are capable of engaging in their own thoughts, and doing some reflection in order to come to a well-informed conclusion.

A critical thinker understands the connections between ideas, and is able to construct arguments based on facts, as well as find mistakes in reasoning.

The Process Of Critical Thinking

The process of critical thinking is highly systematic.

What Are Your Goals?

Critical thinking starts by defining your goals, and knowing what you are ultimately trying to achieve.

Once you know what you are trying to conclude, you can foresee your solution to the problem and play it out in your head from all perspectives.

What Does The Future Of Critical Thinking Hold?

The future of critical thinking is the equivalent of the future of jobs. In 2020, critical thinking was ranked as the 2nd top skill (following complex problem solving) by the World Economic Forum .

We are dealing with constant unprecedented changes, and what success is today, might not be considered success tomorrow — making critical thinking a key skill for the future workforce.

Why Is Critical Thinking So Important?

Why is critical thinking important? Critical thinking is more than just important! It’s one of the most crucial cognitive skills one can develop.

By practicing well-thought-out thinking, both your thoughts and decisions can make a positive change in your life, on both a professional and personal level. You can hugely improve your life by working on your critical thinking skills as often as you can.

Related Articles

• Get started with computers
• Learn Microsoft Office
• Apply for a job
• Improve my work skills
• Design nice-looking docs
• Getting Started
• Smartphones & Tablets
• Typing Tutorial
• Online Learning
• Basic Internet Skills
• Online Safety
• Social Media
• Zoom Basics
• Google Docs
• Google Sheets
• Career Planning
• Resume Writing
• Cover Letters
• Job Search and Networking
• Business Communication
• Entrepreneurship 101
• Careers without College
• Job Hunt for Today
• 3D Printing
• Freelancing 101
• Personal Finance
• Sharing Economy
• Decision-Making
• Graphic Design
• Photography
• Image Editing
• Learning WordPress
• Language Learning
• Critical Thinking
• For Educators
• Translations
• Staff Picks
• English expand_more expand_less

Critical Thinking and Decision-Making  - Decision-Making Strategies

Critical thinking and decision-making  -, decision-making strategies, critical thinking and decision-making decision-making strategies.

Critical Thinking and Decision-Making: Decision-Making Strategies

Lesson 3: decision-making strategies.

/en/problem-solving-and-decision-making/why-is-it-so-hard-to-make-decisions/content/

How do you usually make decisions?

There are lots of ways to make a decision . For example, you could flip a coin. You could trust your gut and do what you think is right. Or you could avoid thinking about it at all, and just make a choice at random—for better or for worse.

That's probably OK for small decisions, but what about more important ones? It's better to think carefully about your options and consider the many paths you could take.

With the right tools, you can learn to do this objectively , so you can make decisions you feel good about. We're going to cover several strategies that can help.

Watch the video below to learn more about decision-making strategies.

Making decisions objectively

The first step to making any decision is simple: Identify the problem . As an example, say you're trying to choose between two apartments. One is cheaper but farther away from work. The other is closer—and nicer!—but much more expensive.

Which one would you choose? Depending on what you value, you probably have some idea. This initial response, the one tied to your instincts and emotions , is perfectly valid; however, you should also try to look at your options rationally .

Comparing your options

Start by comparing them. There are several ways to do this. For example, you could list all the factors that you're considering—things like price, location, and other amenities—then choose the one thing that's most important to you. With that in mind, which option comes out on top?

Creating a points system

You could go one step further and create a points system . Take that same list and turn it into a scorecard for each option.

In this example, it means the first apartment would score high on affordable rent (let's say a 10), but much lower on location . The other apartment would score about the opposite in the same categories.

Keep going down the list until you've scored every item, being as objective as you can. Then add up the totals, and see if you have a winner.

Identifying pros and cons

Looking at it another way, you could evaluate one option at a time using a list of pros and cons. It sounds simple, but sometimes it helps to write these things down.

This time, it's OK to be subjective —certain factors can and should carry more weight than others. It's how you feel about them that counts, so be honest about what these things mean to you.

Thinking about the consequences

Imagining possible outcomes might give you some perspective on the decision. Say you're thinking about adopting a dog. What do you think the consequences might be in a month? In a year? How about several years from now?

Making decisions can be a roller coaster ride, especially when there are long-term consequences to think about. We can't see into the future, but we can try to be prepared.

Other mental tricks

At this point, it's normal to feel overwhelmed, even stuck. With so much to consider, how do you know you're making the right choice? There are a couple more techniques that can help you fire up your brain and trick it into thinking differently . Try these the next time you need a mental reset.

The two-minute diversion

Distract yourself with a two-minute activity that you find moderately difficult . Maybe you like playing mobile games, or solving math problems for fun—whatever works for you (we won't judge).

Believe it or not, you'll continue to process the decision unconsciously , according to brain imaging research by Carnegie Mellon University. This brief window of time helps you internalize important details, so you can make better, more insightful decisions.

Thinking in third person

Sometimes it helps to step outside yourself and pretend you're helping someone else . Studies show we're able to think more objectively in third person —that's why it's easier to give advice than it is to receive it.

If a friend or family member were struggling with the same decision, what questions would you ask them? What compromises would you suggest?

Really think about it. Adopting a different point of view might help you see the situation in an entirely new way.

Making decisions with confidence

Making decisions isn't like taking a test. There are no right or wrong answers, per se—it just depends on the situation.

Focus on taking the time to think about your options and what you hope to achieve so you can feel confident about the choices you make. It's not as easy as flipping a coin, but it's worth the extra effort.

/en/problem-solving-and-decision-making/using-brain-teasers-to-build-critical-thinking-skills/content/

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it's official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you're on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings
• Browse Titles

NCBI Bookshelf. A service of the National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health.

Hughes RG, editor. Patient Safety and Quality: An Evidence-Based Handbook for Nurses. Rockville (MD): Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (US); 2008 Apr.

Patient Safety and Quality: An Evidence-Based Handbook for Nurses.

Chapter 6 clinical reasoning, decisionmaking, and action: thinking critically and clinically.

Patricia Benner ; Ronda G. Hughes ; Molly Sutphen .

Affiliations

This chapter examines multiple thinking strategies that are needed for high-quality clinical practice. Clinical reasoning and judgment are examined in relation to other modes of thinking used by clinical nurses in providing quality health care to patients that avoids adverse events and patient harm. The clinician’s ability to provide safe, high-quality care can be dependent upon their ability to reason, think, and judge, which can be limited by lack of experience. The expert performance of nurses is dependent upon continual learning and evaluation of performance.

• Critical Thinking

Nursing education has emphasized critical thinking as an essential nursing skill for more than 50 years. 1 The definitions of critical thinking have evolved over the years. There are several key definitions for critical thinking to consider. The American Philosophical Association (APA) defined critical thinking as purposeful, self-regulatory judgment that uses cognitive tools such as interpretation, analysis, evaluation, inference, and explanation of the evidential, conceptual, methodological, criteriological, or contextual considerations on which judgment is based. 2 A more expansive general definition of critical thinking is

. . . in short, self-directed, self-disciplined, self-monitored, and self-corrective thinking. It presupposes assent to rigorous standards of excellence and mindful command of their use. It entails effective communication and problem solving abilities and a commitment to overcome our native egocentrism and sociocentrism. Every clinician must develop rigorous habits of critical thinking, but they cannot escape completely the situatedness and structures of the clinical traditions and practices in which they must make decisions and act quickly in specific clinical situations. 3

There are three key definitions for nursing, which differ slightly. Bittner and Tobin defined critical thinking as being “influenced by knowledge and experience, using strategies such as reflective thinking as a part of learning to identify the issues and opportunities, and holistically synthesize the information in nursing practice” 4 (p. 268). Scheffer and Rubenfeld 5 expanded on the APA definition for nurses through a consensus process, resulting in the following definition:

Critical thinking in nursing is an essential component of professional accountability and quality nursing care. Critical thinkers in nursing exhibit these habits of the mind: confidence, contextual perspective, creativity, flexibility, inquisitiveness, intellectual integrity, intuition, openmindedness, perseverance, and reflection. Critical thinkers in nursing practice the cognitive skills of analyzing, applying standards, discriminating, information seeking, logical reasoning, predicting, and transforming knowledge 6 (Scheffer & Rubenfeld, p. 357).

The National League for Nursing Accreditation Commission (NLNAC) defined critical thinking as:

the deliberate nonlinear process of collecting, interpreting, analyzing, drawing conclusions about, presenting, and evaluating information that is both factually and belief based. This is demonstrated in nursing by clinical judgment, which includes ethical, diagnostic, and therapeutic dimensions and research 7 (p. 8).

These concepts are furthered by the American Association of Colleges of Nurses’ definition of critical thinking in their Essentials of Baccalaureate Nursing :

Critical thinking underlies independent and interdependent decision making. Critical thinking includes questioning, analysis, synthesis, interpretation, inference, inductive and deductive reasoning, intuition, application, and creativity 8 (p. 9).

Course work or ethical experiences should provide the graduate with the knowledge and skills to:

• Use nursing and other appropriate theories and models, and an appropriate ethical framework;
• Apply research-based knowledge from nursing and the sciences as the basis for practice;
• Use clinical judgment and decision-making skills;
• Engage in self-reflective and collegial dialogue about professional practice;
• Evaluate nursing care outcomes through the acquisition of data and the questioning of inconsistencies, allowing for the revision of actions and goals;
• Engage in creative problem solving 8 (p. 10).

Taken together, these definitions of critical thinking set forth the scope and key elements of thought processes involved in providing clinical care. Exactly how critical thinking is defined will influence how it is taught and to what standard of care nurses will be held accountable.

Professional and regulatory bodies in nursing education have required that critical thinking be central to all nursing curricula, but they have not adequately distinguished critical reflection from ethical, clinical, or even creative thinking for decisionmaking or actions required by the clinician. Other essential modes of thought such as clinical reasoning, evaluation of evidence, creative thinking, or the application of well-established standards of practice—all distinct from critical reflection—have been subsumed under the rubric of critical thinking. In the nursing education literature, clinical reasoning and judgment are often conflated with critical thinking. The accrediting bodies and nursing scholars have included decisionmaking and action-oriented, practical, ethical, and clinical reasoning in the rubric of critical reflection and thinking. One might say that this harmless semantic confusion is corrected by actual practices, except that students need to understand the distinctions between critical reflection and clinical reasoning, and they need to learn to discern when each is better suited, just as students need to also engage in applying standards, evidence-based practices, and creative thinking.

The growing body of research, patient acuity, and complexity of care demand higher-order thinking skills. Critical thinking involves the application of knowledge and experience to identify patient problems and to direct clinical judgments and actions that result in positive patient outcomes. These skills can be cultivated by educators who display the virtues of critical thinking, including independence of thought, intellectual curiosity, courage, humility, empathy, integrity, perseverance, and fair-mindedness. 9

The process of critical thinking is stimulated by integrating the essential knowledge, experiences, and clinical reasoning that support professional practice. The emerging paradigm for clinical thinking and cognition is that it is social and dialogical rather than monological and individual. 10–12 Clinicians pool their wisdom and multiple perspectives, yet some clinical knowledge can be demonstrated only in the situation (e.g., how to suction an extremely fragile patient whose oxygen saturations sink too low). Early warnings of problematic situations are made possible by clinicians comparing their observations to that of other providers. Clinicians form practice communities that create styles of practice, including ways of doing things, communication styles and mechanisms, and shared expectations about performance and expertise of team members.

By holding up critical thinking as a large umbrella for different modes of thinking, students can easily misconstrue the logic and purposes of different modes of thinking. Clinicians and scientists alike need multiple thinking strategies, such as critical thinking, clinical judgment, diagnostic reasoning, deliberative rationality, scientific reasoning, dialogue, argument, creative thinking, and so on. In particular, clinicians need forethought and an ongoing grasp of a patient’s health status and care needs trajectory, which requires an assessment of their own clarity and understanding of the situation at hand, critical reflection, critical reasoning, and clinical judgment.

Critical Reflection, Critical Reasoning, and Judgment

Critical reflection requires that the thinker examine the underlying assumptions and radically question or doubt the validity of arguments, assertions, and even facts of the case. Critical reflective skills are essential for clinicians; however, these skills are not sufficient for the clinician who must decide how to act in particular situations and avoid patient injury. For example, in everyday practice, clinicians cannot afford to critically reflect on the well-established tenets of “normal” or “typical” human circulatory systems when trying to figure out a particular patient’s alterations from that typical, well-grounded understanding that has existed since Harvey’s work in 1628. 13 Yet critical reflection can generate new scientifically based ideas. For example, there is a lack of adequate research on the differences between women’s and men’s circulatory systems and the typical pathophysiology related to heart attacks. Available research is based upon multiple, taken-for-granted starting points about the general nature of the circulatory system. As such, critical reflection may not provide what is needed for a clinician to act in a situation. This idea can be considered reasonable since critical reflective thinking is not sufficient for good clinical reasoning and judgment. The clinician’s development of skillful critical reflection depends upon being taught what to pay attention to, and thus gaining a sense of salience that informs the powers of perceptual grasp. The powers of noticing or perceptual grasp depend upon noticing what is salient and the capacity to respond to the situation.

Critical reflection is a crucial professional skill, but it is not the only reasoning skill or logic clinicians require. The ability to think critically uses reflection, induction, deduction, analysis, challenging assumptions, and evaluation of data and information to guide decisionmaking. 9 , 14 , 15 Critical reasoning is a process whereby knowledge and experience are applied in considering multiple possibilities to achieve the desired goals, 16 while considering the patient’s situation. 14 It is a process where both inductive and deductive cognitive skills are used. 17 Sometimes clinical reasoning is presented as a form of evaluating scientific knowledge, sometimes even as a form of scientific reasoning. Critical thinking is inherent in making sound clinical reasoning. 18

An essential point of tension and confusion exists in practice traditions such as nursing and medicine when clinical reasoning and critical reflection become entangled, because the clinician must have some established bases that are not questioned when engaging in clinical decisions and actions, such as standing orders. The clinician must act in the particular situation and time with the best clinical and scientific knowledge available. The clinician cannot afford to indulge in either ritualistic unexamined knowledge or diagnostic or therapeutic nihilism caused by radical doubt, as in critical reflection, because they must find an intelligent and effective way to think and act in particular clinical situations. Critical reflection skills are essential to assist practitioners to rethink outmoded or even wrong-headed approaches to health care, health promotion, and prevention of illness and complications, especially when new evidence is available. Breakdowns in practice, high failure rates in particular therapies, new diseases, new scientific discoveries, and societal changes call for critical reflection about past assumptions and no-longer-tenable beliefs.

Clinical reasoning stands out as a situated, practice-based form of reasoning that requires a background of scientific and technological research-based knowledge about general cases, more so than any particular instance. It also requires practical ability to discern the relevance of the evidence behind general scientific and technical knowledge and how it applies to a particular patient. In dong so, the clinician considers the patient’s particular clinical trajectory, their concerns and preferences, and their particular vulnerabilities (e.g., having multiple comorbidities) and sensitivities to care interventions (e.g., known drug allergies, other conflicting comorbid conditions, incompatible therapies, and past responses to therapies) when forming clinical decisions or conclusions.

Situated in a practice setting, clinical reasoning occurs within social relationships or situations involving patient, family, community, and a team of health care providers. The expert clinician situates themselves within a nexus of relationships, with concerns that are bounded by the situation. Expert clinical reasoning is socially engaged with the relationships and concerns of those who are affected by the caregiving situation, and when certain circumstances are present, the adverse event. Halpern 19 has called excellent clinical ethical reasoning “emotional reasoning” in that the clinicians have emotional access to the patient/family concerns and their understanding of the particular care needs. Expert clinicians also seek an optimal perceptual grasp, one based on understanding and as undistorted as possible, based on an attuned emotional engagement and expert clinical knowledge. 19 , 20

Clergy educators 21 and nursing and medical educators have begun to recognize the wisdom of broadening their narrow vision of rationality beyond simple rational calculation (exemplified by cost-benefit analysis) to reconsider the need for character development—including emotional engagement, perception, habits of thought, and skill acquisition—as essential to the development of expert clinical reasoning, judgment, and action. 10 , 22–24 Practitioners of engineering, law, medicine, and nursing, like the clergy, have to develop a place to stand in their discipline’s tradition of knowledge and science in order to recognize and evaluate salient evidence in the moment. Diagnostic confusion and disciplinary nihilism are both threats to the clinician’s ability to act in particular situations. However, the practice and practitioners will not be self-improving and vital if they cannot engage in critical reflection on what is not of value, what is outmoded, and what does not work. As evidence evolves and expands, so too must clinical thought.

Clinical judgment requires clinical reasoning across time about the particular, and because of the relevance of this immediate historical unfolding, clinical reasoning can be very different from the scientific reasoning used to formulate, conduct, and assess clinical experiments. While scientific reasoning is also socially embedded in a nexus of social relationships and concerns, the goal of detached, critical objectivity used to conduct scientific experiments minimizes the interactive influence of the research on the experiment once it has begun. Scientific research in the natural and clinical sciences typically uses formal criteria to develop “yes” and “no” judgments at prespecified times. The scientist is always situated in past and immediate scientific history, preferring to evaluate static and predetermined points in time (e.g., snapshot reasoning), in contrast to a clinician who must always reason about transitions over time. 25 , 26

Techne and Phronesis

Distinctions between the mere scientific making of things and practice was first explored by Aristotle as distinctions between techne and phronesis. 27 Learning to be a good practitioner requires developing the requisite moral imagination for good practice. If, for example, patients exercise their rights and refuse treatments, practitioners are required to have the moral imagination to understand the probable basis for the patient’s refusal. For example, was the refusal based upon catastrophic thinking, unrealistic fears, misunderstanding, or even clinical depression?

Techne, as defined by Aristotle, encompasses the notion of formation of character and habitus 28 as embodied beings. In Aristotle’s terms, techne refers to the making of things or producing outcomes. 11 Joseph Dunne defines techne as “the activity of producing outcomes,” and it “is governed by a means-ends rationality where the maker or producer governs the thing or outcomes produced or made through gaining mastery over the means of producing the outcomes, to the point of being able to separate means and ends” 11 (p. 54). While some aspects of medical and nursing practice fall into the category of techne, much of nursing and medical practice falls outside means-ends rationality and must be governed by concern for doing good or what is best for the patient in particular circumstances, where being in a relationship and discerning particular human concerns at stake guide action.

Phronesis, in contrast to techne, includes reasoning about the particular, across time, through changes or transitions in the patient’s and/or the clinician’s understanding. As noted by Dunne, phronesis is “characterized at least as much by a perceptiveness with regard to concrete particulars as by a knowledge of universal principles” 11 (p. 273). This type of practical reasoning often takes the form of puzzle solving or the evaluation of immediate past “hot” history of the patient’s situation. Such a particular clinical situation is necessarily particular, even though many commonalities and similarities with other disease syndromes can be recognized through signs and symptoms and laboratory tests. 11 , 29 , 30 Pointing to knowledge embedded in a practice makes no claim for infallibility or “correctness.” Individual practitioners can be mistaken in their judgments because practices such as medicine and nursing are inherently underdetermined. 31

While phronetic knowledge must remain open to correction and improvement, real events, and consequences, it cannot consistently transcend the institutional setting’s capacities and supports for good practice. Phronesis is also dependent on ongoing experiential learning of the practitioner, where knowledge is refined, corrected, or refuted. The Western tradition, with the notable exception of Aristotle, valued knowledge that could be made universal and devalued practical know-how and experiential learning. Descartes codified this preference for formal logic and rational calculation.

Aristotle recognized that when knowledge is underdetermined, changeable, and particular, it cannot be turned into the universal or standardized. It must be perceived, discerned, and judged, all of which require experiential learning. In nursing and medicine, perceptual acuity in physical assessment and clinical judgment (i.e., reasoning across time about changes in the particular patient or the clinician’s understanding of the patient’s condition) fall into the Greek Aristotelian category of phronesis. Dewey 32 sought to rescue knowledge gained by practical activity in the world. He identified three flaws in the understanding of experience in Greek philosophy: (1) empirical knowing is the opposite of experience with science; (2) practice is reduced to techne or the application of rational thought or technique; and (3) action and skilled know-how are considered temporary and capricious as compared to reason, which the Greeks considered as ultimate reality.

In practice, nursing and medicine require both techne and phronesis. The clinician standardizes and routinizes what can be standardized and routinized, as exemplified by standardized blood pressure measurements, diagnoses, and even charting about the patient’s condition and treatment. 27 Procedural and scientific knowledge can often be formalized and standardized (e.g., practice guidelines), or at least made explicit and certain in practice, except for the necessary timing and adjustments made for particular patients. 11 , 22

Rational calculations available to techne—population trends and statistics, algorithms—are created as decision support structures and can improve accuracy when used as a stance of inquiry in making clinical judgments about particular patients. Aggregated evidence from clinical trials and ongoing working knowledge of pathophysiology, biochemistry, and genomics are essential. In addition, the skills of phronesis (clinical judgment that reasons across time, taking into account the transitions of the particular patient/family/community and transitions in the clinician’s understanding of the clinical situation) will be required for nursing, medicine, or any helping profession.

Thinking Critically

Being able to think critically enables nurses to meet the needs of patients within their context and considering their preferences; meet the needs of patients within the context of uncertainty; consider alternatives, resulting in higher-quality care; 33 and think reflectively, rather than simply accepting statements and performing tasks without significant understanding and evaluation. 34 Skillful practitioners can think critically because they have the following cognitive skills: information seeking, discriminating, analyzing, transforming knowledge, predicating, applying standards, and logical reasoning. 5 One’s ability to think critically can be affected by age, length of education (e.g., an associate vs. a baccalaureate decree in nursing), and completion of philosophy or logic subjects. 35–37 The skillful practitioner can think critically because of having the following characteristics: motivation, perseverance, fair-mindedness, and deliberate and careful attention to thinking. 5 , 9

Thinking critically implies that one has a knowledge base from which to reason and the ability to analyze and evaluate evidence. 38 Knowledge can be manifest by the logic and rational implications of decisionmaking. Clinical decisionmaking is particularly influenced by interpersonal relationships with colleagues, 39 patient conditions, availability of resources, 40 knowledge, and experience. 41 Of these, experience has been shown to enhance nurses’ abilities to make quick decisions 42 and fewer decision errors, 43 support the identification of salient cues, and foster the recognition and action on patterns of information. 44 , 45

Clinicians must develop the character and relational skills that enable them to perceive and understand their patient’s needs and concerns. This requires accurate interpretation of patient data that is relevant to the specific patient and situation. In nursing, this formation of moral agency focuses on learning to be responsible in particular ways demanded by the practice, and to pay attention and intelligently discern changes in patients’ concerns and/or clinical condition that require action on the part of the nurse or other health care workers to avert potential compromises to quality care.

Formation of the clinician’s character, skills, and habits are developed in schools and particular practice communities within a larger practice tradition. As Dunne notes,

A practice is not just a surface on which one can display instant virtuosity. It grounds one in a tradition that has been formed through an elaborate development and that exists at any juncture only in the dispositions (slowly and perhaps painfully acquired) of its recognized practitioners. The question may of course be asked whether there are any such practices in the contemporary world, whether the wholesale encroachment of Technique has not obliterated them—and whether this is not the whole point of MacIntyre’s recipe of withdrawal, as well as of the post-modern story of dispossession 11 (p. 378).

Clearly Dunne is engaging in critical reflection about the conditions for developing character, skills, and habits for skillful and ethical comportment of practitioners, as well as to act as moral agents for patients so that they and their families receive safe, effective, and compassionate care.

Professional socialization or professional values, while necessary, do not adequately address character and skill formation that transform the way the practitioner exists in his or her world, what the practitioner is capable of noticing and responding to, based upon well-established patterns of emotional responses, skills, dispositions to act, and the skills to respond, decide, and act. 46 The need for character and skill formation of the clinician is what makes a practice stand out from a mere technical, repetitious manufacturing process. 11 , 30 , 47

In nursing and medicine, many have questioned whether current health care institutions are designed to promote or hinder enlightened, compassionate practice, or whether they have deteriorated into commercial institutional models that focus primarily on efficiency and profit. MacIntyre points out the links between the ongoing development and improvement of practice traditions and the institutions that house them:

Lack of justice, lack of truthfulness, lack of courage, lack of the relevant intellectual virtues—these corrupt traditions, just as they do those institutions and practices which derive their life from the traditions of which they are the contemporary embodiments. To recognize this is of course also to recognize the existence of an additional virtue, one whose importance is perhaps most obvious when it is least present, the virtue of having an adequate sense of the traditions to which one belongs or which confront one. This virtue is not to be confused with any form of conservative antiquarianism; I am not praising those who choose the conventional conservative role of laudator temporis acti. It is rather the case that an adequate sense of tradition manifests itself in a grasp of those future possibilities which the past has made available to the present. Living traditions, just because they continue a not-yet-completed narrative, confront a future whose determinate and determinable character, so far as it possesses any, derives from the past 30 (p. 207).

It would be impossible to capture all the situated and distributed knowledge outside of actual practice situations and particular patients. Simulations are powerful as teaching tools to enable nurses’ ability to think critically because they give students the opportunity to practice in a simplified environment. However, students can be limited in their inability to convey underdetermined situations where much of the information is based on perceptions of many aspects of the patient and changes that have occurred over time. Simulations cannot have the sub-cultures formed in practice settings that set the social mood of trust, distrust, competency, limited resources, or other forms of situated possibilities.

One of the hallmark studies in nursing providing keen insight into understanding the influence of experience was a qualitative study of adult, pediatric, and neonatal intensive care unit (ICU) nurses, where the nurses were clustered into advanced beginner, intermediate, and expert level of practice categories. The advanced beginner (having up to 6 months of work experience) used procedures and protocols to determine which clinical actions were needed. When confronted with a complex patient situation, the advanced beginner felt their practice was unsafe because of a knowledge deficit or because of a knowledge application confusion. The transition from advanced beginners to competent practitioners began when they first had experience with actual clinical situations and could benefit from the knowledge gained from the mistakes of their colleagues. Competent nurses continuously questioned what they saw and heard, feeling an obligation to know more about clinical situations. In doing do, they moved from only using care plans and following the physicians’ orders to analyzing and interpreting patient situations. Beyond that, the proficient nurse acknowledged the changing relevance of clinical situations requiring action beyond what was planned or anticipated. The proficient nurse learned to acknowledge the changing needs of patient care and situation, and could organize interventions “by the situation as it unfolds rather than by preset goals 48 (p. 24). Both competent and proficient nurses (that is, intermediate level of practice) had at least two years of ICU experience. 48 Finally, the expert nurse had a more fully developed grasp of a clinical situation, a sense of confidence in what is known about the situation, and could differentiate the precise clinical problem in little time. 48

Expertise is acquired through professional experience and is indicative of a nurse who has moved beyond mere proficiency. As Gadamer 29 points out, experience involves a turning around of preconceived notions, preunderstandings, and extends or adds nuances to understanding. Dewey 49 notes that experience requires a prepared “creature” and an enriched environment. The opportunity to reflect and narrate one’s experiential learning can clarify, extend, or even refute experiential learning.

Experiential learning requires time and nurturing, but time alone does not ensure experiential learning. Aristotle linked experiential learning to the development of character and moral sensitivities of a person learning a practice. 50 New nurses/new graduates have limited work experience and must experience continuing learning until they have reached an acceptable level of performance. 51 After that, further improvements are not predictable, and years of experience are an inadequate predictor of expertise. 52

The most effective knower and developer of practical knowledge creates an ongoing dialogue and connection between lessons of the day and experiential learning over time. Gadamer, in a late life interview, highlighted the open-endedness and ongoing nature of experiential learning in the following interview response:

Being experienced does not mean that one now knows something once and for all and becomes rigid in this knowledge; rather, one becomes more open to new experiences. A person who is experienced is undogmatic. Experience has the effect of freeing one to be open to new experience … In our experience we bring nothing to a close; we are constantly learning new things from our experience … this I call the interminability of all experience 32 (p. 403).

Practical endeavor, supported by scientific knowledge, requires experiential learning, the development of skilled know-how, and perceptual acuity in order to make the scientific knowledge relevant to the situation. Clinical perceptual and skilled know-how helps the practitioner discern when particular scientific findings might be relevant. 53

Often experience and knowledge, confirmed by experimentation, are treated as oppositions, an either-or choice. However, in practice it is readily acknowledged that experiential knowledge fuels scientific investigation, and scientific investigation fuels further experiential learning. Experiential learning from particular clinical cases can help the clinician recognize future similar cases and fuel new scientific questions and study. For example, less experienced nurses—and it could be argued experienced as well—can use nursing diagnoses practice guidelines as part of their professional advancement. Guidelines are used to reflect their interpretation of patients’ needs, responses, and situation, 54 a process that requires critical thinking and decisionmaking. 55 , 56 Using guidelines also reflects one’s problem identification and problem-solving abilities. 56 Conversely, the ability to proficiently conduct a series of tasks without nursing diagnoses is the hallmark of expertise. 39 , 57

Experience precedes expertise. As expertise develops from experience and gaining knowledge and transitions to the proficiency stage, the nurses’ thinking moves from steps and procedures (i.e., task-oriented care) toward “chunks” or patterns 39 (i.e., patient-specific care). In doing so, the nurse thinks reflectively, rather than merely accepting statements and performing procedures without significant understanding and evaluation. 34 Expert nurses do not rely on rules and logical thought processes in problem-solving and decisionmaking. 39 Instead, they use abstract principles, can see the situation as a complex whole, perceive situations comprehensively, and can be fully involved in the situation. 48 Expert nurses can perform high-level care without conscious awareness of the knowledge they are using, 39 , 58 and they are able to provide that care with flexibility and speed. Through a combination of knowledge and skills gained from a range of theoretical and experiential sources, expert nurses also provide holistic care. 39 Thus, the best care comes from the combination of theoretical, tacit, and experiential knowledge. 59 , 60

Experts are thought to eventually develop the ability to intuitively know what to do and to quickly recognize critical aspects of the situation. 22 Some have proposed that expert nurses provide high-quality patient care, 61 , 62 but that is not consistently documented—particularly in consideration of patient outcomes—and a full understanding between the differential impact of care rendered by an “expert” nurse is not fully understood. In fact, several studies have found that length of professional experience is often unrelated and even negatively related to performance measures and outcomes. 63 , 64

In a review of the literature on expertise in nursing, Ericsson and colleagues 65 found that focusing on challenging, less-frequent situations would reveal individual performance differences on tasks that require speed and flexibility, such as that experienced during a code or an adverse event. Superior performance was associated with extensive training and immediate feedback about outcomes, which can be obtained through continual training, simulation, and processes such as root-cause analysis following an adverse event. Therefore, efforts to improve performance benefited from continual monitoring, planning, and retrospective evaluation. Even then, the nurse’s ability to perform as an expert is dependent upon their ability to use intuition or insights gained through interactions with patients. 39

Intuition and Perception

Intuition is the instant understanding of knowledge without evidence of sensible thought. 66 According to Young, 67 intuition in clinical practice is a process whereby the nurse recognizes something about a patient that is difficult to verbalize. Intuition is characterized by factual knowledge, “immediate possession of knowledge, and knowledge independent of the linear reasoning process” 68 (p. 23). When intuition is used, one filters information initially triggered by the imagination, leading to the integration of all knowledge and information to problem solve. 69 Clinicians use their interactions with patients and intuition, drawing on tacit or experiential knowledge, 70 , 71 to apply the correct knowledge to make the correct decisions to address patient needs. Yet there is a “conflated belief in the nurses’ ability to know what is best for the patient” 72 (p. 251) because the nurses’ and patients’ identification of the patients’ needs can vary. 73

A review of research and rhetoric involving intuition by King and Appleton 62 found that all nurses, including students, used intuition (i.e., gut feelings). They found evidence, predominately in critical care units, that intuition was triggered in response to knowledge and as a trigger for action and/or reflection with a direct bearing on the analytical process involved in patient care. The challenge for nurses was that rigid adherence to checklists, guidelines, and standardized documentation, 62 ignored the benefits of intuition. This view was furthered by Rew and Barrow 68 , 74 in their reviews of the literature, where they found that intuition was imperative to complex decisionmaking, 68 difficult to measure and assess in a quantitative manner, and was not linked to physiologic measures. 74

Intuition is a way of explaining professional expertise. 75 Expert nurses rely on their intuitive judgment that has been developed over time. 39 , 76 Intuition is an informal, nonanalytically based, unstructured, deliberate calculation that facilitates problem solving, 77 a process of arriving at salient conclusions based on relatively small amounts of knowledge and/or information. 78 Experts can have rapid insight into a situation by using intuition to recognize patterns and similarities, achieve commonsense understanding, and sense the salient information combined with deliberative rationality. 10 Intuitive recognition of similarities and commonalities between patients are often the first diagnostic clue or early warning, which must then be followed up with critical evaluation of evidence among the competing conditions. This situation calls for intuitive judgment that can distinguish “expert human judgment from the decisions” made by a novice 79 (p. 23).

Shaw 80 equates intuition with direct perception. Direct perception is dependent upon being able to detect complex patterns and relationships that one has learned through experience are important. Recognizing these patterns and relationships generally occurs rapidly and is complex, making it difficult to articulate or describe. Perceptual skills, like those of the expert nurse, are essential to recognizing current and changing clinical conditions. Perception requires attentiveness and the development of a sense of what is salient. Often in nursing and medicine, means and ends are fused, as is the case for a “good enough” birth experience and a peaceful death.

• Applying Practice Evidence

Research continues to find that using evidence-based guidelines in practice, informed through research evidence, improves patients’ outcomes. 81–83 Research-based guidelines are intended to provide guidance for specific areas of health care delivery. 84 The clinician—both the novice and expert—is expected to use the best available evidence for the most efficacious therapies and interventions in particular instances, to ensure the highest-quality care, especially when deviations from the evidence-based norm may heighten risks to patient safety. Otherwise, if nursing and medicine were exact sciences, or consisted only of techne, then a 1:1 relationship could be established between results of aggregated evidence-based research and the best path for all patients.

Evaluating Evidence

Before research should be used in practice, it must be evaluated. There are many complexities and nuances in evaluating the research evidence for clinical practice. Evaluation of research behind evidence-based medicine requires critical thinking and good clinical judgment. Sometimes the research findings are mixed or even conflicting. As such, the validity, reliability, and generalizability of available research are fundamental to evaluating whether evidence can be applied in practice. To do so, clinicians must select the best scientific evidence relevant to particular patients—a complex process that involves intuition to apply the evidence. Critical thinking is required for evaluating the best available scientific evidence for the treatment and care of a particular patient.

Good clinical judgment is required to select the most relevant research evidence. The best clinical judgment, that is, reasoning across time about the particular patient through changes in the patient’s concerns and condition and/or the clinician’s understanding, are also required. This type of judgment requires clinicians to make careful observations and evaluations of the patient over time, as well as know the patient’s concerns and social circumstances. To evolve to this level of judgment, additional education beyond clinical preparation if often required.

Sources of Evidence

Evidence that can be used in clinical practice has different sources and can be derived from research, patient’s preferences, and work-related experience. 85 , 86 Nurses have been found to obtain evidence from experienced colleagues believed to have clinical expertise and research-based knowledge 87 as well as other sources.

For many years now, randomized controlled trials (RCTs) have often been considered the best standard for evaluating clinical practice. Yet, unless the common threats to the validity (e.g., representativeness of the study population) and reliability (e.g., consistency in interventions and responses of study participants) of RCTs are addressed, the meaningfulness and generalizability of the study outcomes are very limited. Relevant patient populations may be excluded, such as women, children, minorities, the elderly, and patients with multiple chronic illnesses. The dropout rate of the trial may confound the results. And it is easier to get positive results published than it is to get negative results published. Thus, RCTs are generalizable (i.e., applicable) only to the population studied—which may not reflect the needs of the patient under the clinicians care. In instances such as these, clinicians need to also consider applied research using prospective or retrospective populations with case control to guide decisionmaking, yet this too requires critical thinking and good clinical judgment.

Another source of available evidence may come from the gold standard of aggregated systematic evaluation of clinical trial outcomes for the therapy and clinical condition in question, be generated by basic and clinical science relevant to the patient’s particular pathophysiology or care need situation, or stem from personal clinical experience. The clinician then takes all of the available evidence and considers the particular patient’s known clinical responses to past therapies, their clinical condition and history, the progression or stages of the patient’s illness and recovery, and available resources.

In clinical practice, the particular is examined in relation to the established generalizations of science. With readily available summaries of scientific evidence (e.g., systematic reviews and practice guidelines) available to nurses and physicians, one might wonder whether deep background understanding is still advantageous. Might it not be expendable, since it is likely to be out of date given the current scientific evidence? But this assumption is a false opposition and false choice because without a deep background understanding, the clinician does not know how to best find and evaluate scientific evidence for the particular case in hand. The clinician’s sense of salience in any given situation depends on past clinical experience and current scientific evidence.

Evidence-Based Practice

The concept of evidence-based practice is dependent upon synthesizing evidence from the variety of sources and applying it appropriately to the care needs of populations and individuals. This implies that evidence-based practice, indicative of expertise in practice, appropriately applies evidence to the specific situations and unique needs of patients. 88 , 89 Unfortunately, even though providing evidence-based care is an essential component of health care quality, it is well known that evidence-based practices are not used consistently.

Conceptually, evidence used in practice advances clinical knowledge, and that knowledge supports independent clinical decisions in the best interest of the patient. 90 , 91 Decisions must prudently consider the factors not necessarily addressed in the guideline, such as the patient’s lifestyle, drug sensitivities and allergies, and comorbidities. Nurses who want to improve the quality and safety of care can do so though improving the consistency of data and information interpretation inherent in evidence-based practice.

Initially, before evidence-based practice can begin, there needs to be an accurate clinical judgment of patient responses and needs. In the course of providing care, with careful consideration of patient safety and quality care, clinicians must give attention to the patient’s condition, their responses to health care interventions, and potential adverse reactions or events that could harm the patient. Nonetheless, there is wide variation in the ability of nurses to accurately interpret patient responses 92 and their risks. 93 Even though variance in interpretation is expected, nurses are obligated to continually improve their skills to ensure that patients receive quality care safely. 94 Patients are vulnerable to the actions and experience of their clinicians, which are inextricably linked to the quality of care patients have access to and subsequently receive.

The judgment of the patient’s condition determines subsequent interventions and patient outcomes. Attaining accurate and consistent interpretations of patient data and information is difficult because each piece can have different meanings, and interpretations are influenced by previous experiences. 95 Nurses use knowledge from clinical experience 96 , 97 and—although infrequently—research. 98–100

Once a problem has been identified, using a process that utilizes critical thinking to recognize the problem, the clinician then searches for and evaluates the research evidence 101 and evaluates potential discrepancies. The process of using evidence in practice involves “a problem-solving approach that incorporates the best available scientific evidence, clinicians’ expertise, and patient’s preferences and values” 102 (p. 28). Yet many nurses do not perceive that they have the education, tools, or resources to use evidence appropriately in practice. 103

Reported barriers to using research in practice have included difficulty in understanding the applicability and the complexity of research findings, failure of researchers to put findings into the clinical context, lack of skills in how to use research in practice, 104 , 105 amount of time required to access information and determine practice implications, 105–107 lack of organizational support to make changes and/or use in practice, 104 , 97 , 105 , 107 and lack of confidence in one’s ability to critically evaluate clinical evidence. 108

When Evidence Is Missing

In many clinical situations, there may be no clear guidelines and few or even no relevant clinical trials to guide decisionmaking. In these cases, the latest basic science about cellular and genomic functioning may be the most relevant science, or by default, guestimation. Consequently, good patient care requires more than a straightforward, unequivocal application of scientific evidence. The clinician must be able to draw on a good understanding of basic sciences, as well as guidelines derived from aggregated data and information from research investigations.

Practical knowledge is shaped by one’s practice discipline and the science and technology relevant to the situation at hand. But scientific, formal, discipline-specific knowledge are not sufficient for good clinical practice, whether the discipline be law, medicine, nursing, teaching, or social work. Practitioners still have to learn how to discern generalizable scientific knowledge, know how to use scientific knowledge in practical situations, discern what scientific evidence/knowledge is relevant, assess how the particular patient’s situation differs from the general scientific understanding, and recognize the complexity of care delivery—a process that is complex, ongoing, and changing, as new evidence can overturn old.

Practice communities like individual practitioners may also be mistaken, as is illustrated by variability in practice styles and practice outcomes across hospitals and regions in the United States. This variability in practice is why practitioners must learn to critically evaluate their practice and continually improve their practice over time. The goal is to create a living self-improving tradition.

Within health care, students, scientists, and practitioners are challenged to learn and use different modes of thinking when they are conflated under one term or rubric, using the best-suited thinking strategies for taking into consideration the purposes and the ends of the reasoning. Learning to be an effective, safe nurse or physician requires not only technical expertise, but also the ability to form helping relationships and engage in practical ethical and clinical reasoning. 50 Good ethical comportment requires that both the clinician and the scientist take into account the notions of good inherent in clinical and scientific practices. The notions of good clinical practice must include the relevant significance and the human concerns involved in decisionmaking in particular situations, centered on clinical grasp and clinical forethought.

The Three Apprenticeships of Professional Education

We have much to learn in comparing the pedagogies of formation across the professions, such as is being done currently by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. The Carnegie Foundation’s broad research program on the educational preparation of the profession focuses on three essential apprenticeships:

To capture the full range of crucial dimensions in professional education, we developed the idea of a three-fold apprenticeship: (1) intellectual training to learn the academic knowledge base and the capacity to think in ways important to the profession; (2) a skill-based apprenticeship of practice; and (3) an apprenticeship to the ethical standards, social roles, and responsibilities of the profession, through which the novice is introduced to the meaning of an integrated practice of all dimensions of the profession, grounded in the profession’s fundamental purposes. 109

This framework has allowed the investigators to describe tensions and shortfalls as well as strengths of widespread teaching practices, especially at articulation points among these dimensions of professional training.

Research has demonstrated that these three apprenticeships are taught best when they are integrated so that the intellectual training includes skilled know-how, clinical judgment, and ethical comportment. In the study of nursing, exemplary classroom and clinical teachers were found who do integrate the three apprenticeships in all of their teaching, as exemplified by the following anonymous student’s comments:

With that as well, I enjoyed the class just because I do have clinical experience in my background and I enjoyed it because it took those practical applications and the knowledge from pathophysiology and pharmacology, and all the other classes, and it tied it into the actual aspects of like what is going to happen at work. For example, I work in the emergency room and question: Why am I doing this procedure for this particular patient? Beforehand, when I was just a tech and I wasn’t going to school, I’d be doing it because I was told to be doing it—or I’d be doing CPR because, you know, the doc said, start CPR. I really enjoy the Care and Illness because now I know the process, the pathophysiological process of why I’m doing it and the clinical reasons of why they’re making the decisions, and the prioritization that goes on behind it. I think that’s the biggest point. Clinical experience is good, but not everybody has it. Yet when these students transition from school and clinicals to their job as a nurse, they will understand what’s going on and why.

The three apprenticeships are equally relevant and intertwined. In the Carnegie National Study of Nursing Education and the companion study on medical education as well as in cross-professional comparisons, teaching that gives an integrated access to professional practice is being examined. Once the three apprenticeships are separated, it is difficult to reintegrate them. The investigators are encouraged by teaching strategies that integrate the latest scientific knowledge and relevant clinical evidence with clinical reasoning about particular patients in unfolding rather than static cases, while keeping the patient and family experience and concerns relevant to clinical concerns and reasoning.

Clinical judgment or phronesis is required to evaluate and integrate techne and scientific evidence.

Within nursing, professional practice is wise and effective usually to the extent that the professional creates relational and communication contexts where clients/patients can be open and trusting. Effectiveness depends upon mutual influence between patient and practitioner, student and learner. This is another way in which clinical knowledge is dialogical and socially distributed. The following articulation of practical reasoning in nursing illustrates the social, dialogical nature of clinical reasoning and addresses the centrality of perception and understanding to good clinical reasoning, judgment and intervention.

Clinical Grasp *

Clinical grasp describes clinical inquiry in action. Clinical grasp begins with perception and includes problem identification and clinical judgment across time about the particular transitions of particular patients. Garrett Chan 20 described the clinician’s attempt at finding an “optimal grasp” or vantage point of understanding. Four aspects of clinical grasp, which are described in the following paragraphs, include (1) making qualitative distinctions, (2) engaging in detective work, (3) recognizing changing relevance, and (4) developing clinical knowledge in specific patient populations.

Making Qualitative Distinctions

Qualitative distinctions refer to those distinctions that can be made only in a particular contextual or historical situation. The context and sequence of events are essential for making qualitative distinctions; therefore, the clinician must pay attention to transitions in the situation and judgment. Many qualitative distinctions can be made only by observing differences through touch, sound, or sight, such as the qualities of a wound, skin turgor, color, capillary refill, or the engagement and energy level of the patient. Another example is assessing whether the patient was more fatigued after ambulating to the bathroom or from lack of sleep. Likewise the quality of the clinician’s touch is distinct as in offering reassurance, putting pressure on a bleeding wound, and so on. 110

Engaging in Detective Work, Modus Operandi Thinking, and Clinical Puzzle Solving

Clinical situations are open ended and underdetermined. Modus operandi thinking keeps track of the particular patient, the way the illness unfolds, the meanings of the patient’s responses as they have occurred in the particular time sequence. Modus operandi thinking requires keeping track of what has been tried and what has or has not worked with the patient. In this kind of reasoning-in-transition, gains and losses of understanding are noticed and adjustments in the problem approach are made.

We found that teachers in a medical surgical unit at the University of Washington deliberately teach their students to engage in “detective work.” Students are given the daily clinical assignment of “sleuthing” for undetected drug incompatibilities, questionable drug dosages, and unnoticed signs and symptoms. For example, one student noted that an unusual dosage of a heart medication was being given to a patient who did not have heart disease. The student first asked her teacher about the unusually high dosage. The teacher, in turn, asked the student whether she had asked the nurse or the patient about the dosage. Upon the student’s questioning, the nurse did not know why the patient was receiving the high dosage and assumed the drug was for heart disease. The patient’s staff nurse had not questioned the order. When the student asked the patient, the student found that the medication was being given for tremors and that the patient and the doctor had titrated the dosage for control of the tremors. This deliberate approach to teaching detective work, or modus operandi thinking, has characteristics of “critical reflection,” but stays situated and engaged, ferreting out the immediate history and unfolding of events.

Recognizing Changing Clinical Relevance

The meanings of signs and symptoms are changed by sequencing and history. The patient’s mental status, color, or pain level may continue to deteriorate or get better. The direction, implication, and consequences for the changes alter the relevance of the particular facts in the situation. The changing relevance entailed in a patient transitioning from primarily curative care to primarily palliative care is a dramatic example, where symptoms literally take on new meanings and require new treatments.

Developing Clinical Knowledge in Specific Patient Populations

Extensive experience with a specific patient population or patients with particular injuries or diseases allows the clinician to develop comparisons, distinctions, and nuanced differences within the population. The comparisons between many specific patients create a matrix of comparisons for clinicians, as well as a tacit, background set of expectations that create population- and patient-specific detective work if a patient does not meet the usual, predictable transitions in recovery. What is in the background and foreground of the clinician’s attention shifts as predictable changes in the patient’s condition occurs, such as is seen in recovering from heart surgery or progressing through the predictable stages of labor and delivery. Over time, the clinician develops a deep background understanding that allows for expert diagnostic and interventions skills.

Clinical Forethought

Clinical forethought is intertwined with clinical grasp, but it is much more deliberate and even routinized than clinical grasp. Clinical forethought is a pervasive habit of thought and action in nursing practice, and also in medicine, as clinicians think about disease and recovery trajectories and the implications of these changes for treatment. Clinical forethought plays a role in clinical grasp because it structures the practical logic of clinicians. At least four habits of thought and action are evident in what we are calling clinical forethought: (1) future think, (2) clinical forethought about specific patient populations, (3) anticipation of risks for particular patients, and (4) seeing the unexpected.

Future think

Future think is the broadest category of this logic of practice. Anticipating likely immediate futures helps the clinician make good plans and decisions about preparing the environment so that responding rapidly to changes in the patient is possible. Without a sense of salience about anticipated signs and symptoms and preparing the environment, essential clinical judgments and timely interventions would be impossible in the typically fast pace of acute and intensive patient care. Future think governs the style and content of the nurse’s attentiveness to the patient. Whether in a fast-paced care environment or a slower-paced rehabilitation setting, thinking and acting with anticipated futures guide clinical thinking and judgment. Future think captures the way judgment is suspended in a predictive net of anticipation and preparing oneself and the environment for a range of potential events.

Clinical forethought about specific diagnoses and injuries

This habit of thought and action is so second nature to the experienced nurse that the new or inexperienced nurse may have difficulty finding out about what seems to other colleagues as “obvious” preparation for particular patients and situations. Clinical forethought involves much local specific knowledge about who is a good resource and how to marshal support services and equipment for particular patients.

Examples of preparing for specific patient populations are pervasive, such as anticipating the need for a pacemaker during surgery and having the equipment assembled ready for use to save essential time. Another example includes forecasting an accident victim’s potential injuries, and recognizing that intubation might be needed.

Anticipation of crises, risks, and vulnerabilities for particular patients

This aspect of clinical forethought is central to knowing the particular patient, family, or community. Nurses situate the patient’s problems almost like a topography of possibilities. This vital clinical knowledge needs to be communicated to other caregivers and across care borders. Clinical teaching could be improved by enriching curricula with narrative examples from actual practice, and by helping students recognize commonly occurring clinical situations in the simulation and clinical setting. For example, if a patient is hemodynamically unstable, then managing life-sustaining physiologic functions will be a main orienting goal. If the patient is agitated and uncomfortable, then attending to comfort needs in relation to hemodynamics will be a priority. Providing comfort measures turns out to be a central background practice for making clinical judgments and contains within it much judgment and experiential learning.

When clinical teaching is too removed from typical contingencies and strong clinical situations in practice, students will lack practice in active thinking-in-action in ambiguous clinical situations. In the following example, an anonymous student recounted her experiences of meeting a patient:

I was used to different equipment and didn’t know how things went, didn’t know their routine, really. You can explain all you want in class, this is how it’s going to be, but when you get there … . Kim was my first instructor and my patient that she assigned me to—I walked into the room and he had every tube imaginable. And so I was a little overwhelmed. It’s not necessarily even that he was that critical … . She asked what tubes here have you seen? Well, I know peripheral lines. You taught me PICC [peripherally inserted central catheter] lines, and we just had that, but I don’t really feel comfortable doing it by myself, without you watching to make sure that I’m flushing it right and how to assess it. He had a chest tube and I had seen chest tubes, but never really knew the depth of what you had to assess and how you make sure that it’s all kosher and whatever. So she went through the chest tube and explained, it’s just bubbling a little bit and that’s okay. The site, check the site. The site looked okay and that she’d say if it wasn’t okay, this is what it might look like … . He had a feeding tube. I had done feeding tubes but that was like a long time ago in my LPN experiences schooling. So I hadn’t really done too much with the feeding stuff either … . He had a [nasogastric] tube, and knew pretty much about that and I think at the time it was clamped. So there were no issues with the suction or whatever. He had a Foley catheter. He had a feeding tube, a chest tube. I can’t even remember but there were a lot.

As noted earlier, a central characteristic of a practice discipline is that a self-improving practice requires ongoing experiential learning. One way nurse educators can enhance clinical inquiry is by increasing pedagogies of experiential learning. Current pedagogies for experiential learning in nursing include extensive preclinical study, care planning, and shared postclinical debriefings where students share their experiential learning with their classmates. Experiential learning requires open learning climates where students can discuss and examine transitions in understanding, including their false starts, or their misconceptions in actual clinical situations. Nursing educators typically develop open and interactive clinical learning communities, so that students seem committed to helping their classmates learn from their experiences that may have been difficult or even unsafe. One anonymous nurse educator described how students extend their experiential learning to their classmates during a postclinical conference:

So for example, the patient had difficulty breathing and the student wanted to give the meds instead of addressing the difficulty of breathing. Well, while we were sharing information about their patients, what they did that day, I didn’t tell the student to say this, but she said, ‘I just want to tell you what I did today in clinical so you don’t do the same thing, and here’s what happened.’ Everybody’s listening very attentively and they were asking her some questions. But she shared that. She didn’t have to. I didn’t tell her, you must share that in postconference or anything like that, but she just went ahead and shared that, I guess, to reinforce what she had learned that day but also to benefit her fellow students in case that thing comes up with them.

The teacher’s response to this student’s honesty and generosity exemplifies her own approach to developing an open community of learning. Focusing only on performance and on “being correct” prevents learning from breakdown or error and can dampen students’ curiosity and courage to learn experientially.

Seeing the unexpected

One of the keys to becoming an expert practitioner lies in how the person holds past experiential learning and background habitual skills and practices. This is a skill of foregrounding attention accurately and effectively in response to the nature of situational demands. Bourdieu 29 calls the recognition of the situation central to practical reasoning. If nothing is routinized as a habitual response pattern, then practitioners will not function effectively in emergencies. Unexpected occurrences may be overlooked. However, if expectations are held rigidly, then subtle changes from the usual will be missed, and habitual, rote responses will inappropriately rule. The clinician must be flexible in shifting between what is in background and foreground. This is accomplished by staying curious and open. The clinical “certainty” associated with perceptual grasp is distinct from the kind of “certainty” achievable in scientific experiments and through measurements. Recognition of similar or paradigmatic clinical situations is similar to “face recognition” or recognition of “family resemblances.” This concept is subject to faulty memory, false associative memories, and mistaken identities; therefore, such perceptual grasp is the beginning of curiosity and inquiry and not the end. Assessment and validation are required. In rapidly moving clinical situations, perceptual grasp is the starting point for clarification, confirmation, and action. Having the clinician say out loud how he or she is understanding the situation gives an opportunity for confirmation and disconfirmation from other clinicians present. 111 The relationship between foreground and background of attention needs to be fluid, so that missed expectations allow the nurse to see the unexpected. For example, when the background rhythm of a cardiac monitor changes, the nurse notices, and what had been background tacit awareness becomes the foreground of attention. A hallmark of expertise is the ability to notice the unexpected. 20 Background expectations of usual patient trajectories form with experience. Tacit expectations for patient trajectories form that enable the nurse to notice subtle failed expectations and pay attention to early signs of unexpected changes in the patient's condition. Clinical expectations gained from caring for similar patient populations form a tacit clinical forethought that enable the experienced clinician to notice missed expectations. Alterations from implicit or explicit expectations set the stage for experiential learning, depending on the openness of the learner.

Learning to provide safe and quality health care requires technical expertise, the ability to think critically, experience, and clinical judgment. The high-performance expectation of nurses is dependent upon the nurses’ continual learning, professional accountability, independent and interdependent decisionmaking, and creative problem-solving abilities.

This section of the paper was condensed and paraphrased from Benner, Hooper-Kyriakidis, and Stannard. 23 Patricia Hooper-Kyriakidis wrote the section on clinical grasp, and Patricia Benner wrote the section on clinical forethought.

• Cite this Page Benner P, Hughes RG, Sutphen M. Clinical Reasoning, Decisionmaking, and Action: Thinking Critically and Clinically. In: Hughes RG, editor. Patient Safety and Quality: An Evidence-Based Handbook for Nurses. Rockville (MD): Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (US); 2008 Apr. Chapter 6.
• PDF version of this page (147K)

In this Page

• Clinical Grasp

Other titles in this collection

• Advances in Patient Safety

Related information

• PMC PubMed Central citations
• PubMed Links to PubMed

Similar articles in PubMed

• Nurses' reasoning process during care planning taking pressure ulcer prevention as an example. A think-aloud study. [Int J Nurs Stud. 2007] Nurses' reasoning process during care planning taking pressure ulcer prevention as an example. A think-aloud study. Funkesson KH, Anbäcken EM, Ek AC. Int J Nurs Stud. 2007 Sep; 44(7):1109-19. Epub 2006 Jun 27.
• Registered nurses' clinical reasoning skills and reasoning process: A think-aloud study. [Nurse Educ Today. 2016] Registered nurses' clinical reasoning skills and reasoning process: A think-aloud study. Lee J, Lee YJ, Bae J, Seo M. Nurse Educ Today. 2016 Nov; 46:75-80. Epub 2016 Aug 15.
• Combining the arts: an applied critical thinking approach in the skills laboratory. [Nursingconnections. 2000] Combining the arts: an applied critical thinking approach in the skills laboratory. Peterson MJ, Bechtel GA. Nursingconnections. 2000 Summer; 13(2):43-9.
• Review About critical thinking. [Dynamics. 2004] Review About critical thinking. Hynes P, Bennett J. Dynamics. 2004 Fall; 15(3):26-9.
• Review The 'five rights' of clinical reasoning: an educational model to enhance nursing students' ability to identify and manage clinically 'at risk' patients. [Nurse Educ Today. 2010] Review The 'five rights' of clinical reasoning: an educational model to enhance nursing students' ability to identify and manage clinically 'at risk' patients. Levett-Jones T, Hoffman K, Dempsey J, Jeong SY, Noble D, Norton CA, Roche J, Hickey N. Nurse Educ Today. 2010 Aug; 30(6):515-20. Epub 2009 Nov 30.

Recent Activity

• Clinical Reasoning, Decisionmaking, and Action: Thinking Critically and Clinical... Clinical Reasoning, Decisionmaking, and Action: Thinking Critically and Clinically - Patient Safety and Quality

Your browsing activity is empty.

Activity recording is turned off.

Turn recording back on

Connect with NLM

National Library of Medicine 8600 Rockville Pike Bethesda, MD 20894

Web Policies FOIA HHS Vulnerability Disclosure

Help Accessibility Careers

• Search Search Search …
• Search Search …

Critical Thinking and the Decision Making Process

The definition of critical thinking is that it is the practice of collecting, analyzing, and carefully evaluating information so you can form a more informed decision. Critical thinking means that you are not letting your personal biases and feelings interfere with your decisions; instead, you let the information you gathered speak for themselves and then you make your call based on which is the most logical course of action.

Decision-making is the process of sifting through various options that will ultimately lead to conclusions that are actionable, but when you apply critical thinking into the mix, you are also making sure that you are making the most sound decision. To make it easier for you to understand, imagine decision-making as a car that brings you to your goals, critical thinking is the gas that makes the car run.

Humans have technically started having critical thinking skills ever since the first caveman picked up a rock, and figured out that it actually has a multitude of uses. However, it was only in the last century that people thought of critical thinking skills to be of great value with regards to business and decision-making. John F. Dewey, the famous inventor of the Dewey Decimal System that made cataloging books in libraries a whole lot easier and more organized, touted the importance of critical thinking skills. In Dewey’s paper, which was published in 1938, Logic: The Theory of Inquiry, he mentioned how important it is to teach students critical thinking skills.

This led to educational reforms, which then led to inspiring the next generation of thinkers to explore deeper into the concepts of critical thinking, which then led to the resurgence of people having renewed interest in the subject in the years between 1950 and 1970.

Ever since then, people viewed critical-thinking and decision making are synonymous to each other, at least when it comes to the necessary skills of corporate leaders. Many people still do not have a grasp of the underlying concepts that made critical thinking effective. To help you understand why critical thinking is important in the decision-making process, you need to learn more about the four key structures from which critical thinking is based on.

Logic                                                                                

This is the ability of an individual to see the direct relationships of causes and effects. To put it simply, this is a person’s ability to make sense of things even in chaotic situations. Logic is one of the most important skills needed for the decision-making process mainly because it provides an accurate means to predict the effects of a potential solution will have, which makes it possible for you to change your mind if you deem that the effects are not worth it.

Logic allows you to look at the big picture and deduce how your decisions will affect everyone involved.

The truth is the unbiased data of an event. In the problem-solving process, nothing is more important other than having in your possession all of the unbiased and unemotional facts regarding the situation. Using critical thinking skills, you can cull out all of the biased and emotionally-compromised data, and focus on the ones backed up by history and are well-documented, which you will then use to come up with a definite conclusion.

Context is the list of items that your final solution will be ultimately affecting. Critical thinking takes into account how similar solutions have fared in the past, the physical and mental condition of the decision maker, as well as the amount of stress he is currently under. All of these external elements need careful consideration during the critical process of decision-making to make a choice that benefits all involved.

Alternatives

This is a list of all the potential solutions you have come up with so you will not be stuck with just one course of action. You should always have several other backup plans because there might be times when your potential solution will not actually pan out the way you intended it would.

In the critical thinking process, you need to consider new, and different ways to approach a problem, which are always preferable than trying to make the only option you came up with fit into your circumstance.

Once you understand these underlying factors, your awareness of your personal biases will heighten, making you even more engaged in the critical thinking process, and further improving on it. When you get better at critical thinking, you will become faster, more confident, and more productive when it comes to decision making.

Now that you know why critical thinking is invaluable to the decision-making process, you now have to learn how to gather information so you can use your critical thinking skills to come up with a decision; and you can also use critical thinking in this phase too, and it is called critical questioning.

Using this method, you can somehow distinguish biased opinions from facts, you can tell who are the observers from the stakeholders, and you can also somehow glean the potential solutions from the suggestions. You should never discount the importance of asking critical questions, but what makes a question appropriate for use in critical questioning?

In simple terms, a good critical question brings out an actionable answer; this means that the answer to the question is actually helpful and also provides other, useful information. Now, how does one formulate critical questions?

Here are some of the points you need to consider when you are thinking up a critical question:

A good critical question should solicit a reply that provides you with the specific information that you needed. You should never beat around the bushes, your question should concise and to the point, never leave an opening for other answers.

A good question is framed properly. Your question should have a clear purpose, and to achieve that it should be framed in such a way that the person being asked immediately understands what information is required of him. If the person interviewed asks you what your question means then it is obviously framed incorrectly. In addition, you need to frame your question in such a way that it does not come off as confrontational and overly-nosy; find the happy medium that works for you.

A good critical question is an open-ended one. The great thing about open-ended questions is that they could not be answered by a simple yes or no, or any other single word reply. When you ask someone an open-ended question, he has no other route other than elaborate on his answers, and thus providing you with even more useful information than you previously thought you would receive.

Consider asking follow-up questions. There will be times when an answer to your question will open up an entirely new line of questioning, which is why you need to be prepared with follow-up questions so you can gain even more useful information from the subject. Do keep in mind that not all answers necessitate a follow-up question, so listen carefully to what the other person is telling you.

Critical thinking should always be an integral part in your decision-making process; from gathering the necessary information, up until the formulation of possible solutions to the problem, you should always use critical thinking so you can make sound decisions without letting your personal beliefs, and those of others, cloud your judgment.

You may also like

All about non-linear thinking

In the process of learning, comprehending, and gaining knowledge, thinking plays a very vital role. The approach we employ to resolve an […]

Using Critical Thinking to Find Your Strengths and Passions

When you hear the words “critical thinking”, the first thought that probably crossed your mind is that this person is a natural […]

Critical Thinking Under Pressure

Putting together coherent thoughts is hard. It is even harder to think critically when you are under some sort of pressure. Being […]

Lateral Thinking in the Real World: Everyday Examples of Lateral Thinking.

The history of art, science, politics, warfare and business are full of examples of lateral thinking. Nelson’s famous victory at the Battle of […]

One thought on “Critical Thinking and the Decision Making Process”

Comments are closed.

How Language ‘Framing’ Influences Decision-Making

• Cognitive Psychology
• Decision Making
• Foreign Language
• Word Recognition

The way information is presented, or “framed,” when people are confronted with a situation can influence decision-making. To study framing, people often use the “Asian Disease Problem.” In this problem, people are faced with an imaginary outbreak of an exotic disease and asked to choose how they will address the issue. When the problem is framed in terms of lives saved (or “gains”), people are given the choice of selecting:

• Medicine A, where 200 out of 600 people will be saved
• Medicine B, where there is a one-third probability that 600 people will be saved and a two-thirds probability that no one will be saved.

When the problem is framed in terms of lives lost (or “losses”), people are given the option of selecting:

• Medicine A, where 400 out of 600 people will die
• Medicine B, where there is a one-third probability that no one will die and a two-thirds probability that 600 people will die.

Although in both problems Medicine A and Medicine B lead to the same outcomes, people are more likely to choose Medicine A when the problem is presented in terms of gains and to choose Medicine B when the problem is presented in terms of losses. This difference occurs because people tend to be risk averse when the problem is presented in terms of gains, but risk tolerant when it is presented in terms of losses.

Researchers examining the framing effect and its influence on decision-making have found evidence that people presented with such problems in a foreign language as compared with a native language do not exhibit the same effect. A recent study published in the Journal of Cognitive Psychology and authored by researchers from Southern Cross University, Australia, and Chulalongkorn University, Thailand, investigated why this might be.

In the first of two studies, the researchers presented bilingual participants who were native Thai speakers and non-native English speakers with the Asian Disease Problem and a closely related Financial Crisis Problem (i.e., involving loss/gain of money rather than loss/gain of life). The problems were written in either Thai or English and framed as a “gain” or a “loss.” The researchers found framing effects when the problems were presented to participants in their native language but not when they were presented in their non-native language.

In a second study, different bilingual participants performed a financial gambling task presented in their native Thai and in a non-native language (English). In this task, participants made a monetary choice between a “sure thing” and a “gamble.” This task was different from those used in the first study because the trials required limited reading and language skills and a somewhat rapid response. When analyzing the results, the researchers found a framing effect in both participants’ native and non-native languages.

In the first study, framing effects were only seen when the problem was presented in Thai, but in the second study, framing effects were seen regardless of language. What might account for these conflicting results?

According to a model created by APS William James Fellow Daniel Kahneman, there are two cognitive systems: a fast system (System 1) that relies on heuristics, intuition, and affective processes, and a slow system (System 2) that is more rational, effortful, and systematic. System 1 is more likely to be utilized when performing tasks that are easy, while System 2 is more likely to be utilized when performing difficult tasks. The intuitive nature of System 1 makes it more easily influenced by the effects of framing, while the effortful and systematic nature of System 2 resists the effects of framing.

In the first study, people could process the task-related information relatively easily when it was presented in their native language, but not as easily when it was presented in their non-native language. This meant that System 2 played a more prominent role in the processing of task-related information when it was written in English than when it was written in Thai, explaining why framing effects were seen only in the Thai-language version of the problem.

In the second study, although the problem also was presented in both Thai and English, both versions required relatively little language processing and depended upon a rapid response. This meant that System 1 played a larger role in processing information in both language versions of the task, explaining why the framing effect was seen for problems presented in both participants’ native and non-native languages.

This study helps highlight the importance of language-based cognition and aids in the understanding of when and why the framing effect occurs.

Winskel, H., Ratitamkul, T., Brambley, V., Nagarachinda, T., & Tiencharoen, S. (2016). Decision-making and the framing effect in a foreign and native language. Journal of Cognitive Psychology , 28 , 427–436. doi:10.1080/20445911.2016.1139583

APS regularly opens certain online articles for discussion on our website. Effective February 2021, you must be a logged-in APS member to post comments. By posting a comment, you agree to our Community Guidelines and the display of your profile information, including your name and affiliation. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations present in article comments are those of the writers and do not necessarily reflect the views of APS or the article’s author. For more information, please see our Community Guidelines .

Please login with your APS account to comment.

Making Science Clear in Court

A psychological researcher uncovers how judges and juries evaluate expert scientific testimony.

Back Page: The Executive Whisperer

Constance Dierickx discusses her work as an advisor to boards and senior executives in high-stakes leadership situations and her experiences helping psychologists learn how to be consultants.

The Science of Starting Up

A burgeoning assortment of psychological scientists is studying the factors that distinguish successful entrepreneurs from those that falter. Their work is particularly salient amid today’s challenging economic climate.

Privacy Overview

About 10 mins

Learning Objectives

So what is critical thinking, the role of critical thinking in decision-making, what is data-driven decision-making, use critical thinking, data, and ai together.

• Challenge +100 points

Get to Know Critical Thinking and Data-Driven Decision-Making

After completing this unit, you’ll be able to:

• Define critical thinking and how to use it in the decision-making process.
• Explain what data-driven decision-making is.
• Describe the power of using critical thinking, data analysis, and artificial intelligence together.

This module was produced in collaboration with OneNine AI . OneNine AI is bringing the power of AI to everyone. Learn about partner content on Trailhead (log in required).

Critical thinking and data-driven decision-making are fundamental skills that help you work ethically and effectively with artificial intelligence (AI). In this module, you explore these fundamental skills, learn about decision-making and AI models, and see how AI is helping organizations make data-driven decisions across diverse industries. Let’s get started.

Critical thinking is the process of analyzing, evaluating, and synthesizing information, evidence, and arguments to make well-informed, reasoned decisions. It involves the ability to think clearly, objectively, and independently, and to consider various perspectives and potential outcomes. Critical thinking leads to wise decisions and effective problem solving.

Click the tabs below to learn about key characteristics of critical thinkers.

Critical thinking is like having a trusted guide on your decision-making journey. It helps you gather evidence, think logically, and weigh your options before choosing a path. The qualities of being analytical, curious, open-minded, research-focused, and logical prepare you to practice critical thinking.

When you apply critical thinking in decision-making, you usually do the following activities.

• Gather information: Critical thinking begins with the collection of information. When you face a decision, seek out relevant data, facts, and evidence to understand the problem or opportunity at hand.
• Evaluate information: Examine the gathered information closely. Distinguish between credible and unreliable sources, separate fact from opinion, and evaluate the quality of the data. This analysis enables you to make a decision based on a solid foundation.
• Identify assumptions: Identify any underlying assumptions or beliefs that might influence your decision-making. Question your own preconceptions and biases and consider how these factors might affect the choice.
• Evaluate pros and cons: Engage in a process of weighing the advantages and disadvantages of each option. Consider potential benefits, risks, and consequences to make a decision that aligns with your goals.
• Problem solve: Decision-making often involves solving a problem or addressing a challenge. Critical thinking, with its blend of analytical and creative skills, gives you the problem-solving tools you need to break down a complex issue into manageable parts. It helps you determine which elements to focus on, and it inspires creativity in the process. This creative approach allows you to identify potential solutions and choose the most appropriate course of action.

The art of asking questions is involved in each of these activities. In fact, asking questions is the cornerstone of critical thinking, as it paves the way for clarity, objectivity, and the pursuit of the most rational and ethical choices. Questions enable you to probe deeper, challenge assumptions, and uncover hidden truths.

Through skillful questioning, you can dissect complex issues, separate facts from opinions, and evaluate the validity of arguments. This process not only uncovers valuable insights but also ensures that decisions are well-informed and based on a thorough understanding of the matter at hand. (More about the art of questioning in unit 2.)

You just learned that gathering and analyzing information is an important part of decision-making for critical thinkers. Data lets you make decisions based on facts rather than a best guess.

To make data-driven decisions, you follow a process: Understand your goals, ask questions, gather data, study the data to find patterns, make a choice based on the patterns and trends, and evaluate the results. As you can see, critical thinking is involved at every step.

Critical thinking is the ability to evaluate information, understand it, and make informed decisions based on facts. Critical thinkers are curious, ask questions, and think outside the box. They’re open to different ideas and don’t jump to conclusions.

For example, an ecommerce company collects data on customer behavior, analyzes it to understand shopping trends, and uses this information to improve the user experience. It uses the information to personalize product recommendations, streamline the checkout process, offer targeted promotions, and enhance website navigation.

This data-driven approach not only caters to individual customer preferences but also optimizes the website’s overall performance, leading to increased customer satisfaction and higher conversion rates.

Critical thinking helps you ask the right questions, data provides critical facts and information, and AI processes the data quickly.

AI is like a supercharged assistant for critical thinking. It can quickly analyze tons of data, spot patterns, and make predictions to support your decision-making. While this assistant can speed up your decision-making process, you need to be aware of potential ethical implications . When using data and AI, you need to consider ethical questions like privacy, fairness, and transparency. Critical thinking helps you make ethical choices.

You’ve learned the basics about critical thinking and data-based decision-making. And you’ve seen how critical thinking plays a key role when you work with data and AI. Next, let’s delve into the art of asking great questions.

• Article: The Art of Asking Great Questions
• Tableau: Data-Driven Decision-Making Guide
• Tableau: The Cycle of Visual Analysis
• Trailhead: Data Literacy Basics
• Stephen Few Book: Now You See It: An Introduction to Visual Data Sensemaking
• Article: Introduction to Data Literacy
• Article: Data Science Lifecycle and Asking Questions
• Get personalized recommendations for your career goals
• Practice your skills with hands-on challenges and quizzes
• Track and share your progress with employers
• Connect to mentorship and career opportunities

More From Forbes

The power of critical thinking: enhancing decision-making and problem-solving.

• Share to Facebook
• Share to Twitter
• Share to Linkedin

Dr. Ron Young, Founder and Board Chair of Trove, Inc . Ron specializes in psychological coaching & transition consulting.

Critical thinking is a fundamental cognitive process that enables individuals to objectively analyze, evaluate and interpret information to make informed decisions and solve complex problems. It involves employing reasoning and logic, questioning assumptions, recognizing biases and considering multiple perspectives. It requires self-monitored, self-directed, self-disciplined and self-corrective thinking. Critical thinking is essential in a world of information and diverse opinions. It helps us see things more clearly and avoid being misled or deceived.

Importance Of Critical Thinking

Critical thinking is crucial in various aspects of life, including education, professional endeavors and personal decision-making. In academic settings, it allows students to comprehend and engage with complex subjects while discerning valid arguments from fallacious ones. In the workplace, critical thinking empowers individuals to analyze problems, devise creative solutions and make informed judgments. In everyday life, it helps individuals navigate an increasingly complex world by making sound choices and avoiding cognitive biases. It is our primary defense against misleading or "spun" information.

Benefits Of Critical Thinking

There are many benefits of critical thinking.

Enhanced Decision-Making

Critical thinking helps us trust our gut feelings and think independently. It enables individuals to make logical and well-reasoned decisions based on evidence and objective analysis. It encourages the consideration of all relevant factors and the evaluation of potential consequences, leading to more informed choices.

Best High-Yield Savings Accounts Of 2024

Best 5% interest savings accounts of 2024, effective problem-solving.

Critical thinking facilitates the identification of underlying issues, the generation of innovative solutions and the evaluation of their viability. It encourages individuals to approach problems from different angles and consider various perspectives, increasing the likelihood of finding effective resolutions.

Reduction Of Cognitive Biases

Critical thinking supports self-reflection. It helps individuals recognize and challenge cognitive biases that hinder clear judgment. Individuals can better overcome confirmation bias, groupthink and the availability heuristic (judging the likelihood of an event based on recall of similar events) by understanding and questioning their assumptions and beliefs. It requires a commitment to overcoming the tendency to see the world from a narrow, self-centered perspective.

Enhanced Communication Skills

Practicing critical thinking fosters effective communication by enabling individuals to articulate and defend their ideas with logical reasoning and evidence. It encourages active listening, empathy and the ability to evaluate and respond to counterarguments, leading to more constructive and meaningful discussions.

More United Citizens

Using critical thinking enables citizens to see the whole picture by better protecting against biases and propaganda. It reduces partisanship and a “we/they” mentality.

Cultivating Critical Thinking

How can you cultivate critical thinking?

Be curious and inquisitive.

Foster a mindset of curiosity and an eagerness to explore and understand the world. Talk with people from different backgrounds, cultures, political affiliations or religions. Ask probing questions, seek new perspectives and engage in active learning. Learn from people who hold different viewpoints.

Develop analytical skills.

You can do this by learning to break down complex problems into manageable parts, recognize patterns and identify cause-and-effect relationships. Remember, not all opinions are equal, and some are flat-out wrong.

Evaluate information.

Develop skills to evaluate the credibility and reliability of information sources. Be aware of bias, assess evidence and differentiate between fact and opinion. Guard against "swallowing information whole" or believing that "If it's on the internet, it must be true."

Practice reflection.

Engage in reflective thinking by evaluating your thoughts, beliefs and assumptions. Consider alternative viewpoints, and be open to changing your perspective based on new information.

Embrace intellectual humility.

Be humble and aware that you could be wrong. Knowledge is an ongoing process; be open to admitting mistakes or gaps in understanding. Embrace a growth mindset that values continuous learning and improvement.

Develop your sense of belonging.

The third tier in Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a sense of belonging. One aspect of belonging is connection. All humans have this need. Without critical thinking, we are vulnerable to making our group's beliefs our own rather than evaluating which beliefs align with our values.

Align your view and your values.

Rather than defining yourself by a particular view, ask whether a different view aligns with your values. When we identify ourselves by the beliefs of our reference group (religious, political, etc.), we look for ways to justify our ideas. In doing so, we deny ourselves access to critical thinking.

Evidence Of Critical Thinking

When you practice critical thinking, it will be evident in several areas:

Evidence-Based Decision-Making

Rely on facts rather than emotions or personal biases. Follow five distinct steps, called the five A’s : ask, access, appraise, apply and audit. Gather relevant information, evaluate the evidence objectively and consider different perspectives before making decisions. Then reevaluate them as you learn new information.

Problem-Solving

Approach problems systematically by defining the issue, gathering relevant data, brainstorming potential solutions and evaluating feasibility. Engage in collaborative problem-solving to benefit from diverse perspectives. Open-mindedly consider alternative systems of thought. Recognize assumptions, implications and practical consequences, then adjust as needed.

Effective Communication

Solve complex problems by clearly and effectively communicating with others. Utilize critical thinking skills to articulate your thoughts clearly, listen actively and engage in respectful and constructive dialogue. Challenge ideas through logical arguments and evidence rather than resorting to personal attacks. Respecting people with different views does not mean you agree with their opinions. Evaluate, formulate and communicate questions with clarity and precision.

Continuous Learning

Apply critical thinking to ongoing personal and professional development. Seek opportunities for further education, engage in intellectual discourse and actively challenge your beliefs and assumptions.

Using Critical Thinking

Critical thinking is a powerful cognitive tool that empowers individuals to navigate the complexities of the modern world. Critical thinking enhances decision-making, problem-solving and communication abilities by fostering logical reasoning, analytical skills and an open mindset. It enables individuals to overcome cognitive biases, evaluate information effectively and make informed choices. Cultivating and applying critical thinking skills benefits individuals and contributes to a more thoughtful and rational society. Embracing critical thinking is essential for fostering intellectual growth, facilitating progress and addressing the challenges of the 21st century.

Forbes Coaches Council is an invitation-only community for leading business and career coaches. Do I qualify?

• Editorial Standards
• Reprints & Permissions

Decision-Making

The power of emotions in decision making, how to use emotions constructively in decision making..

Updated August 7, 2023 | Reviewed by Monica Vilhauer

• Emotions play a significant role in decision-making.
• Without emotions to motivate and push us, we would be passive and do nothing.
• Make sure to balance and integrate emotional insights with logical reasoning.
• Practice emotional intelligence skills to better your decisions.

Many would consider emotions to be a hindrance to decision-making and, therefore, think that they would be better off without them. They may avoid or suppress them, rather than feel, process and understand their meaning. When it comes to the decision-making process, they would prefer to be rational rather than emotional.

However, emotions have value. It appears that without emotions to motivate and push us, we would be passive and do nothing. Decisions are very much informed by our emotional state since this is what emotions are designed to do. Emotions quickly condense an experience, and evaluate it to inform our decision, so we can rapidly respond to the situation.

While emotions serve to direct us, they are driven by our automatic survival nature. As such, most of the time emotions communicate their messages below our level of awareness. It is important to note that because of their speed and survival purpose, emotions are not particularly accurate. Their speed and effectiveness compensate for what they lack in being specific and detailed. This is why the emotional system provides many false alarms, which requires us to reevaluate our response and check if it is appropriate to the particular situation.

The latest research has established that emotion is crucial in a rational decision-making process. Antonio Damasio and his colleagues concluded that in the absence of emotional markers, decision making is virtually unattainable. Our emotions will drive the conclusions we make, and our well-being may depend upon our ability to understand and interpret them while integrating them with a rational mind to make an appropriate decision. While it is important to consider and process emotional signals, we need to evaluate our responses and see if they are proper to the relevant situation.

How to use emotions to make effective decision-making?

Here are some steps to effectively use emotions for successful decision-making:

Welcome your emotions

Don’t repress or ignore your emotions. Start by identifying and understanding your emotions. Take a moment to recognize what you are feeling and why you are feeling. This mindful process of self-examination is critical to healthy decisions, since emotions can influence our views and judgments.

Remember “emotional bias”

Because of their survival nature, emotions can create biases that affect how we perceive information and interpret situations. Remember that the emotional brain cares more about being safe than about being correct. Listen to its alarm signal, and at the same time question its message.

Regulate your emotions

Emotions, especially at a high intensity, impact our ability to make rational decisions. Strong emotions can impair our judgment and make it challenging to think objectively and critically. This is why it is important to temper our emotions to be balanced and proportional to the situation.

Utilize emotions as a guide

Emotions can act as a compass, pointing you toward what matters most to you and/or what aligns with your values. However, it is essential to avoid letting emotions dictate your decision-making. Make sure to balance emotional insights with logical reasoning.

Enlist your rational mind

It is important to enlist the help of the rational mind. By doing so, you move from a system that operates quickly, intuitively, and unconsciously to a system that is slower and more controlled, rational, and conscious. You move beyond an impulsive, reactive emotional system to one that is contemplative, flexible, and strategic.

Consider the context

Evaluate the situation at hand and consider that emotions may be influenced by the context. Emotions that arise from past experiences or personal biases might cloud your judgment. Separate the present situation from the past and focus on the relevant factors.

Assemble relevant information

Emotions can provide valuable insights, but they should be complemented with factual information. Take your time to gather crucial information before making important decisions. Analyze the pros and cons of your options to make the best possible decisions.

Mindfulness is key to harmonizing the mind. The unregulated mind can become deluded, allowing passions, urges, and wild emotions to take over. Mindfulness allows us to notice our emotions and engage the rational mind to interpret their message. The goal is to treat your emotions as a gateway to a greater level of awareness.

Cultivate compassion

Cultivating compassion in decision making is a powerful way to make more empathetic , ethical, and balanced choices that consider the well-being of all. Compassion helps us soothe the emotional mind and choose actions that will benefit ourselves and others.

Practice emotional intelligence

Emotional intelligence is the ability to recognize and manage your emotions effectively. Key elements of emotional intelligence are self-awareness, self-regulation , motivation , empathy, and social skills. By developing emotional intelligence skills, you can use your emotions to inform your decisions without being controlled by them.

Reframe the situation

Reframing means consciously changing your way of thinking about the meaning of an emotionally charged situation in order to reduce negative feelings. You shift your interpretation of an event by specifically having loving thoughts and extending compassion to yourself and to other people.

Expand your perspective

When you see the big picture and are focused on your highest purpose, you are not distracted by smaller issues and impulses. Figuring out your deepest long-term goals and pursuing them will channel your emotions toward peace and harmony. It will allow you to recognize that if the decision is driven by your values, it’s the best decision regardless of the outcome.

To sum up, emotions play a significant role in decision-making and, when used properly, they can enhance the effectiveness of the decision-making process. Remember, emotions are a natural part of being human, and they can be a valuable asset in decision-making. By combining emotional insights with rational thinking, you can make more effective and well-rounded decisions.

Keltner D, Lerner JS.( 2010). Emotion. In The Handbook of social psychology, ed. DT Gilbert, ST Fiske, G Lindzey, pp. 317-52. New York, NY: Wiley

Damasio, A.R. (1990). Individuals with sociopathic behavior caused by frontal damage fail to respond autonomically to social stimuli". Behavioural brain research, 41 , 81-94

Moshe Ratson, MBA, MFT, is a psychotherapist and executive coach in NYC. He specializes in personal and professional development, anger management, emotional intelligence, infidelity issues, and couples and marriage therapy.

• Find a Therapist
• Find a Treatment Center
• Find a Psychiatrist
• Find a Support Group
• Find Teletherapy
• United States
• Brooklyn, NY
• Chicago, IL
• Houston, TX
• Los Angeles, CA
• New York, NY
• Portland, OR
• San Diego, CA
• San Francisco, CA
• Seattle, WA
• Washington, DC
• Asperger's
• Bipolar Disorder
• Chronic Pain
• Eating Disorders
• Passive Aggression
• Personality
• Goal Setting
• Positive Psychology
• Stopping Smoking
• Low Sexual Desire
• Relationships
• Child Development
• Therapy Center NEW
• Diagnosis Dictionary
• Types of Therapy

Understanding what emotional intelligence looks like and the steps needed to improve it could light a path to a more emotionally adept world.

• Coronavirus Disease 2019
• Affective Forecasting
• Neuroscience

How Language Affects Decision-Making

Home » Translation Blog » How Language Affects Decision-Making

A fascinating piece of research has indicated that when people process decisions in a less familiar language, it seems to result in more rational and less emotional outcomes. The collaborative project between researchers in Barcelona and Chicago shows that when people used foreign languages to process moral dilemmas, their choices tended to be utilitarian in nature.

Research showed that when people worked in a less familiar language they tended to choose outcomes that favored the common good. This was true even if the outcome required personal sacrifices to be made – such as one person dying to save many.

What’s interesting is that the study looks at the responses of people from more than one cultural background. Subjects from places such as Israel, Korea, and Spain all tended to opt for the outcome that was most utilitarian.

One researcher concluded that “people are less afraid of losses, more willing to take risks and much less emotionally connected when thinking in a foreign language.” Other researchers on the project suggested that speaking your native language connects you to your own ethical cultural context to a greater extent than a non-native one.

Running through the decision process in a non-native tongue seems to give people a bit more psychological distance from their emotions. Could this be helpful for global businesses?

We’ve written before about the courageous decision by several Japanese firms to change their language of operations to English. It’s yet to be shown how this really affects decision-making, but there’s already anecdotal evidence to suggest it’s having an impact on internal culture.

Global businesses tend to have multi-cultural teams, which usually means at least some of the workforce is operating in their second language. That has implications for how those organisations make decisions internally.

Perhaps it also affects business strategy. Are multi-cultural teams more rational than ones that operate entirely in their native language? Does changing your company’s working language change the decisions it makes? There’s still some work to do in this area to get to the root of this.

Humans aren’t rational

People aren’t as rational as we like to think we are. It’s a theme explored by Dan Ariely in his book, Predictably Irrational and by others such as Ori Brafman . These authors explain how people like to think their decisions are guided by intellect but in reality, emotions are behind much of our behaviors.

Social factors in particular guide how we make choices. For example, we’re more likely to make decisions that we believe will raise our estimation in the eyes of others. This might influence a person to qualify as a doctor because they want to be respected and they feel society respects doctors.

We’re also more likely to pursue a course of action if we feel our peers are doing the same. The most successful way to get people to quit smoking or recycle is often to tell them that other people just like them are doing it. This also works the other way around – if smoking is the norm, people are more likely to start.

Economic models used to assume that all people in society were rational actors when it came to making choices, cooly making the best decisions for themselves. We now better understand that people are irrational and tend to make short-term decisions even at the expense of their long-term wellbeing.

In fact, this year’s Nobel Prize winner for Economic Sciences was awarded to Richard Thaler for his work exploring how decision-making can be influenced by things such as a lack of self-control. We now also understand that language may be significant to informing our decision process.

Is this also relevant to organisations? Many of us can probably give examples of decisions being taken based on the whims of senior managers rather than more rational considerations.

Emotions such as fear and ego drive decision-makers and this affects how companies behave. Organisations might like to believe their strategies are based on data such as market insights, but humans are behind these strategies and emotion is always a factor.

Is emotion bad?

Although we now understand human decision making to be hugely influenced by emotion, is this really a bad thing? If our social standing is important to us, making decisions that place us in a better social position presumably results in the best outcome for us.

Maybe it’s just the economic models that are flawed. An economic model that predicts more people will quit smoking if you raise the cost of cigarettes via taxation overlooks the way people really behave – and results in flawed tax policymaking.

The key perhaps is to understand how our emotions tend to influence our decision-making and that’s something organisations can also benefit from.

Perhaps the most useful emotion that an organization can possess is empathy. Some of the biggest brand mistakes have occurred because the organization showed an astonishing lack of empathy for their audience.

In today’s high-scrutiny environment, brands are increasingly being punished for lapses of empathy. But empathy for customers also helps businesses understand how to serve them better. Emotion has a place in organizational decision-making: the key is to understand exactly what that role is.

Related posts

How to Get the Language Right in Your Travel Marketing

Adapting the language in your travel marketing will help you connect to the emotional expectations of your customers' travel experiences.

How to Approach the Complexities of Website Design for Different Markets

When it comes to website design, people from different cultural backgrounds have different criteria for what is acceptable, and what is good.

Why You Should Localize Digital Projects at the Design Stage

Localizing your digital projects at the design stage can reduce the complications associated with the project over its lifespan.

How to Implement an Effective Mobile App Localization Strategy

We take a look at the top mobile app localization best practices you need to implement to reach new users without compromising functionality.

How Changes to Section 1557 Could Affect Healthcare Organizations

How Sportswear Has Outperformed the Wider Retailer Sector

How to Improve Your Voice Search Strategy Globally

How Camping Became the New Travel Trend in China

How to Manage Text Expansion and Contraction in Translation

China’s Obsession with Microcredit

How Culture is Important in Language Learning

Cultural Sensitivity: How to Market Your Brand to Other Cultures

How to Describe “Luxury”

Understanding the 6 Dimensions of UK Culture

Growth Tactics

Groupthink: How to Avoid a Common Pitfall in Decision-Making

Last Updated on January 12, 2024 by Milton Campbell

Are you part of a group that consistently makes suboptimal decisions? Are you aware of the symptoms of groupthink and how to combat them? In this article, we will explore the concept of groupthink and how it affects our decision-making abilities. Understanding the phenomenon of groupthink is essential to make better decisions, whether you are in a professional setting or a social group.

What is Groupthink?

Groupthink is a psychological phenomenon that occurs when a cohesive group of individuals makes decisions based on maintaining harmony within the group rather than evaluating the problem critically.

In other words, groupthink occurs when a group values consensus more than exploring diverse perspectives and alternatives. As a result, decisions made under the influence of groupthink may lead to suboptimal outcomes and consequences.

Irving Janis initially coined the term “groupthink” in 1972, describing the phenomenon as a mode of thinking in cohesive groups that strive for harmony and unanimity rather than critical analysis and diverse perspectives. Janis developed a groupthink theory, which identifies the characteristics of groups that are susceptible to groupthink.

Understanding Vulnerabilities: Who is Susceptible to Groupthink?

Let’s explore who can be susceptible to groupthink and why it’s important to be aware of our vulnerabilities. By understanding who is at risk, we can take steps to prevent groupthink and make better decisions together. So, let’s dig in!

The Human Factor: Who Can Fall Into Groupthink Traps?

Groupthink can affect anyone, regardless of their intelligence or experience. We’re all susceptible to the allure of consensus and the desire for social acceptance. However, certain factors can increase our vulnerability to groupthink:

1. Close-knit teams or organizations:

When we’re part of a tightly-knit team or work in an organization with strong group dynamics , the bonds of camaraderie and cohesion can sometimes overshadow critical thinking. As we strive to maintain harmony within the group, we may suppress our own doubts or hesitate to challenge the prevailing opinion or individual members of the group.

2. High-stress situations:

In high-pressure situations like a crisis or time constraints, the need for swift decisions can intensify groupthink. The desire to reach a quick consensus and avoid conflict can lead to a rush in decision-making, bypassing thorough evaluation of alternatives or potential risks.

3. Authoritarian leadership:

Leaders who discourage dissenting opinions or discourage questioning of their authority can contribute to groupthink. When people feel that their views will be disregarded or met with negative consequences, they may hesitate to speak up, leading to a lack of diverse perspectives.

4. Homogeneous groups:

Groups that lack diversity in terms of background, experiences, or perspectives can be more prone to groupthink. When everyone shares similar viewpoints, critical evaluation and exploration of alternatives may be limited, leading to a narrow range of options being considered.

Recognizing the Signs: Symptoms of Groupthink

In this section, we’ll explore the symptoms of groupthink, which can help us identify when it’s happening and take steps to prevent it. Recognizing these signs is crucial in avoiding the pitfalls of groupthink and making better decisions together.

• Illusion of invulnerability : Group members may develop an unfounded sense of confidence and invincibility when they feel part of a strong, cohesive group. They may believe that they are incapable of making mistakes or experiencing negative consequences. It’s like wearing rose-colored glasses, where everything seems perfect and bound to go smoothly.
• Excessive optimism and risk-taking : When group cohesion becomes the primary focus, members may engage in excessive optimism and take risks without fully considering potential pitfalls or drawbacks. It’s like being so caught up in the group spirit that you forget to evaluate the potential downsides and play it safe.
• Closed-mindedness : Groupthink can lead to a closed mindset , where members become resistant to new ideas, perspectives, or dissenting opinions. The fear of disrupting harmony within the group can create a barrier to critical thinking and innovative solutions . It’s like putting blinders on, only seeing what’s right in front of you and ignoring other possibilities.
• Self-censorship : Group members may hesitate to voice their true thoughts or concerns, fearing rejection or social isolation within the group. This self-censorship can stifle independent thinking and prevent the exploration of alternative viewpoints. It’s like biting your tongue, holding back your ideas, and going along with the flow instead.
• Pressure for conformity : Group dynamics can create significant pressure for individuals to conform to the majority opinion or consensus. Dissenting voices may feel compelled to silence themselves to maintain harmony, leading to a lack of diversity in decision-making. It’s like feeling the weight of peer pressure, nudging you to go along with the crowd instead of expressing your unique perspective.

By being aware of these symptoms, we can catch ourselves and our group when we start veering into the realm of groupthink. The good news is that we can actively take steps to prevent it and encourage a more open, inclusive, and critical thinking environment.

How Does Groupthink Affect Decision-making?

In cohesive groups, members may be more likely to engage in groupthink and make poor decisions. Group members may feel pressured to conform, and the persuasive group leader may suppress dissenting opinions.

This dynamic can lead to a false sense of unanimity, where group members may not express their doubts about a decision and instead support the group consensus.

Examples of Groupthink: Learning from Past Mistakes

Let’s dive into some real-life examples of groupthink to better understand how it can affect decision-making and why it’s important to be aware of its presence. Examining these examples will help us identify the signs of groupthink and avoid falling into the same traps.

The Bay of Pigs Invasion

One of the most notable examples of groupthink occurred during the Bay of Pigs invasion in 1961. The advisors of US President John F. Kennedy fell victim to groupthink when they made assumptions about the Cuban population’s willingness to rise against Fidel Castro. Instead of critically evaluating the situation, they relied on the majority opinion within the group, which led to a disastrous outcome.

Challenger Space Shuttle Disaster

Another tragic example of groupthink is the Challenger space shuttle disaster in 1986. Engineers and managers at NASA were aware of potential issues with the shuttle’s O-rings, which could fail in cold weather conditions. However, due to pressure to meet launch schedules and maintain the positive image of the space program, the concerns raised by engineers were dismissed. The result was a catastrophic failure that cost the lives of all seven crew members.

Enron: A Corporate Collapse

The collapse of energy giant Enron in 2001 is another example of groupthink in action. Top executives within the company fostered a culture that discouraged dissenting opinions and promoted an “us versus them” mentality. This environment led to a lack of critical evaluation and a blind trust in the company’s leadership. The consequences were severe, with Enron ultimately filing for bankruptcy and being involved in one of the largest corporate scandals in history.

Avoiding Groupthink in our Lives

These examples demonstrate the dangers of groupthink and highlight the importance of being vigilant in our decision-making processes. By recognizing the symptoms of groupthink and promoting open discussion, diverse perspectives, and critical thinking, we can prevent falling into the same traps that these historical examples illustrate.

Remember, we can all learn from these past mistakes and strive to create environments that encourage independent thinking, questioning of assumptions, and consideration of alternative viewpoints. By doing so, we can improve our decision-making skills and achieve better outcomes, whether in personal or professional settings.

Nurturing Independent Thinking: Strategies to Prevent Groupthink

Now that we’ve identified the symptoms of groupthink, let’s explore some practical strategies to prevent it. By implementing these approaches, we can create an environment that fosters independent thinking, encourages diverse perspectives, and leads to better decision-making.

• Encourage open communication : Establish an atmosphere where every member feels comfortable expressing their thoughts, concerns, and ideas. Encourage active participation and create opportunities for everyone to contribute. By promoting open communication, we create a space where diverse perspectives can thrive.
• Embrace diverse viewpoints : Actively seek out and include individuals with diverse backgrounds, experiences, and expertise in decision-making groups. Having a mix of ages, genders, cultures, and disciplines can bring fresh perspectives and challenge group assumptions. Embracing diversity is like adding different colored threads to a tapestry, creating a vibrant and comprehensive picture.
• Assign a devil’s advocate : Designate someone to play the role of a devil’s advocate, whose purpose is to challenge the prevailing group opinion and stimulate critical thinking. This person can voice alternative viewpoints and offer constructive criticism, fostering a healthy culture of debate and reflection. It’s like having a friendly sparring partner who helps you refine your thinking.
• Promote critical thinking : Encourage group members to ask questions, challenge assumptions, and explore alternative solutions. Create a culture that values thoughtful analysis and evidence-based reasoning. By honing our critical thinking skills , we become better equipped to make informed and rational decisions as a group.
• Seek external input : Sometimes, seeking input from outside sources can provide valuable insights and break the echo chamber effect of groupthink. Consider involving subject matter experts, consultants, or conducting external research to gain a fresh perspective and challenge group assumptions.
• Encourage dissenting opinions : Actively seek out and encourage dissenting opinions and alternative viewpoints. Emphasize that constructive criticism and disagreement are not only welcomed but valued as essential components of robust decision-making. It’s like having different pieces of a puzzle, each contributing to the complete picture.
• Promote reflection and evaluation : After decisions are made, encourage the group to reflect on the process and outcomes. Engage in post-decision evaluations to learn from successes and failures. This reflection process can help identify areas where groupthink may have influenced the decision and provide valuable lessons for future decision-making endeavors.

By implementing these strategies, we can proactively combat groupthink and create decision-making environments that thrive on diverse perspectives, critical thinking, and open dialogue. Remember, it’s a journey of growth and learning, and by actively working together, we can make better decisions and achieve more fruitful outcomes.

What is Polarization?

Polarization occurs when a group’s decision-making leads to the adoption of more extreme positions. Polarization can become a result of groupthink, as group members may adopt more radical positions due to the persuasive influence of the majority. As a result, group decision-making can become biased and less effective.

The Positive Side of Groupthink: When It Can Lead to Success

While groupthink is widely considered a negative phenomenon, there are cases where it can lead to positive outcomes. Here are a few examples:

1. Creative brainstorming:

In a creative brainstorming session, groupthink can be a useful tool for generating a large quantity of ideas. By building on each other’s suggestions and creating a collective creative momentum, group members can quickly generate a large number of possibilities.

2. Team building:

In certain team-building activities, groupthink can help to build camaraderie and foster a sense of teamwork . By working together towards a common goal, group members can build connections and a sense of trust, which can be beneficial for future collaborative efforts.

3. Swift action:

In time-critical situations, groupthink can help to facilitate quick decision-making. By quickly reaching a consensus, the group can take immediate action, which may be beneficial in emergency scenarios.

Groupthink is a psychological phenomenon that affects decision-making processes in cohesive groups. While group cohesion is essential for group performance, it can also lead to suboptimal outcomes when consensus becomes the dominant goal. By understanding the symptoms of groupthink, we can recognize when it occurs and take action to prevent it. Encouraging a culture of openness and diversity in groups can lead to better decisions and a more innovative approach to problem-solving .

Remember, to avoid groupthink, it is essential to invite diverse perspectives, engage in critical thinking, and foster open communication . By doing so, we can minimize the negative consequences of groupthink and make better decisions as a group.

Things to remember:

• Groupthink occurs when consensus becomes more essential than evaluating the problem critically.
• The symptoms of groupthink include an illusion of invulnerability, closed-mindedness, excessive optimism, and self-censorship.
• Decision-making groups should encourage diverse perspectives, promote critical thinking, and embrace a culture of transparency and accountability.
• Groupthink can lead to disastrous consequences and victims of groupthink.
• Finally, encouraging diversity and critical thinking can minimize the negative effects of groupthink and lead to better decision-making.

Related posts:

Money blog: Lender to increase some mortgage deals in 'baffling' move

Skipton Building Society has announced it will be increasing some of its mortgage rates from next week - with the move facing some criticism. It comes after the Bank of England opted to keep interest rates at 5.25% yesterday.

Friday 22 March 2024 17:45, UK

Key points:

• Mapped: Where house prices and rents are going up, and where they're falling
• Lender increasing some mortgage deals in 'baffling' move
• Your guide to buying healthier supermarket bread
• 'Worst energy suppliers for customer service' revealed
• Bank of England holds interest rates at 5.25%
• Ed Conway : How members voted is 'significant' and hints 'big moves' coming
• Savings guide : The account where you could save £20,000 - and end up with £28,000 after five years

Ask a question or make a comment

A warning has been issued over a proposed merger between Vodafone and Three. 

The £15bn deal would create the UK's largest mobile phone network if given the go ahead, but the Competition and Markets Authority has said it could lead to customers facing higher prices and reduced quality.  

"Whilst Vodafone and Three have made a number of claims about how their deal is good for competition and investment, the CMA has not seen sufficient evidence to date to back these claims," Julie Bon, phase one decisionmaker for the case at the CMA, said. 

"Our initial assessment of this deal has identified concerns which could lead to higher prices for customers and lower investment in UK mobile networks." 

Retail sales flatlined in February as "extremely" wet weather put off shoppers from heading to the high street.

There was 0% growth in the sector last month, according to new figures from the Office for National Statistics (ONS) on Friday.

It said a good performance for clothes shops and department stores was offset by falls in food and fuel sales, possibly because of rising prices at the pumps.

However, it appears the weather also had a major impact as consumers shunned in-person stores in favour of online shopping.

You can read more here ...

Mobile networks will have to send roaming alerts to customers travelling abroad and provide information about the charges that apply under new regulator rules. 

Ofcom has said the regulations will help better protect mobile users against unexpected roaming charges. 

It comes after it found the quality of the information being provided can be "inconsistent and unclear" and 19% of customers were unaware of the extra charges. 

The new rules, which will come into force from 1 October, will require providers to give "clear, free to access information, so customers can make informed decisions about whether - and how - to use their mobile phone abroad". 

Uswitch has welcomed the news, but said there was "virtually nothing to stop providers from charging enormous sums" for using a phone abroad. 

"While we support these new rules, including roaming alerts and clear information on costs, they fall vastly short of the protections that consumers had come to expect," it said. 

"They will only come into force from October, so those travelling abroad this summer will still need to take extra precautions to avoid any surprises." 

The new England football kit has been making headlines this week for two reasons - its expensive price tag and its version of the St George's Cross. 

Here's what you need to know: 

An "authentic" version of the shirt costs £124.99 for adults and £119.99 for children, while a "stadium" version is £84.99 and £64.99 for children.

The high price makes it the most expensive football shirt in the country.

Last year, an adult stadium shirt cost £74.95 while a child's top cost £59.95. 

Nike, the designer of the kit, also made some changes to the St George's Cross that has sparked debate. 

The traditional red cross was tweaked and features purple and blue stripes.

The company dubbed it "a playful update" to the shirt ahead of Euro 2024, inspired by the training kit worn by England's 1966 World Cup winners.

A Nike spokesperson previously said: "The England 2024 home kit disrupts history with a modern take on a classic.

"The trim on the cuffs takes its cues from the training gear worn by England's 1966 heroes, with a gradient of blues and reds topped with purple.

"The same colours also feature an interpretation of the flag of St George on the back of the collar."

Prime Minister Rishi Sunak warned against "messing with" the national flags, saying they are "a source of pride, identity, who we are and they are perfect as we are". 

Responding to the Nike redesign, former England goalkeeper Peter Shilton, the country's most capped men's player, said he was against the design and the price. 

Passport application fees are set to rise next month, the government has announced.

While the proposals still need to be scrutinised by parliament for approval, it is likely they will be passed. 

If approved, it will mark the second year in a row the prices have been hiked following a 9% increase in February 2023. 

They are set to rise by around 7% on Thursday 11 April. 

What are the new fees? 

Under the proposals, a standard online application made from within the UK will rise by £6 to £88.50 for adults and by £4 to £57.50 for children. 

A postal application will go up by £7 to £100 for adults and £69 for children. 

The one-week fast track service is also increasing by £11.50 for adults (£155) and £9.50 for children (£135.50). 

If you are applying from overseas, the price is rising to £101 for adults and £65.50 for children. 

Why are they rising? 

The Home Office said the new fees will help it better meet "the cost of delivering passport and associated operations, reducing reliance on funding from general taxation". 

"The fees contribute to the cost of processing passport applications, consular support overseas, including for lost or stolen passports, and the cost of processing British citizens at UK borders," it said on the government website. 

"The increase will also help enable the government to continue improving its services." 

Is it worth renewing early? 

MoneySavingExpert says it is worth renewing early to avoid the increased rates - but only if you have less than 10 months left on your current passport. 

The time left on it your passport is no longer added on to the expiry date of your new passport.

A standard adult passport lasts for 10 years and used to cost £72.50 – which works out to around 60p per month of ownership, it said. 

This means you would save money by renewing early - but if it is valid for longer than 10 months, then you might be worse off. 

Basically, the closer your passport is to expiring, the more it's worth renewing before the new fees kick in.

Looking for a last minute Easter weekend break away? Helpfully, Which? has put together a list of the cheapest destinations for holiday cottages. 

The consumer champion found there are more than 14,000 properties still available to rent over the Bank Holiday weekend. 

Booking now will cost an average of £800 for a week's stay, it added. 

The cheapest region was found to be Shropshire, with the average holiday cottage costing a huge £400 less than a week in the most expensive area - the Outer Hebrides. 

Here are the destinations Which? found to be the cheapest: 

Nationwide has apologised after all payments in and out of customer accounts were delayed this morning. 

The issue, which has since been resolved, had affected the building society's faster payments system. 

Some users had complained online that they hadn't received their wages, and had been unable to pay their bills.

Others said they couldn't access their finances while their transfers were disrupted.

While the problem has been fixed, Nationwide has said it could still take "a few hours" for impacted payments to be processed. 

"We are very sorry for any inconvenience caused," it added.

Customers have been urged not to resend or duplicate payments because of the delays. 

By Ollie Cooper, Money team

We've all heard consumer advice that's repeated so often it almost becomes cliché. So, every Friday the Money team will get to the bottom of a different "fact" and decide whether it's a myth or must.

This week it is...

'Leaving devices on standby or on at the wall wastes cash' 

Should we really be switching the TV off at the wall every time?

For this one, we've got the help of Kelly Becker , president of Schneider Electric UK and Ireland .

"Switching the TV off at the mains to save electricity is a sensible idea but the savings are minimal," Kelly says. 

She describes the money you spend on devices on standby as "a drop in the ocean" compared to what we spend on hot water and heating. 

Those things are the biggest drain on our energy bills, accounting for roughly 80% of household energy. Lighting and appliances, however, account for only 13%, she says. 

Devices left on standby generally only account for a maximum of 1-2% of our monthly bill.

What does that look like?

"For instance, a [typical] boiler consumes around 200W when running and 600W just to get started," she says. 

By contrast, the average TV consumes roughly 60-120W when running and uses as little 0.5W in standby mode.

Running your standard LCD TV costs roughly 3p per hour under the new price cap that comes into effect on 1 April. 

Kelly and her team were unable to calculate the exact cost of how much a TV on standby would cost for one hour because the wattage was so low - but some energy calculators suggest it's as little as £0.000145. 

We aren't saying that savings are non-existent - and it's certainly better for the planet and (albeit to a very limited extent) your wallet - but to say it's making significant dents in your bills would be a drastic exaggeration. 

Want to maximise savings?

As we just said, we aren't saying don't do it - if you want to shave off every penny and don't mind putting in the work to do so, here are a few tips.

"We can economise by turning devices off before we go to bed or while we're at work - the cheapest energy is the energy we don't use, and this is a good place to start," Kelly says. 

Simple enough - but what about those things that have a standby mode?

"Unfortunately, games consoles, set top boxes, TV streaming devices and other appliances aren't designed to be switched off," Kelly says.

Standby tends to be the default setting when not in use - allowing for software updates but also the convenience of picking up exactly where you left off streaming or gaming.

So how do we tackle those?

"Using smart plugs combined with advanced energy monitoring systems, you can schedule sockets to turn on and off automatically to suit your daily patterns," Kelly suggests.

By using the latter, it is possible to monitor electricity consumption per device to work out what's worth switching off - although you'd obviously need to weigh up whether the expense of purchasing one is worth it. 

Smart plugs retail from £8 up to around £40. 

You could invest instead in timed automated switches, which can be cheaper and effectively do the same thing - but these are often battery powered, so you'd need to consider that cost, too. 

Myth or Must?

If you think you'll be saving a fortune religiously switching off every device in the house at the plug - you'd be incorrect.

That being said, if you want that 1-2% cut off the energy bill and don't mind the effort of reaching behind the telly every time (or investing in smart plugs), there's certainly no harm.

Skipton Building Society has announced it will be increasing some of its mortgage rates from next week. 

The lender will put up rates across its residential two-year fixed purchase only range, as well as its two and five-year remortgage deals. 

It is also withdrawing its five-year fixed rate purchase only products. 

The changes will be made from 26 March. 

The decision has been branded "baffling" by some mortgage experts, especially after the Bank of England opted to keep interest rates at 5.25% yesterday. 

Stephen Perkins, managing director at Yellow Brick Mortgages, said Skipton could be trying to increase its margins. 

"Skipton have either made these rate decisions in a dark room isolated from the news cycle, or are trying to increase their margins or reduce their application levels," he told Newspage.

Hannah Bashford, managing director at Model Financial Solutions, added: "This is just baffling. With a positive base rate decision meeting yesterday and expectations for rates to decrease by the summer, we've seen swaps reduce and yet lenders are increasing their rates.

"They can't all be claiming to stem business volumes when March has been much slower in terms of applications than January and February."

A Tesco in Preston has attracted attention online after pictures appeared to show the store placing security barriers around its reduced to clear section.

Images of the orange barricades were posted on social media sites, with some shoppers claiming there had been "scraps" in the aisle. 

The sections are used by Tesco to feature products that are close to their expiry date and therefore have been reduced in price. 

The areas tend to be popular with shoppers looking to bag a deal. 

Having barriers around a reduced to clear section isn't a company-wide policy, but using them is an option for staff. 

They are implemented at each store's discretion, usually to make sure employees have enough space to work. 

Tesco didn't wish to comment on the story. 

Waitrose is considering closing its warehouse in Enfield in July 2024. 

The move, if given the go ahead, would put more than 500 jobs at risk, but is not expected to have any customer impact. 

The supermarket is considering the closure of the site due to increasing rental costs and after finding capacity elsewhere in its network. 

However, no decision will be made until after a 12-week consultation process is held. 

A spokesperson told Sky News: "While it's not an option we are taking lightly, the proposal would maintain our high levels of customer service, whilst focusing our investment to make this even better in future.

"No decision will be made until we have fully consulted with all partners at our Enfield site, who are being supported throughout the process." 

Depop has scrapped selling fees for users in the UK, meaning sellers will get more money back from each of their sales. 

The secondhand clothes app said the move comes as part of a broader update to its fee structure that aims to make a "more circular fashion system". 

However, the update will also see a 5% marketplace fee introduced for UK buyers from 15 April, which will support "continued investment" across the marketplace. 

"With more and more people now looking at resale as an alternative to retail, we want to make it easier than ever for people to take their first step into secondhand, and sell the clothes they no longer wear," it said on its website. 

"To support this, we are saying goodbye to charging selling fees for sellers based in the UK."

Pub giant JD Wetherspoon has revealed a jump in profits for the past year as it witnessed higher customer demand. 

The company told shareholders that pre-tax profits surged by almost eight-fold to £36m for the year to January, compared with £4.6m a year earlier.

Founder Tim Martin said: "The company currently anticipates a reasonable outcome for the financial year, subject to our future sales performance."

It came as the pub group also confirmed it has trimmed the size of its pub estate further.

Wetherspoons said it now has 814 pubs after selling five pubs, terminating the lease of another five and subletting another three sites.

One in eight UK supermarkets now offer electric vehicle (EV) charging -  but Asda has deactivated most of its devices, research has shown. 

The number of supermarkets offering EV chargers rose from 1,015 at the end of 2022 to 1,616 by late 2023,the RAC and Zapmap found.

That's around 13% of all 12,839 supermarkets in the country. 

However, Asda was found to have charging facilities at just 2% of its stores after many of its devices were deactivated. 

An Asda spokesperson said its operating agreement with bp pulse came to an end in October last year.

"These EV charging points remain on site with clear signage to indicate to customers that the equipment is currently not in use, whilst we review our options," they added.

Morrisons was found to be the supermarket chain with the highest proportion of stores offering EV charging at 69%, followed by Lidl (30%).

Be the first to get Breaking News

Install the Sky News app for free