speech pathology academic research

Speech-Language Pathology

• Research Process
• Electronic Resources

Peer-reviewed Journals in Speech-Language Pathology and Audiology

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• Step 3: Appraise
• Systematic Reviews
• Searching Tips
• Publication Guide
• Adult Language Disorders
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These journals were selected by the speech language faculty as ones that may be beneficial to your research. Welder Library has access to some of the journals. Some are available through open access. Some you may have to request specific articles by using our interlibrary loan service. Look for these icons below to determine how you can gain access to them: 

These journals were selected by the speech language faculty as ones that may be beneficial to your research. Welder Library has access to some of the journals. Some are available through open access. Some you may have to request specific articles from using our  interlibrary loan  service. Look for these icons below to determine how you can gain access to them:

These journals were selected by the speech language faculty as ones that may be beneficial to your research. Welder Library has access to some of the journals. Some are available through open access. Some you may have to request specific articles from using our  interlibrary loan  service. Look for these icons below to determine how you can gain access to them: 

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• Last Updated: Jan 24, 2024 2:34 PM
• URL: https://libguide.umary.edu/speechlang

Master of Science in Speech-Language Pathology

Clinical research speech-language pathology .

The UW Master of Science in Clinical Research Speech-Language Pathology (CoreSLP) provides you with a focused course of study that prepares you for doctoral study in speech-language pathology or entry into any clinical practice setting.

In the CoreSLP program track, you’ll study a curriculum that's accredited by the Council on Academic Accreditation (CAA) in Audiology and Speech-Language Pathology of the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA), the nation’s leading professional organization for speech-language pathologists and audiologists.

In addition to the foundational speech-language pathology curriculum, the program incorporates coursework in statistical analysis and research methods. You’ll also complete a research seminar and be paired with a faculty mentor who’ll oversee your research training, lab work and master’s thesis.

View full course details

Program Format

CoreSLP is a full-time, two-year (eight-quarter) program. This is an in-person program, and classes are held on the UW campus in Seattle. You’ll complete the clinical coursework in a variety of community practice settings, including at the UW and in Seattle and the surrounding area.

Clinical Education and Experiential Learning

A significant portion of your speech-language pathology training occurs outside of the classroom. During both years, you’ll participate in clinical education and experiential learning , including practicum and internship experiences. In your first year, you’ll complete a series of rotations in the UW Speech & Hearing Clinic. This training will prepare you for your community-based practicums and internship during your second year.

In This Section

• Courses & Requirements
• Clinical Education & Experiential Learning

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Laboratory Facilities

Communication Sciences & Disorders Research Laboratory

The CSD lab houses audiology equipment, a sound booth, augmentative communication tools, speech and language tests used in studies of speech and language across the age spectrum.

Faculty Research & Publications

Peer-reviewed publications.

Oxford Handbook of Aphasia and Language Disorders. New York: Oxford University Press. Raymer, A.M., & Rothi, L.J.G. (Eds.) (2017).

Azad, G., Holingue, C., Pfeiffer, D., Dillon, E., Reetzke, R., Kalb, L., Menon, D., Hong., J., & Landa, R. (2021). The influence of race on parental beliefs and concerns during an autism diagnosis: A mixed methods analysis. Autism , 1-12 .

Crosson, B., Rodriguez, A.D., Copland, D.A., Fridriksson, J., Krishnamurthy, L.C., Meinzer, M., Raymer, A.M., Krishnamurthy, V., & Leff, A.P. (2019). Neuroplasticity and aphasia treatments: New approaches for an old problem. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, & Psychiatry, 90 (10), 1147-1155 . doi: 10.1136/jnnp-2018-319649.

Davis, E., Wolfe, J., Murdock, R., Lopez, M., & Murphy, K.A . (2019). The utilization of internal and external memory strategies in evidence-based practice. Evidence-Based Practice Briefs, 14 (1), 1-10.

Gohsman, M. & Johnson, R. (2023). Reported barriers to augmentative and alternative communication service delivery and post-professional learning preferences among speech-language pathologists. American Journal of Speech-Language Patholo gy. doi: https://doi.org/10.1044/2023_AJSLP-22-00036

Holingue, C., Pfeiffer, D ., Ludwig, N. N., Reetzke, R., Hong, J. S., Kalb, L. G., & Landa, R. (2023). Prevalence of gastrointestinal symptoms among individuals with ASD, with and without co- occurring intellectual disability. Autism Research.

Holingue, C., Poku, O., Pfeiffer, D ., Murray, S., Fallin, M. D. (2021). Gastrointestinal concerns in children with autism spectrum disorder: A qualitative study of family experiences. Autism, 1-14.

Hong, J. S., Singh, V., Kalb, L., Reetzke, R., Ludwig, N., Pfeiffer, D ., Holingue, C., Menon, D., Lu, Q., Ashkar, A., & Landa, R. (2022). Replication study of ADOS-2 for diagnosing autism spectrum disorder. Autism Research .

Horn, A.L., Roitsch, J., & Murphy, K. A . (2021). Constant time delay to teach reading to students with intellectual disability and autism: A review. International Journal of Developmental Disabilities , 1-11. doi: 10.1080/20473869.2021.1907138

Johnson, R . & Gohsman, M. (2023). Predictors for AAC clinical service provision: Closing the gap. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology . doi: https://doi.org/23814764000300140072

Johnson, R.K ., Mathews, J., Diawara, N., & Carroll, R. (2020). Statistical analysis of fNIRS Data: Consideration of spatial varying coefficient model of prefrontal cortex activity changes during speech motor learning in apraxia of speech. Frontiers in Applied Mathematics and Statistics. doi: https://doi.org/10.3389/fams.2020.00032

Johnson, R. K ., Michalek, A., & Richels, C . (2019). Creating head space: Using spaced retrieval practice to teach cranial nerves to graduate SLP students.  Teaching and Learning in Communication Sciences & Disorders, 3 (2). 

Johnson, R., & Prebor, J . (2019). Update on preservice training in augmentative and alternative communication for speech-language pathologists. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology. 28(2), 536-549. doi: 10.1044/2018_AJSLP-18-0004

Kalb, L., Holingue, C., Pfeiffer, D ., Reetzke, R., Dillon, E., Azad, G., Freedman, B., & Landa, R. (2021). Parental relationship status and age at autism spectrum disorder diagnosis of their child. Autism, 25 (8), 2189-2198 .

Kalb, L. G., Singh, V., Hong, J. S., Holingue, C., Ludwig, N. N., Pfeiffer, D ., Reetzke, R., Gross, A., & Landa, R. (2022). Evaluation of racial and sex bias in the autism spectrum observation schedule: An item-response theory analysis. JAMA Network Open, 5 (4): e229498.

Michalek, A. M. P., Raver, S. A., Richels, C., Murphy, K. A., & Alshammari, R. (2021). Using focused recasting and auditory bombardment to teach child-specific morphosyntactical skills to preschoolers who are deaf or hard of hearing. Deafness & Education International, 23 (1), 43-63. doi:10.1080/14643154.2019.1627737

Murphy, K.A., & Diehm, E. (2020). Collecting words: A clinical example of a morphology-focused orthographic intervention. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 51 (3), 544-560. doi: 10.1044/2020_LSHSS-19-00050 [invited]

Murphy, K.A ., & Justice, L.M. (2019). Lexical-level predictors of reading comprehension in third grade: Is spelling a unique contributor? American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, (28) 4, 1597-1610. doi:10.1044/2019_AJSLP-18-0299

Murphy, K.A., Pentimonti, J.M., & Chow, J. (2023). Supporting children's language and literacy through collaborative shared book reading. Intervention in School and Clinic, 58 (3), 155-163. doi: 10.1177/10534512221081218 [invited]

Murphy, K.A ., Springle, A., Sultani, M., McIlraith, A., & Language and Reading Research Consortium (2022). Predicting language performance from narrative language samples. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research , 65 (2), 775-784. doi: 10.1044/2021_JSLHR-21-00262

Pfeiffer, D., Feuerstein, J., Herman, D., & Landa, R. (2022). Early childhood providers’ perceptions of effective professional development components: A qualitative study. Infants & Young Children, 35 (3), 248-263 .

Pfeiffer, D. L ., Feuerstein, J., & Landa, R. (2023). Speech-language pathologists’ perceptions of language and literacy instruction for pre-K children with developmental language disorder. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools.

Pfeiffer, D., Holingue, C., Dillon, E., Kalb, L., Reetzke, R., & Landa, R. (2021). Parental concerns of children with ASD by age: A qualitative analysis. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 86 (101817), 1-12 .

Pfeiffer, D. L ., & Landa, R. J. (2022). Assessing generalization during the early achievements for child care providers intervention: A pilot randomized controlled trial. Early Education and Development.

Pfeiffer, D. L ., & Pavelko, S. L. (2023). Evidence-based guidance for alphabet knowledge across service delivery models. Perspectives of the ASHA Special Interest Groups.

Pfeiffer, D. L ., Pavelko, S. L., & Bronaugh, D. (2022). Get out of your silo: A qualitative examination of an interprofessional undergraduate course. Perspectives of the ASHA Special Interest Groups.

Pfeiffer, D ., Pavelko, S., Allen-Bronaugh, D., Dudding, C., & Timler, G. (2022). A practice-based interprofessional emergent writing intervention: Impacts on graduate students and preschoolers. Communication Sciences & Disorders, 6 (1) .

Pfeiffer, D. L ., Pavelko, S. L., Hahs-Vaughn, D. L., & Dudding, C. C. (2019). A national survey of speech-language pathologists’ engagement in interprofessional collaborative practice in schools: Identifying predictive factors and barriers to implementation. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 50 , 639-655 .

Pfeiffer, D. L., Pavelko, S. L., & Ingram, S. (2018). Interprofessional education for preprofessional speech-language pathologists and general education teachers. EBP Briefs, 13 (1), 1-10 .

Dudding, C. C. & Pfeiffer, D. L. ( 2018). Clinical decision-making in speech-language pathology. Teaching and Learning in Communication Sciences & Disorders, 2 (1), 1-11.

Puhlman, J., & Johnson, R.K. (2019 ). Survey of male college students’ perception and knowledge of speech-language pathology. Journal of Communication Disorders.   82, article 205936. doi:10.1016/j.jcomdis.2019.105936

Raymer, A.M ., Roitsch, J., Redman, R., Michalek, A.M.P., & Johnson, R.K . (2018).  Critical appraisal of systematic reviews of executive function treatments in TBI. Brain Injury, 32 (13-14), 1601-1611 . DOI: 10.1080/02699052.2018.1522671.

Raymer, A.M., Sandberg, H.M., Schwartz, K., Watson, G.S., & Ringleb, S.I. (2019). Treatment of auditory processing in noise in individuals with mild aphasia: Pilot study. Clinical Archives of Communication Disorders, 4 (2), 1-7 . doi:10.21849/cacd.2019.00087.

Reetzke, R., Singh, V., Hong, J. S., Holingue, C., Kalb, L. G., Ludwig, N. N., Menon, D., Pfeiffer, D. L., & Landa, R. J. (2022). Profiles and correlates of language and social communication differences among young autistic children. Frontiers in Psychology, 13.

Reetzke, R., Pfeiffer, D., Kalb, L., Holingue, C., Zetlmeisl, C., Hong. J. S., Landa, R. (2021). Informant (dis)agreement on ratings of challenging behaviors and social communication in preschool children with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 64 (7), 2766-2775 .

Roitsch, J., Gumpert, M., Springle, A., & Raymer, A.M. (2020, epub). Writing instruction for students with learning disabilities: Quality appraisal of systematic reviews and meta-analyses. Reading and Writing Quarterly. doi:10.1080/10573569.2019.708221.

Roitsch, J.E., Murphy, K.A ., & Raymer, A.M . (2020). Executive functions and clinical and academic outcomes in speech-language pathology graduate students. Perspectives of the ASHA Special Interest Groups, 5, 1221-1230. doi: 10.1044/2020_PERSP-19-00143 Roitsch, J.,  Murphy, K.A., & Raymer, A.M. (2020). Executive functions and clinical and academic outcomes in speech-language pathology graduate students.  Perspectives of the ASHA Special Interest Groups, 5 (5), 1221-1230. doi: 10.1044/2020_PERSP-19-00143

Roitsch, J., Prebor, J., & Raymer, A.M . (2021). Cognitive assessments for patients with neurologic conditions: A preliminary survey of speech-language pathology practice patterns. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 30 , 2263-2274 . 

Roitsch, J., Redman, R., Michalek, A.M.P., Johnson, R.K ., & Raymer, A.M . (2019). Quality appraisal of systematic reviews for behavioral treatments of attention disorders in traumatic brain injury. Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 34 (4), E42-E50 . doi: 10.1097/HTR.00000000000444.

Roitsch, J., Walker, M.L., & Raymer, A.M . (2021). Executive functions and student academic during physical therapist education: An exploratory study. Journal of Allied Health, 50 (4), e107-e114.        69. Patterson, J.P., & Raymer, A.M. (2022). Applying critical appraisal tools in aphasia systematic reviews. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 31 (5S), 2291-2300 . doi: 10.1044/2022_AJSLP-21-00288

Springle, A.P., Breeden, A., & Raymer, A.M . (2020). Speech intervention effects in childhood apraxia of speech: Quality appraisal of systematic reviews. Perspectives of the ASHA Special Interest Groups, 5 , 646-653 .

Springle, A.P., Pfeiffer, D.L ., & Gillis, C. (2023). Enriching pre-clinical education with near-peer learning experiences.  Teaching and Learning in Communication Sciences & Disorders, 7 (2). 

Speech-Language Pathology Programs

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Speech Pathology

Welcome to the Department of Speech Pathology and Audiology (SPA) at the University of Nevada, Reno School of Medicine. We are dedicated to provide the highest quality educational, research, and clinical services to both our students and the community. Speech Pathology and Audiology offers a pre-professional B.S. degree in Speech Pathology and Audiology and professional graduate degrees in Speech-Language Pathology. We are very proud of our department and welcome you to explore and discover what a professional career in speech pathology and audiology has to offer you.

Get started with Speech Pathology and Audiology

Join approximately 200 undergraduate and 50 graduate students enrolled in one of our three degree programs offered (B.S., M.S., and Ph.D.).

Speech Pathology and Audiology Department

Our department is located in the Division of Health Sciences within the University of Nevada, Reno School of Medicine. Our department is currently home to approximately 12 faculty who are leaders in their field. All faculty hold a Certificate of Clinical Competence from The American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA).

Typically there are approximately 200 undergraduate and 50 graduate students enrolled in one of our three degree programs offered (B.S., M.S., and Ph.D.). SPA is committed to maintaining student-faculty ratios that are desirable for effective clinical and academic training. Our department also offers students a unique opportunity to train with faculty who are dedicated teachers, active practitioners, and contributors to the field. Graduate students are prepared for professional careers as Speech-Language Pathologists in schools, hospitals, rehabilitation centers, and community clinics.

The program provides the academic and clinical requirements necessary for the Certificate of Clinical Competence (CCC) from the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA). The Master's of Science (M.S.) education program in speech-language pathology (residential) at the University of Nevada, Reno is accredited by the Council on Academic Accreditation in Audiology and Speech-Language Pathology (CAA) of the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association 2200 Research Boulevard #310, Rockville, Maryland 20850, (800) 498-2071 or (301) 296-5700.

UNR School of Medicine Diversity Statement

The University of Nevada, Reno School of Medicine recognizes that diversity promotes excellence in education, research and health care. Our school is an inclusive and engaged community and recognizes the added value that students, faculty and staff from different backgrounds bring to the educational experience. We strive to develop culturally competent graduates to care for the residents of Nevada and the nation.

SPA Department Diversity Statement

We are committed to training future professionals to be members of an inclusive workforce serving a diverse community. We strive to improve the lives of people across the life span with communication, swallowing, hearing, and balance disorders through comprehensive clinical services.

Learn more about Diversity at UNR Med

• Degrees & Programs
• College of Health Sciences
• Master of Science in Speech-Language Pathology Program

Master of Science in Speech-Language Pathology, Glendale Campus

The Master of Science (M.S.) in Speech-Language Pathology degree provides you with the academic, research, and clinical experiences needed to be leaders in your field and ready to improve the lives of others.

Offered through the College of Health Sciences, Glendale Campus

At Midwestern University Speech-Language Pathology Program, you will learn how to become an effective, caring clinician who learns, adapts, and works as part of the healthcare team. As a Speech-Language Pathologist, you will be able to make a profound impact on individuals' lives by helping them overcome communication challenges, swallowing disorders, and more.

Student-Centered Curriculum and Mentorship

Our Speech-Language Pathology Program provides a student-centered curriculum and mentorship that guide you in developing proficiency in aiding adults and children with communication disorders. Beyond knowledge, we cultivate critical thinking, problem-solving, and self-confidence. These traits are essential for becoming an empathetic, patient-centered professional on tomorrow's healthcare team.

Comprehensive Educational Pathway

Our program offers an integrated educational pathway that combines academic, research, and clinical experiences. The ultimate goal is to earn a Master of Science (M.S.) in Speech-Language Pathology degree. 

Ready for Practice

Graduates of the Midwestern University Speech-Language Pathology Program are well-prepared for roles as speech-language pathologists in healthcare and educational settings. The field of speech-language pathology offers a wide array of career opportunities, allowing professionals to make a meaningful difference in the lives of those they serve.

Learn more about the requirements and find quick links to relevant catalog content to guide you in your application process.

The Speech-Language Pathology (SLP) Program offers incoming students the opportunity to matriculate into two different tracks: 

Traditional Track: The Traditional Track is for applicants with baccalaureate degrees in Communication Sciences and Disorders or for those who meet all Traditional Track requirements included below.

Leveling Track: Individuals who do not meet the minimum requirements for the Traditional Track may qualify for admission to the Speech-Language Pathology Program Leveling Track. Leveling Track students begin coursework one quarter early (Summer) completing SLP-specific prerequisite coursework online. They matriculate on campus the following Fall quarter. To select this track, individuals must designate this option during the application process.

Traditional Track Requirements

• Completion of a baccalaureate degree from a regionally-accredited institution in Communication Sciences and Disorders, inclusive of the courses listed below, or
• Anatomy and Physiology of Communication Mechanisms*
• Speech-Language Development*
• Speech and/or Hearing Science*

Biological Sciences

• Physical Sciences (physics or chemistry)

Social Sciences

• Minimum undergraduate cumulative grade point average (CGPA) of 3.0 on a 4.0 scale; and minimum major grade point average (MGPA; all speech-language pathology coursework) of 3.0 on a 4.0 scale. Grades of C or better for prerequisite courses; grades of C- are not acceptable for the prerequisite courses listed above.
• Oral and written communication skills necessary to interact with patients and colleagues.
• Two letters of recommendation from individuals who can comment on academic, clinical, and professional experiences of the applicant.
• A completed Communication Sciences and Disorders Centralized Application Service (CSDCAS) application.

*Individuals lacking starred SLP-specific prerequisite courses may apply to the Leveling Track to complete these courses online with no additional tuition for those who successfully matriculate into the Fall quarter. 

Apply Now at CSDCAS   Full List of Requirements for Traditional Track

Leveling Track Requirements

Individuals without baccalaureate degrees in Communication Sciences and Disorders or who do not meet the minimum prerequisite coursework requirements for the Traditional Track may apply for admission to the College of Health Sciences Speech-Language Pathology Program Leveling Track. These applicants must meet all admission requirements for the Leveling Track and demonstrate completion of a baccalaureate degree from a regionally-accredited institution with completion of prerequisite coursework in the following areas:

Physical Sciences (physics and chemistry)

Apply Now at CSDCAS  

Full List of Requirements for Leveling Track

The Midwestern University Speech-Language Pathology Program's mission is to mentor intellectually curious and compassionate students to be effective, reflective, and collaborative Speech-Language Pathologists serving their communities.

The Speech-Language Pathology Program provides academic, research, and clinical experiences that culminate in the Master of Science (M.S.) in Speech-Language Pathology degree. 

The program of study spans seven quarters of study, with degree completion targeted for 21 months. 

A 24-month Leveling Track option is available for students without a bachelor’s degree in Communication Sciences and Disorders. 

In the Traditional Track, five quarters of didactic coursework are followed by two quarters of advanced practicum experiences.

 All students complete a master’s thesis or an evidence-based capstone project.

Midwestern University Speech-Language Pathology Program graduates are prepared for positions as speech-language pathologists in healthcare and educational settings.

• Students complete one quarter of didactic coursework in the Fall Quarter; in subsequent quarters, they continue with didactic curriculum while also engaging in four quarters of practica at the Speech-Language Institute – the Speech Language Pathology (SLP) Program’s on-campus, University clinic.
• In their last two quarters, students engage in two full-time advanced practica (internships) of up to twelve weeks' duration in cities of choice across the country, or in one of many rotations within the greater Phoenix area (e.g., hospital settings such as Mayo Clinic, Barrow Neurological Institute, Banner Health; private practice settings offering interprofessional practice opportunities; and placements within Arizona's highest-ranking schools).
• Program duration is 21 months from start to finish.

New:  The SLP Program now offers a Leveling Track option for students with baccalaureate degrees in fields other than Communication Sciences and Disorders and/or for those who lack SLP-specific prerequisite coursework.

• Leveling Track students begin one quarter early (Summer)  online  to complete the following SLP-specific prerequisite courses: Anatomy and Physiology of Communication Mechanisms, Phonetics, Speech and Language Development, and Speech and Hearing Science – at no additional cost.
• Leveling Track students continue coursework in the Fall Quarter all on-campus following the traditional track curriculum.
• Program duration is 24 months for Leveling Track students.

Curriculum details

Program Objectives

The Master of Science in Speech-Language Pathology Program seeks to:

• Foster a supportive learning environment for students;
• Foster a collaborative and compassionate approach to patient care;
• Graduate competent speech-language pathologists who possess the levels of clinical judgment, knowledge, empathy, technical skills, and confidence to begin professional practice with a culturally and linguistically diverse society;
• Foster a philosophy of lifelong learning in speech-language pathology students;
• Expand clinical practice in the Midwestern University Speech-Language Institute to provide speech-language pathology students with a broad range of evidence-based and interprofessional practice experiences;
• Advance the knowledge base of the profession through research and support of students' scholarly activities;
• Contribute to the overall growth and academic excellence of Midwestern University by supporting its Mission and Vision.

The Midwestern University Speech-Language Pathology program works collaboratively in a health-oriented university to integrate academic teaching and diverse clinical experiences to develop effective clinicians through:

• Interprofessional practice
• Innovative technology experiences
• Clinical simulation opportunities
• Culturally and linguistically diverse clinical experiences
• Scholarly activity
• Individualized, intentional mentorship
• Comprehensive and dynamic instruction
• Clinical, academic, and community partnership

SLP AZ Executive Summary Strategic Plan 2023-2028 (PDF)

Speech-Language Pathology students at Midwestern University experience:

Individualized, Intentional Mentorship

Faculty advocacy from academic and clinical SLP professionals who foster students’ knowledge, skills, and unique potential through...

• Four quarters of diverse, personalized clinical rotations in the on-campus Speech Language Institute with experienced and caring Midwestern University clinical faculty (7:1 or less student to faculty ratio).
• An individually mentored Thesis or Capstone project in the student’s area of interest.
• Quality academic advising by SLP faculty who support each student’s professional development.

Excellence in Teaching and Learning

Hands-On Learning

• Human brain dissection, voice prosection, laryngeal imaging. 
• Standardized patient encounters (assessment and treatment with actors trained to portray individuals with communication disorders). 

State-of-the-Art Technology

• Virtual clinical cases and a University Simulation Center with high fidelity mannequins offering real-world student experiences with low incidence disorders.
• An innovative, on-campus clinic (Speech-Language Institute) with extensive student and faculty resources, such as the Computerized Assisted Rehabilitation Environment (CAREN), providing opportunities for implementation of interprofessional rehabilitation and research.

Quality Person-Centered Outcomes for Current & Future Clients Through…

Interprofessional Education

• Complete grand rounds, courses, and labs with other future allied healthcare professional preparing students for interprofessional practice
• Deliver collaborative, patient-centered care with (Physical Therapists, Occupational Therapists, Clinical Psychologists, Vision Therapists) in the Midwestern University Therapy Institute.

Unique Clinical Experiences

• Intensive evidence-based treatment programs in on-campus clinic and mini-rotations in underserved areas of the community
• Two full-time advanced practicum rotations (internships) in cities of choice across the country or in one of many rotations within the greater Phoenix area (e.g. Mayo Clinic, Barrow Neurological Institute, private practice settings, and placements within Arizona's highest ranking school districts).
• Students engage in practica at the Speech-Language Institute, housed in the Midwestern University Therapy Institute, and other community-based settings for four quarters.
• Two advanced practica of up to 12 weeks duration are completed in educational and health settings.
• Our program is affiliated with public and private schools, inpatient rehabilitation hospitals, outpatient rehabilitation hospitals and facilities, and private practice clinics to ensure a range of practicum opportunities for every Midwestern student.

As an MWU student, you may qualify for a scholarship opportunity if your interest includes working with children who have autism. Visit the TAG Scholars Program website for more details.

TAG Scholars Program

For other scholarships, visit our Scholarships page .

Speech-language pathologist continues to be one of the top rated professions in the United States based upon growth of the profession, available jobs, and starting salaries. 

U.S. News and World Report (1) has consistently ranked this profession as one of the most desirable social service jobs in America. 

The U.S. Department of Labor Statistics (2) predicts that the number of speech-language pathologists will grow by 21% over the next 10 years. That translates to approximately 34,000 new therapist positions by 2031. The national median speech-language pathologist salary is $79,060 per year, or approximately $38 per hour. 

(1) U.S. News and World Report, https://money.usnews.com/careers/best-jobs/speech-language-pathologist  

(2) U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Office of Occupational Statistics and Employment Projections, PSB Suite 2135, 2 Massachusetts Avenue, NE Washington, DC 20212-0001,  Phone: 1-202-691-5700, https://www.bls.gov/ooh/healthcare/speech-language-pathologists.htm  

Connect with Midwestern University's Speech-Language Program:

Congratulations to our graduates!

Watch CHS Graduation June 2023

Midwestern University is accredited by  The Higher Learning Commission, a Commission of the North Central Association of Colleges and Schools (HLC/NCA) , 230 South LaSalle Street, Suite 7-500, Chicago, IL 60604-1413.

Speech-Language Pathology programs are accredited by the Council on Academic Accreditation (CAA) of the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA).

The Master of Science (M.S.) education program in Speech-Language Pathology (SLP) {residential} at Midwestern University, Glendale is accredited by the Council of Academic Accreditation in Audiology and Speech-Language Pathology of the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association, 2200 Research Boulevard, #310, Rockville, MD 20850; 800-498-2071 or 301-296-5700.

Academic Course Catalog

Explore details regarding your specific College/Program.

Student Outcome Data and Class Profile

Student outcome data.

Student outcome data for Speech-Language program at Glendale campus includes program completion rates, Praxis examination pass rates, and graduate employment rates.

Class Profile

Class of 2025.

• Female: 98% 
• Male: 2% 
• Average overall GPA: 3.41
• Students identifying as from ethnically diverse backgrounds: 50%

Hear our Stories

Taylor alflen, college of health sciences, arizona, speech-language pathology program, class of 2024.

“Not many people are aware of what a speech-language pathologist does and can do. It is so helpful to have practice talking with and educating other fields about our skills.”

Erin McGranahan, Speech Language Pathology Program

"I am going out into the field knowing that I will be my best." 

Midwestern News

Speech-Language Pathology Student Chapter Honored for Exceptional Contributions

The National Student Speech Language Hearing Association (NSSLHA) Recognition

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Optometry Student Interviews with WGN Sharing Safety Tips for the Solar Eclipse

Student offers expert advice for radio audience

Health Sciences Career Day Gives High School Students Insight into Healthcare Professions

Students experience hands-on explorative sessions, dive into information about healthcare fields

Select Group of CDMA Graduates Headed to Residencies

The College of Dental Medicine - Arizona (CDMA) Class of 2024 is preparing for their upcoming spring commencement on the Midwestern University Glendale Campus.

• AZ - Glendale

Our admissions staff is here to assist you in making informed decisions about your academic journey. When contacting us, be sure to to provide your preferred program and campus so we can address your questions or concerns.

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University Bulletin 2023-2024

Speech pathology and audiology, department information.

(251) 445-9378

Department of Speech Pathology and Audiology website https://www.southalabama.edu/colleges/alliedhealth/speechandhearing

Speech Pathology and Audiology Faculty

The mission of the Department of Speech Pathology and Audiology is to provide undergraduate, masters and doctoral programs that challenge the students to achieve the highest standards of academic learning, scientific inquiry and clinical excellence. The Department of Speech Pathology and Audiology delivers a comprehensive program of academic, research and clinical training in the areas of speech, language, and hearing development and disorders. The Department offers a minor in Speech and Hearing Sciences, Bachelor of Science in Speech and Hearing Sciences degree, Master of Science in Speech-Language Pathology degree, Doctor of Audiology degree, and Doctor of Philosophy in Communication Sciences and Disorders degree.

The undergraduate program in Speech and Hearing Sciences readies the graduate for a variety of career and educational options based on the knowledge gained from this degree and individual interests and skills. Students who complete the Master of Science in Speech-Language Pathology degree program will meet all the academic and practicum requirements to be eligible for the Clinical Fellowship (CF) that leads to national certification (CCC-SLP) by the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA) and eligibility for the Alabama state licensure. Students who complete the Doctor of Audiology degree program will meet all the academic and practicum requirements for national certification (CCC-A) and will also be eligible for the Alabama state licensure. The MS SLP and AuD programs meet the requirements for licensure in Alabama; we have not made a determination regarding whether the programs meet licensure requirements in other states.

The Master of Science (MS) education program in speech-language pathology (residential) at the University of South Alabama is accredited by the Council on Academic Accreditation in Audiology and Speech-Language Pathology of the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association, 2200 Research Boulevard, #310, Rockville, MD 20850,  (800) 498-2071  or  (301) 296-5700 .

The Doctor of Audiology (AuD) education program in audiology (residential) at the University of South Alabama is accredited by the Council on Academic Accreditation in Audiology and Speech-Language Pathology of the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association, 2200 Research Boulevard, #310, Rockville, MD 20850,  (800) 498-2071  or  (301) 296-5700 .

Degrees, Programs, or Concentrations

• Audiology (AuD)
• Communication Sciences and Disorders (PhD)
• Rehabilitation Sciences, Speech-Language Pathology (MSRS SLP)
• Speech and Hearing Sciences (BS SHS)
• Speech and Hearing Sciences Minor
• Speech-Language Pathology (MSSLP)

Allied Health Profs (AHP)

Audiology (aud), communication scs disord (csd), speech and hearing sci (shs), speech lang pathology (slp).

A course for first-time students that assists with maximizing the student's potential to achieve academic success and to adjust responsibly to the individual and interpersonal challenges presented by college life. Taught in small groups, the course provides an introduction to the nature of higher education with special emphasis on health-related disciplines. Appropriate reading and writing assignments will be required.

The purpose of this course for the undergraduate student is to develop an improved understanding of culture, to recognize any cultural practices that affect health care, and to incorporate this understanding into the provision of care. Culture will be examined through writing, cultural experiences, and through collaboration.

This course is designed to provide students with an overview of different health professions and their scope of practice and also to provide information about health administration.

This foundational course is designed to prepare graduate students in OT, PT, SLP, MD and ED to provide high-quality services to individuals with autism spectrum disorder and other developmental disabilities. The emphasis will be on interprofessional education using team-based instruction to support effective interprofessional practice in both educational and health care settings. ADDITIONAL RESTRICTION: Students can only be enrolled following successful application and admission. Contact the course instructor for information on application.

This course will focus on advancing the ideals of diversity, equity, and inclusion in future allied health providers to develop inclusive practices, and will support the development of interprofessional collaborative practice skills. The course will provide students with opportunities to engage with members of various healthcare-focused graduate programs through both interprofessional education modules and interprofessional clinical laboratory experiences.

Selected topics in Health Sciences. Requires special permission.

This course is designed to provide the opportunity for in-depth study of special interest in Audiology. Requires approval of Department Chair.

Study of the anatomy and physiology of the nervous system, the anatomy and physiology of the outer, middle, inner ear, including the vestibular system, and the central auditory nervous system.

Study of the principles, procedures and research involved in the field of psychoacoustics and of the relationships between the physical dimensions of auditory stimuli and the resultant perceptual experience as well as the relationships among psychoacoustic testing and both auditory physiology and the audiologic evaluation process. Participation in laboratory assignments will be required.

Study of basic electricity, acoustics and measurement of sound properties, wave analysis, transducers, measuring and calibration systems, speech processing systems, and system interaction and integration.

Study of the acoustical, perceptual, physiological aspects of speech, as well as the phenomena of communication and language development. These are discussed as they relate to the field of audiology.

Research designs utilized in the hearing sciences; elements of research proposals and studies; how to critique a research study; how to conduct a literature review; APA format; students will be required to write precis of research articles and write a research proposal. Elements of modern statistics including sets and functions, probability theory, hypothesis testing, analysis of variance models, correlation, and regression.

This course will address a variety of professional issues such as organizations, societies, and their histories; codes of ethnics; scopes of practice; credentialing and licensure; the development of the AUD; guidelines and position statements generated by ASHA and AAA; standards and best practices; methods and models of service delivery; and audiology practice management.

This course will address acquired and congenital diseases and disorders of the outer, middle, and inner ear and the central auditory nervous system occurring across the lifespan; imaging techniques; non-audiologic medical and surgical interventions for these conditions; and cerumen management techniques; and appropriate methods for monitoring of patients prescribed potentially ototoxic medications.

This course will provide the basic science background necessary to understand the effects of medications on the auditory and balance systems. This course will also address drug treatment strategies for hearing loss and balance disorders. Topics will include mechanisms of drug actions, side effects, how age and disease affect these mechanisms, and specific effects of certain drugs on the hearing and balance system. This course will additionally address appropriate methods for identification and monitoring of patients prescribed potentially ototoxic medications.

This course will address styles and types of earmolds, hearing aids, and assistive listening devices; components common to all amplification systems as well as optional features (such as directional microphones, volume controls, telecoils, etc.) and their electroacoustic properties and functioning; use of ANSI standards; physical, acoustic and electroacoustic modifications of earmolds and amplification systems.

This course will address the principles of selection, fitting, and verification of amplification systems, including hearing aids and assistive listening devices; subjective and objective audiologic assessments used to determine need for, select, and fit appropriate amplification systems for patients of all ages; and techniques used to select and fit amplification systems. The course will also address subjective and objective verification procedures, specifically addressing the importance of including Real-Ear Measures and subjective self-assessment measures in the amplification process.

This course will address the principles of verification and validation; tools used to verify appropriate fitting of amplification systems (such as real-ear probe-mic equipment) and techniques used to validate fitting (such as software packages, and subjective and objective audiologic measures); cochlear implant remapping.

This course will address advanced technologies for individuals with hearing-impairment such as cochlear and brainstem implants, vibrotactile aids, and implantable devices, as well as the selection and fitting of these technologies.

This course will address the principles of cross-check, the test battery approach, differential diagnosis, relevant test equipment, instruments, and transducers, administration and interpretation of the pure-tone testing, clinical masking, case history, otoscopy, and tuning-fork tests, speech audiometry; tests for pseudo-hypoacusis, ototoxicity, site-of-lesion testing and historical assessments; and informal assessment procedures.

This course will address administration and interpretation of acoustic immittance and otoacoustic emission measures across the lifespan. Topics will address standard and multi-frequency tympanometry, acoustic reflex testing, and eustachian tube function testing; spontaneous, transient and distortion-product OAE measurement; and the influence of intrinsic and extrinsic variables, including cochlear and retro-cochlear pathology, on outcomes and differential diagnosis.

This course will address issues associated with providing audiologic services to pediatric and developmentally delayed populations. Issues will include gestational development, test administration and interpretation; genetic transmission of hearing loss, risk factors for hearing loss; principles of screening and the development and construction of a screening program; universal newborn hearing screening and early hearing detection and intervention programs.

This course will address the issues associated with providing audiologic services to older adults. Issues will include effects of aging on anatomy, physiology, and function, and test administration and interpretation issues specific to older adults.

This course will address instrumentation (transducers and electrode types); application and interpretation of evoked potential (EP) measures including ENOG, ECochG, ABR, middle and late potentials, across the lifespan; sedation protocols; assessment protocols associated with different EP measures and the populations to which they are applied; population norms; intrinsic and extrinsic variables affecting EP results; differential diagnosis of auditory neuropathy; troubleshooting.

This course will address issues associated providing audiologic services to pediatric and developmently delayed populations. Issues will include gestational development, test administration and interpretation; genetic transmission of hearing loss, risk factors for hearing loss; principles of screening and the development and construction of a screening program; universal newborn hearing screening and early hearing detection and intervention programs.

This course will address the implications of hearing loss in adulthood including the educational, vocational, social and legislative concerns of adults with hearing loss; assessment tools and intervention techniques used to maximize communication skills, including communication strategy training, speechreading, and group therapy approaches.

This course will address various theories, principles and techniques associated with the social and psychological aspects of disability as well as issues specific to and techniques used when counseling patients with hearing loss and their families.

This course will address the speech, language, and communication of children with hearing impairment. Manual and oral modes of communication will be discussed, including American Sign Language, Signing Essential English I and II, Cued Speech, Total Communication, and Auditory-Verbal Therapy. Other issues to be addressed will include the development, management, and utilization of hearing and middle ear system screening programs, classroom acoustics, selection and fitting of classroom-based amplification, and federal law associated with children with special needs. Taught Spring Semester.

This course will address assessment approaches utilized in the diagnosis of vestibular disorders (such as ENG) and procedures used in the management of these disorders (such as vestibular rehabilitation techniques).

This course will address the development, assessment, and interpretation of an auditory processing test battery across the lifespan, as well as intervention approaches.

This course will address the delivery of audiology services to a school-based population. Issues to be addressed will include the development, management and utilization of hearing and middle ear system screening programs, classroom acoustics, selection and fitting of classroom-based amplification, and federal law associated with children with special needs.

This course will address federal noise standards, effects of noise exposure on the auditory system, sound measurement and instrumentation, development and implementation of a hearing conservation program, hearing protection devices and forensic audiology.

This course will address assessment and intervention approaches used in the management of tinnitus and hyperacusis.

This interprofessional education (IPE) course will address the foundational knowledge and skills necessary for audiologists to work together with speech-language pathologists in interprofessional collaborative teams. Specifically, this course will address the scope of practice in audiology, speech-language screening, speech-language report literacy and special topics.

This course will include a discussion of the peripheral and central anatomy and physiology of the balance system and the test measures used to assess the function of this complex system. Topics will include case history and screening measures, as well as test protocols and analysis of results on electronystagmography/videonystagmography, rotational testing, posturography, and vestibular evoked myogenic potentials. Taught Spring Semester.

This course will focus on peripheral and central disorders of the vestibular system and the interpretation of results on diagnostic tests in disordered patients. Pharmacological and surgical treatments of dizziness will be discussed, as well as rehabilitative techniques to manage the vestibular pathology.

This course will address advanced electrophysiological techniques, including ENOG, ALR, ERPs (i.e. P300, etc), and neuroimaging techniques (fMRI and PET) with an emphasis on auditory and cognitive processing, across the lifespan; source localization techniques; instrumentation; stimulus and acquisition parameters; measurement procedures; analysis and interpretation.

This course will address issues associated with audiology practice management including techniques involved in developing a mission statement and a business plan; working with an accountant; determining type, location, and name of practice; regulation, licensure, and hiring a legal advisor; equipment and service delivery decisions; establishing accounts with suppliers, paying bills and budgeting; third-party reimbursement, Medicaid, and Medicare; hiring and supervision; demographics and marketing; use of outcome data; and professional writing.

Student will be required to develop a variety of projects during their academic training, some of which will be further developed and completed during this course.

Student will identify cases or service delivery issues of clinical or professional interest and present these cases or issues to fellow students, clinical supervisors, and faculty via chat room in a grand rounds format.

Students will become familiar with and conduct basic audiologic procedures with non-clinical populations by completing various lab assignments. Students will also observe clinical activities in the USA Speech & Hearing Center.

Discussion of instrumentation, procedures, and approaches to assessment and intervention in audiology.

Students will obtain experience administering audiologic assessments and intervention techniques with clinical populations in the USA Speech and Hearing Center or in off-campus clinical practicum sites under direct supervision.

Off-campus opportunity to obtain clinical experience in a full-time setting. In addition, student may be required to identify cases or service delivery issues of clinical or professional interest and present these cases or issues to fellow students, clinical supervisors, and faculty via an online forum in a grand rounds format.

Under the advice and guidance of a faculty member, students will identify and complete a research project relevant to the field of Audiology. Requires approval of the Department Chair.

This seminar is designed to provide a forum for presentation and discussion of faculty and doctoral student research projects. Topics may also include: teaching and learning styles and grant writing. Must be repeated until candidacy is achieved.

Current methods and strategies used in research of communication processes.

Advanced review of the process of speech production, acoustic phonetics, coarticulation, and speech perception with emphasis on laboratory research methods.

Basic and advanced principles of the acoustics and physiology of speech production.

Advanced study of psychological and physiological acoustics.

Intensive study of the theoretical foundations underlying syntax, semantics, pragmatics, phonology, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, sociolinguistics, and applied pragmatics.

Advanced study of neurosciences as they relate to processes and pathologies of human communication, including functional neuroanatomy and clinical neurology. Interdisciplinary research paradigms will also be discussed.

Laboratory experiences in speech science.

Laboratory experiences in hearing science.

Laboratory experiences in language science.

Laboratory experiences in communication neuroscience.

Intensive review of current research in speech production. May include normal and disordered processes. Topics may include acoustic phonetics, physiological phonetics, prosody, production and perception, fluency and voice. May be repeated.

Intensive literature review of current knowledge and research in hearing and hearing disorders. Topics may include cochlear mechanics, complex signal processing, electrophysiological measures, development of hearing, hearing in the elderly, and hearing in other species. May be repeated.

Intensive literature review of current methods, problems, and strategies in language research. Topics may include normal language acquisition, language-learning disorders, clinical aphasiology, and neurolinguistics. May be repeated.

Independent study under the direction of a graduate faculty member. May be repeated. Requires special permission.

Research under the direction of a graduate faculty member. May be repeated. Requires special permission.

Supervised professional experiences in administration under the guidance of faculty mentors. May be repeated.

Supervised professional experiences in clinical teaching under the guidance of faculty mentors. May be repeated.

Supervised professional experiences in academic teaching under the guidance of faculty mentors. May be repeated.

Independent research under the direction of a graduate faculty member. May be repeated. Requires special permission.

Overview of major disorders of human communication and the role of the Audiologist and Speech-Pathologist in assessing and treating them.

This course presents a practical approach to systemic development of specific professional skills for providing effective, culturally sensitive clinical health services to ethnically and linguistically diverse patients. Building on standard models of multicultural competence that emphasize knowledge, awareness, and skills, students will be introduced to culturally humility, culturally specific approaches to practice, and frameworks for equity and empowerment.

Overview of major disorders of human communication and the role of the audiologist and speech-language pathologist in assessing and treating them.

This course addresses basic principles of hearing and speech science, including the physical properties of sound, sound generation, transmission, and measurement.

This course will address the anatomy and physiology of the speech and hearing mechanisms, the physical properties of sound, quantification of sound, sound generation, and sound transmission.

An introduction to the anatomy and physiology of speech, language, swallowing, and hearing mechanism.

Acquisition of communicative behavior in normal children during the first decade of life; development of syntax, semantics, pragmatics, cognition; clinical laboratory experience with children.

Transcription techniques for the analysis of speech. Includes a study of the dynamics of speech sound production.

This course is an introduction to the following topics- disorders of hearing, etiologies of auditory and vestibular disorders found in populations of all ages, and evaluation techniques used by audiologists.

This course is a study of the principles of the management of hearing loss in children and adults; relevant legislation; and treatment and education options.

Introduction to neuroscience and clinical neurology as they apply to the processes of normal and disordered communication. Topics include neurophysiology, neuroanatomy, and neuropathologies.

A survey of language disorders in preschool and school-age children; assessment and intervention.

Study of dynamics of disordered speech production. Techniques for the analysis and treatment of articulation and phonological disorders.

A beginning course in the study of normal voice production, a survey of typical voice disorders, and an overview of stuttering and its related disorders. Taught Fall Semester.

An introduction to disorders of articulation, voice, and fluency. Theoretical and etiological foundations will be surveyed as well as philosophical orientations to therapy.

Introduction to the clinical setting; organizations, and statutes that govern professional service. Instrumentation, procedures, and approaches to clinical service provision are introduced.

Clinical practicum course designed as an introduction to the clinical setting; documentation procedures & guidelines; organizations and statutes that govern professional service; instrumentation, procedures, & approaches to clinical practice. Written documentation, observation of clinical activities (in-person and in-class video), and participation as a clinical aide are also significant course requirements.

Topics to be determined by student need and interest. Content will vary. A subtitle identifying the topic will be entered on the student's record. May be repeated for a total of 6 hours. Requires permission of the department chair.

Independent study under the direction of a faculty member. Requires permission of the department chair.

Under the advice and guidance of a faculty mentor, honors students will identify and carry out a research project relevant to the field of Speech Pathology and Audiology. The senior project will be judged and graded by three faculty members chaired by the honors mentor. This course is required for Honors recognition. Permission of the department chair and completion of an approved project prospectus is required.

A general presentation of research procedures. The student will learn to read and evaluate professional literature and develop a research prospectus.

The study of physical and acoustic concepts involved in speech production and perception including instrumental measurement and analysis.

This course gives the student an overview of the linguistic theories and approaches that are relevant to the field of speech sciences. There will be a particular emphasis on those areas of linguistics that underpin the diagnostic and assessment procedures used in Speech Pathology. The course will focus on development and language use in normal populations and will show how knowledge of the pattern of typically developing language users can be applied to clinical contexts.

Clinical assessment and management of language problems in infants, toddlers, and preschoolers, including language disorders associated with other developmental disorders and AAC.

This course covers assessment and intervention approaches for school-age language disorders, children beyond age 5 years. Topics include speech-language services at the discourse level; the relationship between language and literacy; service delivery models including integration; educational laws and policies.

Advanced study of disordered speech-sound production including these: development, assessment and intervention of articulation and phonological disorders in children.

Introduction to the study and application of augmentative and alternative communication, including light-to-high tech augmentative and alternative communication devices to aid communication for persons with complex communication needs. The course includes device characteristics, program features, and intervention strategies as well as current trends in research for individuals with complex communication.

Advanced study of pathology, symptomatology, etiology, and treatment of voice and resonance disorders in children and adults.

Study of theories, research, and contemporary treatment procedures in the area of fluency disorders.

Review of neuroanatomy and physiology, nature of neuromuscular pathologies, methods of assessment and rehabilitation of neuromotor disorders of speech production.

Study of the nature, characteristics, and clinical management of acquired neurogenic language disorders associated with focal lesions to the left or right hemisphere, including aphasia and right hemisphere syndrome.

Study of the nature, characteristics, and clinical management of cognitive-communication disorders associated with diffuse brain lesion, including traumatic brain injury and dementia.

This course provides an in-depth study of healthy and disordered swallowing function across the lifespan. Specifically, students will learn normal anatomy and physiological processes of the upper aerodigestive tract, how to conduct clinical and instrumental evaluations of swallowing function, and develop individualized, targeted treatment plans for various swallowing impairments.

This course will address the SLP scope of practice, audiological tests, amplification, report literacy, and special topics. An interprofessional team approach with audiology will address co-management of services in individual with communication disorders.

Independent research under the direction of a graduate faculty member. May be repeated. Requires permission of the instructor and the Graduate Advisor.

This course is designed to provide the opportunity for in-depth study of special interests. Requires permission of the Graduate Advisor.

Independent study under the direction of a graduate faculty member. May be repeated. Requires permission of instructor and Graduate Advisor.

Discussion of instrumentation, procedures, and approaches to assessment and intervention in speech-language pathology.

Supervised clinical experience in Speech-Language Pathology. May be repeated.

Students will complete a 14-week, part time clinical practicum at an off-campus site.

Supervised clinical experience in a professional service facility.

One to three credits per semester with a maximum of three hours credit. Regular standing required. Requires permission of the Graduate Advisor.

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Levamisole-associated multifocal inflammatory encephalopathy: clinical and MRI characteristics, and diagnostic algorithm

Affiliations.

• 1 Institute of Higher Nervous Activity and Neurophysiology, Butlerova street 5a, Moscow 117485, Russia. Electronic address: [email protected].
• 2 Bujanov Moscow City Clinical Hospital, Moscow, Russia.
• 3 Institute of Higher Nervous Activity and Neurophysiology, Butlerova street 5a, Moscow 117485, Russia; Federal State Budget Educational Institution of Higher Education M.V.Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia.
• 4 City Clinical Hospital № 24, Moscow, Russia.
• 5 Research Center of Neurology, Moscow, Russia.
• 6 Research Center of Neurology, Moscow, Russia; Pavlov First Saint Petersburg Medical University, Saint Petersburg, Russia.
• 7 Pavlov First Saint Petersburg Medical University, Saint Petersburg, Russia.
• 8 Institute of Higher Nervous Activity and Neurophysiology, Butlerova street 5a, Moscow 117485, Russia; Bujanov Moscow City Clinical Hospital, Moscow, Russia; Moscow Research and Clinical Center for Neuropsychiatry, Moscow Healthcare Department, Russia.
• 9 Moscow Research and Clinical Center for Neuropsychiatry, Moscow Healthcare Department, Russia; Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, Moscow, Russia.
• PMID: 36450175
• DOI: 10.1016/j.msard.2022.104418

Levamisole-associated multifocal inflammatory encephalopathy (LAMIE) is a devastating adverse effect of levamisole (LEV) treatment. In Russia, people often use LEV without a doctor's prescription for anthelmintic prophylaxis. LAMIE often misdiagnosed as the first episode of MS or acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (ADEM). The aim of our study was to describe clinical, laboratory and morphological characteristics of LAMIE, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) patterns and create an algorithm for the differential diagnosis. This study was a prospective observational study with retrospective analysis of cases. It was performed at two hospitals with ambulatory service for MS. We included 43 patients with LAMIE with follow-up was from 1 year to 5 years. Age was 19-68 y.o. with female predominance. The most typical manifestations of LAMIE were cerebellar, pyramidal and cognitive symptoms, and majority of patients had biphasic course of the disease. Three main types of MRI patterns were described: ADEM-like, MS-like, atypical demyelination. About 40% of patients had CSF specific oligoclonal bands synthesis, but only 20 % of them converted to MS during the period from 1 month until 2 years. The CSF albumin levels and immunoglobulin G index were elevated in LAMIE patients compared to reference values. We described results of brain biopsy in two cases. Therefore LAMIE should be considered in patients with demyelinating or inflammatory conditions with biphasic onset of the disease and variable MRI presentation.

Keywords: ADEM; Demyelinating disorders; Levamisole; Levamisole-associated multifocal inflammatory encephalopathy; Multiple sclerosis; Neuroinflammation.

Copyright © 2022 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Publication types

• Observational Study
• Brain / diagnostic imaging
• Brain / pathology
• Encephalomyelitis, Acute Disseminated* / pathology
• Levamisole / adverse effects
• Magnetic Resonance Imaging
• Multiple Sclerosis* / diagnostic imaging
• Multiple Sclerosis* / drug therapy
• Multiple Sclerosis* / pathology
• Retrospective Studies

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Speech-Language Pathology Students Utilize Capstone Project for Advocacy

• 05 April 2024

The University’s Speech-Language Pathology Class of 2024 students Jessica Concannon, Alyssa Dallmer, Sydni Delfiner , and Olivia Fogarty had the opportunity to present their capstone projects recently, one more step closer to graduation this spring. 

“We decided to do this project because many parents will go to the CDC when looking at appropriate milestones or any other health information, and a lot of pediatricians rely on the CDC as opposed to other resources,” said Fogarty. “ASHA reports different milestones than the CDC, so we wanted to let an audience know that ASHA is a better resource than the CDC.”

To reach their audience, the group hosted a virtual meeting focused on advocating for children during pediatric well-visits. During the meeting, the group covered speech milestones, advocating for children, finding services, and the consequences of referring to the CDC versus ASHA. 

One example of a consequence that was found was:

The CDC reported that at age two, a child should at least put two words together, such as “more milk.” Whereas ASHA reported a child should put two words together such as  “ more apple,” “no bed,” or “mommy book ,” between one to two years old. 

While the CDC does not refer until age two, ASHA presents the developmental milestones as a range. The CDC’s information can potentially lead to delayed identification of children with developmental delays and disorders. The group noted that there are likely children who may benefit from support who aren’t being identified by the CDC milestones .  

Their capstone emphasized how any milestones should be clear, presented as a range, and backed by research to aid clinical decision-making.

Due to inaccurate milestones reported by the CDC, the group argues now is more important than ever for parents to have the correct information to be advocates for their children at pediatric well-visits. Providing accurate information and education about developmental milestones to parents/caregivers of children is important for early identification, early intervention, and their educational and social success. 

The group is excited by the completion of their research, and moving closer to walking the stage at the Kimmel Center in May. “We started working on this project almost a year ago, so it is exciting to see all of our hard work culminating in our presentation, “ said Dallmer. “It feels like just yesterday we were here watching the previous SLP class’ capstone projects, it’s a very ‘full circle’ moment for us.”

Related Posts

Hands-On Experiences for Speech-Language Pathology Students

Why I Chose Speech-Language Pathology: Straight from the Mouths of Students

Where Are They Now: Sultana Abdur-Raheem

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News and Events

News archives, faculty media experts, social media directory, publications, style guidelines, public relations team, requests for public relations services, classes of 2024 and 2025 slp students shine bright at the white coat ceremony, speech-language pathology students don their white coats for the first time.

In a momentous occasion that marked a significant step in their educational journey, speech-language pathology (SLP) students from the Classes of 2024 and 2025 donned their white coats for the first time. The White Coat Ceremony took place in the John W. Nevins, M.D. '44 Auditorium on April 1, where the ambiance was charged with jubilation and a sense of accomplishment.

The event, attended by an enthusiastic audience comprising friends, family, esteemed faculty members, and distinguished leaders from the School of Health Sciences and Practice (SHSP), was a testament to the dedication and commitment of the 38 students from the Class of 2024 and 32 students of Class of 2025 to the field of speech-language pathology. With this symbolic gesture, they signified their transition into the clinical phase of their curriculum and the exciting commencement of their budding careers. The proceedings began with a heartfelt messaged delivered by Vikas Grover, Ph.D., CCC-SLP, chief and associate professor in the Division of Speech-Language Pathology, who also shared encouraging sentiments with the students, echoing pride, achievement, and responsibility. “We tend to think of speech as something of our mouths,” he said. “We forget that speech has an origin and connection to our hearts and brains. The ceremony is a reminder of how complete your learning is and your willingness to come into your journey of service to others." Joining the festivities remotely via Zoom, Edward C. Halperin, M.D., M.A., chancellor and chief executive officer, imparted words of wisdom and inspiration. “Students of speech-language pathology as you don the white coat, I welcome you to that long line of women and men, backwards and forwards in history, who have worn the white coat for the purpose of the relief of pain, the amelioration of suffering, and to help people to avoid, to the extent possible, premature death.” The ceremony continued to be a beacon of celebration as Robert W. Amler, M.D., M.B.A., dean of the SHSP and vice president for government affairs, lauded the students, saying, "For many of you and for many of us, it’s not just a career, but it’s a calling," he said. “This is a happy moment. It’s a matter of great pride, but it’s a moment of real humble responsibility for the tasks you will have at hand.” The enthusiasm and support from the faculty and leadership underscored the vibrant atmosphere of encouragement and camaraderie. The spotlight then turned to the invited speaker, Izel Obermeyer, M.S., OTR/L, ATP, FAOTA, chief clinical officer of the Westchester Institute for Human Development, who inspired students to use their education and personal experiences to shape the speech-language pathologists they want to be in their careers, and to make the most of their careers. Alumnus speaker Andrew Keltz, M.S., CCC-SLP '20, encouraged students to offer kindness and compassion to their patients no matter of their circumstance. With bated breath and hearts brimming with pride, the students were called to the front of the auditorium to ceremoniously don their white coats with the assistance of their dedicated SLP faculty members. Adorned in their emblematic attire, the students stood tall and recited the Pledge for Speech-Language Pathology with unwavering commitment. As the White Coat Ceremony concluded, it left an indelible mark on the hearts and minds of everyone present, heralding the bright futures and boundless possibilities that await these exceptional SLP students of the Classes of 2024 and 2025. 

Videos of the SLP White Coat Ceremony and other ceremonies are available on the NYMC Youtube Channel .

NOTICE OF NONDISCRIMINATORY POLICY AS TO STUDENTS The New York Medical College admits students of any race, color, national and ethnic origin to all the rights, privileges, programs, and activities generally accorded or made available to students at the college. It does not discriminate on the basis of race, color, national and ethnic origin in administration of its educational policies, admissions policies, scholarship and loan programs, and athletic and other school-administered programs. See full non-discrimination statement with contact info .

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Why Gender Inequality Persists: What Nobel Prize-Winning Research on the Gender Pay Gap Can Teach Us in Pathology and Laboratory Medicine

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Abiana Adamson, Amanda Borgen, Simone Arvisais-Anhalt, Why Gender Inequality Persists: What Nobel Prize-Winning Research on the Gender Pay Gap Can Teach Us in Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Clinical Chemistry , Volume 70, Issue 4, April 2024, Pages 685–686, https://doi.org/10.1093/clinchem/hvad225

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On October 9, 2023, The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences awarded Claudia Goldin, PhD, the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences for, “having advanced our understanding of women’s labour market outcomes” ( 1). She is the third woman to receive the Nobel Prize in economics and the first woman to receive the award solo. Dr. Goldin’s groundbreaking research has identified causes of the gender pay gap in the United States over the last 200 years by analyzing large, archival datasets, and uncovering misunderstandings of more common historical datasets. Dr. Goldin’s exploration of why women continue to earn less than men is pivotal to understanding the persistent gender pay gap in the healthcare professions.

Although there were times in US history when a gender pay gap could be attributed to occupational choices or educational attainment, the bulk of present-day earnings differences exists within the same occupations where both men and women have the same education, skills, and experience. This gap in pay is largest in high-earning occupations, such as medicine and law. Dr. Goldin identified that earnings for men and women are initially equivalent at the beginning of careers, but a gap emerges after marriage and a woman’s first child. This gap persists over time ( 2).

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Preliminary Evaluation of Applicants to Master's Programs in Speech-Language Pathology Using Vignettes and Criteria From a Holistic Review Process

Teresa m. girolamo.

a University of Connecticut, Storrs

Stephen Politzer-Ahles

b The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom

Samantha Ghali

c University of Kansas, Lawrence

Brittany Theresa Williams

d The Pennsylvania State University, State College

Little is known about how others evaluate applicants to master's programs in speech-language pathology along criteria used during holistic review despite more programs adopting holistic review. This knowledge gap limits our understanding of whether holistic admissions may offer a more equitable pathway to entering speech-language pathology. This study investigated how faculty and PhD students evaluated applicants to master's speech-language pathology programs along criteria used during holistic review.

We administered a survey online through a Qualtrics platform. Respondents ( N = 66) were faculty and PhD candidates in U.S. speech-language-hearing departments. Survey blocks included demographics, professional background, and vignettes. Vignettes featured profiles of applicants to master's programs in speech-language pathology. Vignettes systematically varied in the indicators of applicant criteria, which were specified at low, moderate, or high levels or not specified. After reading each vignette, respondents rated the applicant and indicated their admissions decision. Analysis included descriptives.

Relative to an applicant who was at a high level for all indicators except cultural and linguistic diversity, respondents ranked applicants who varied in their indicators of criteria levels lower. Respondents were also less likely to make an explicit “accept” decision (vs. “waitlist” or “reject”) for this latter group of applicants.

Conclusions:

Even when implementing criteria used during holistic review, applicants who vary from a “high-achieving” stereotype may still face barriers to entry. Future work is needed to understand the precise nature of how holistic admissions review may play out in actual practice and help increase diversity in the profession.

In the United States, some graduate speech-language pathology graduate programs are adopting holistic review and moving beyond traditional indicators to evaluate applicants ( Guiberson & Vigil, 2021 ). From an intersectional perspective, holistic review removes barriers to entry that disproportionately impact racial/ethnic minorities ( Crenshaw, 1989 ). However, it is unknown how criteria used during holistic review function in speech-language pathology. Of particular interest is how indicators of applicant quality (e.g., recommendation letters) relate to evaluation of personal characteristics (i.e., criteria used during holistic review) and admissions decisions. These criteria are often social constructs, such that applicant ratings rely on individual interpretation of what a strong profile looks like. For example, a faculty member who uses a personal statement to evaluate academic ability might actually be judging the applicant's adherence to stylistic conventions in academic writing, which is something that applicants from more privileged backgrounds are more able to emulate ( McGlynn, 2016 ).

More broadly, there is a need to understand how holistic review in speech-language pathology may help diversify the profession. The American Speech-Language-Hearing Association ( ASHA, 2020a , 2020b ) reports that less than 10% of its members are members of color, and even fewer are bilingual service providers. These shortages may be tied to underrepresentation of culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) master's students in speech-language pathology ( Horton-Ikard et al., 2010 ). In 2018–2019, 34.6% of applicants to master's programs in speech-language pathology received an offer of admission, among a total of 60,784 applications to master's degree programs ( Council of Academic Programs in Communication Sciences and Disorders [CAPCSD] & ASHA, 2020 ). Of 19,185 master's students overall in speech-language pathology, 20.3% of first-year students were racial/ethnic minorities ( CAPCSD & ASHA, 2020 ). However, it is unknown how many applications came from unique, minority applicants ( CAPCSD & ASHA, 2020 ). Considering that minorities are persistently underrepresented in ASHA, it may be that few minorities ultimately become speech-language pathologists (SLPs) because admission is the point of access for entry to the profession ( Association of American Medical Colleges [AAMC], 2013 ; Boske et al., 2018 ). In all, understanding how applicants are evaluated through holistic review is essential for understanding pathways forward for intersectional excellence—and excellence overall—in the profession. This report describes how faculty and doctoral students evaluate applicants to master's programs in speech-language pathology along criteria used during holistic review.

Holistic review is a selection process that considers the whole applicant, including what they would bring to the program ( AAMC, 2010 , 2021 ; Posselt, 2016 ). Its purpose is to create a flexible, individualized evaluation of applicant abilities relevant to success ( AAMC, 2010 ; Kent & McCarthy, 2016 ). The tenets of holistic review are as follows: (a) criteria are broad, mission aligned, and consider diversity as integral to excellence; (b) using applicant experiences, personal characteristics, and academics to inform applicant review in an equitable and evidence-based manner; (c) consideration of applicants' contributions to the class, institution, and profession; and (d) consideration of applicant race/ethnicity to achieve institutional goals related to institutional mission ( AAMC, 2010 , 2013 , 2021 ; Glazer et al., 2014 ). As such, diversity is not the goal but a means to achieving educational goals and institutional missions ( AAMC, 2010 , 2014 ).

Practices and Procedures

To ensure fidelity of holistic review, programs must have practices and procedures in place for each stage of holistic admissions: screening, interviewing, and selection of applicants for admission ( Glazer et al., 2014 ). The holistic review scoring model provides guidance on specific practices and procedures ( AAMC, 2013 ; Glazer et al., 2014 ). Under this model, schools may adopt the following: (a) evaluation of applicant criteria related to specific missions or goals of the school (e.g., research mission), (b) using an admissions mission statement that includes diversity, (c) consideration of nonacademic criteria in addition to academic metrics in screening, (d) evaluation of nonacademic criteria related to applicant background or experiences in screening (e.g., socioeconomic status [SES]), (e) selection of students from the waitlist using the school's missions or goals as guidance, and (f) providing training for the admissions committee related to school mission and diversity ( Glazer et al., 2014 ).

Holistic Review in Speech-Language Pathology and the Health Professions

Speech-language pathology. A survey explored holistic review in accredited graduate speech-language pathology programs nationwide ( Guiberson & Vigil, 2021 ). We report the key findings here. First, although a majority of programs reported using holistic review, their exact usage varied: 14% reported using holistic review, 46% reported using some holistic review practices, and 40% reported not using holistic review. Of programs using at least some holistic review practices, 72% reported a positive impact, with more diversity in the program, more well-rounded students, and better identification of clinically competent applicants. Furthermore, although diversity increased, applicant grade point average (GPA) and graduate record examination (GRE) scores and graduate outcomes (i.e., graduation rate, employment rate, and Praxis outcomes) did not change. Of the programs not using holistic review, 51% indicated concerns that admitted students would not be as academically prepared. Furthermore, only 29% of respondents believed CLD students faced barriers to entry to master's programs, including academic ability and preparation and proficiency in mainstream American English.

Second, programs varied in the aspects they implemented at each stage. In screening, 85% of programs reported using a GPA cutoff (range: 2.75 to ≥ 3.3), and 73% of respondents ranked GPA as the most important criterion. Few (26%) programs reported using a GRE cutoff score. In applicant review and selection, 61% of respondents ranked GPA and 30% ranked GRE scores as an important or the most important criterion, respectively. Nearly half the respondents reported considering bilingualism/multilingualism during these stages. Other common practices across programs included consideration of nonacademic criteria (e.g., interpersonal skills, oral communication skills, professionalism, and critical thinking) and diversity essay responses.

Overall, these findings suggest holistic review is on the rise in speech-language pathology, although many programs do not fully follow the AAMC (2013) model. If only some practices are in place, holistic review may not increase diversity ( Boske et al., 2018 ; Cahn, 2015 ). Furthermore, it is unknown how admissions committees evaluate criteria across applicants.

Health professions. A nationwide survey of health professions schools in nursing, medicine, dentistry, public health, and pharmacy found that nearly 50% of nursing schools and over 75% of the remaining schools had implemented holistic review ( Glazer et al., 2014 ). Like speech-language pathology, individual schools varied in what holistic review practices they adopted ( Glazer et al., 2014 ). Schools—particularly those which had adopted many holistic review practices—reported that implementing holistic review increased diversity and had the same or improved student outcomes ( Glazer et al., 2014 ). However, individual practices alone, such as eliminating the GREs as an admissions requirement, may be insufficient for increasing diversity ( Cahn, 2015 ). Importantly, schools implementing holistic review reported 2–3 times more student engagement in the community, teamwork and cooperation, and openness to different perspectives than schools that did not ( Glazer et al., 2014 ).

Conceptualizations of Holistic Review

Although AAMC (2013) has provided an established definition of holistic review, other conceptualizations of holistic review have emerged that are also relevant to understanding holistic review in practice. For example, as shown in Figure 1 , different interpretations are whole file, whole person, and whole context ( Bastedo et al., 2018 ). Although Bastedo et al. (2018) developed this framework to study holistic review practices of undergraduate admissions officers, it is well suited to exploring graduate admissions in speech-language pathology.

Potential holistic review process. GPA = grade point average; GREs = graduate record examinations.

Whole file. Under this approach, committee members consider the application file. Although committee members may consider both academic variables (e.g., GPA and GRE scores) and nonacademic variables (e.g., extracurricular activities), how these factors inform admissions decisions depend on individual committee members. Because evaluation of the application file at face value does not necessarily include consideration of personal characteristics or academic or family background, committee members may miss relevant information to contextualize the application file materials of CLD applicants.

Whole person. In addition to the application file, committee members consider the applicant as a unique individual with achievements in terms of involvement, leadership, background, and what they will contribute to their cohort and program (i.e., applicant fit). This approach may pose barriers to CLD applicants because it does not take into account the context, environment, or lived experiences of applicants. Academic and family background afford individuals with different opportunities, such that some experiences may be a function of privilege and not ability. Furthermore, it is unclear how committee members perceive applicant fit for those who are not of the dominant majority in communication sciences and disorders (CSD).

Whole context. In addition to whole-person characteristics, this approach takes into account the context, environment, and lived experiences of applicants. Committee members consider the applicant as a unique individual from educational and family circumstances that shaped who they are. This approach is the most inclusive yet requires the most interpretation. If committee members are skilled at interpreting application materials beyond what is explicitly stated or present, such that they understand the potential barriers that an applicant faced in their pursuit of a master's program in speech-language pathology, they may credit them for their accomplishments. If committee members are less skilled, they may underestimate their abilities.

Admissions Application Materials

As shown in Figure 1 , common application materials to master's programs are GPA, GRE scores, letters of recommendation, a personal statement, and a resume or curriculum vitae (CV; Baggs et al., 2015 ; Kent & McCarthy, 2016 ; Michel et al., 2019 ; Okahana et al., 2018 ). These components vary in their predictive value of graduate school outcomes, and interpretation of them may be subject to bias.

Predictive value. The predictive value of GPA in identifying qualified candidates is uncertain, despite an emphasis on these metrics in the reviewal of applicants to master's programs in speech-language pathology ( Guiberson & Vigil, 2021 ). Some studies have found undergraduate GPA in speech-language pathology ( Baggs et al., 2015 ; Boles, 2018 ; Halberstam & Redstone, 2005 ; Ryan et al., 1998 ) and undergraduate GPA ( Forrest & Naremore, 1998 ; Halberstam & Redstone, 2005 ; Troche & Towson, 2018 ) to be predictive of graduate school outcomes, as defined by Praxis outcomes, graduate GPA, and comprehensive exam performance. Elsewhere, undergraduate GPA and GPA in speech-language pathology have not predicted graduate school outcomes ( Anderson et al., 2017 ; Richardson et al., 2020 ).

Potential for bias. Utilizing GPA as an indicator of applicant quality may give rise to bias. Despite emphasis on a near-perfect GPA, the GPA of admitted students to speech-language pathology master's programs is variable ( Polovoy, 2014 ; Sylvan et al., 2020 ), in terms of average GPA of accepted students to U.S. master's programs (range: 3.14–3.97; CAPCSD & ASHA, 2020 ; Koay et al., 2016 ) and international grading systems ( Michel et al., 2019 ).

Findings beyond speech-language pathology also suggest there are issues with using GPA as an indicator, including heavy reliance on GPA in screening and final admissions decisions ( Kent & McCarthy, 2016 ). In psychology, Black/African American and Hispanic/Latinx students are underrepresented in doctoral programs relative to their White peers, despite having the same GPA ( Callahan et al., 2018 ). Such underrepresentation is not limited to graduate programs. Black/African American and Hispanic/Latinx students who had guaranteed admission to top undergraduate institutions by earning a top GPA were less likely than their White peers to apply and more likely to apply to lower ranked schools ( Black et al., 2015 ). When there are racial/ethnic differences in GPA, they may be due to educational resource availability ( Michel et al., 2019 ) and instructor mindset ( Canning et al., 2019 ; Gershenson & Papageorge, 2018 ). Across all students at a large public university, Black/African American, Hispanic/Latinx, and Native American students had lower grades in science, technology, engineering and mathematics courses than White or Asian students; this gap was twice as large in classes where faculty believed academic ability was a fixed ability ( Canning et al., 2019 ).

Predictive value. GRE scores have limited predictive value of graduate outcomes. In speech-language pathology, some studies have found GRE scores to be predictive of Praxis outcomes, graduate GPA, and comprehensive exam performance ( Anderson et al., 2017 ; Baggs et al., 2015 ; Boles, 2018 ; Kjelgaard & Guarino, 2012 ; Ryan et al., 1998 ; Troche & Towson, 2018 ). Elsewhere, GRE scores have not predicted graduate outcomes ( Anderson et al., 2017 ; Richardson et al., 2020 ). Despite this mixed evidence, over a quarter of 110 speech-language pathology faculty reported their programs use a GRE cutoff and rated GRE scores as an important or the most important in both screening decisions and application selection ( Guiberson & Vigil, 2021 ). In the adjacent field of psychology, analysis of doctoral student enrollment revealed that Black and Hispanic/Latinx students were underrepresented relative to White students, despite having equally high GRE scores ( Callahan et al., 2018 ). More broadly, as per C. Miller and Stassun (2014) , the GRE is a more accurate indicator of skin color and sex than of ability and long-term success.

Potential for bias. Across all GRE takers, American Indian, Black, and Hispanic/Latinx examinees have performed lower than White and Asian students ( Bleske-Rechek & Browne, 2014 ; Educational Testing Service [ETS], 2019 ). Of all GRE takers between July 2018 and June 2019, those who were Asian scored higher on GRE Quantitative than all other racial/ethnic groups, those who were White and non-Hispanic scored higher on GRE Verbal than all other groups, and those who were White and non-Hispanic or Asian scored higher on analytical writing than all other groups ( ETS, 2019 ).

This finding has several implications. The first involves how admissions committees interpret test scores ( Messick, 1989 ). Although GRE scores are clearly not lower for every racial/ethnic minority applicant, structural racism systematically denies underrepresented minority groups of low SES access to resources (e.g., educational opportunity; Kendi, 2020 ). Thus, if minorities have lower GRE scores, it may be due to structural racism in terms of economic success, educational opportunity, and bias in the educational environment ( Lucey & Saguil, 2020 ). The second implication involves how admissions committees use GRE scores ( Messick, 1989 ). If programs use GRE scores as a singular benchmark instead of integrating multiple sources of information, they risk misusing the test ( ETS, 2019 ) and effecting racialized outcomes, in that admissions may not mention race but systematically exclude racial/ethnic groups ( Powell, 2012 ). Indeed, when GRE scores were used as a cutoff in the biomedical sciences, nearly two thirds of Black/African American, Native, and Hispanic/Latinx applicants were triaged, but only 26% of White male applicants were triaged ( Wilson et al., 2019 ). In all, interpretation and use of the GRE must account for inequity.

Personal Statements

Predictive value. Personal statements may not reliably reflect the abilities of students. When measured using idea density, the quality of personal statements did not predict graduate GPA or comprehensive exam outcomes ( Anderson et al., 2017 ). However, when evaluating personal statements using grammar, content, and apparent knowledge of and commitment to the field of speech-language pathology, statement quality has correlated with graduate GPA ( Halberstam & Redstone, 2005 ). These last two criteria are subjective ( Halberstam & Redstone, 2005 ). Furthermore, assessing grammar as an indicator of personal statement quality may give rise to linguistic bias ( Politzer-Ahles et al., 2020 ).

Potential for bias. Some of the criteria that admissions committee members evaluate through personal statements, such as apparent knowledge of and commitment to speech-language pathology, depend on personal judgment ( Halberstam & Redstone, 2005 ). CLD applicants to master's programs in speech-language pathology may be at a disadvantage relative to their White peers in developing personal statements, especially with respect to writing skills ( Fuse, 2018 ). Findings from medicine support this possibility. Nearly half the students across three cohorts reported receiving help from others in developing their personal statement for medical school ( Albanese et al., 2003 ). CLD applicants may not have the same access to help developing a personal statement as do their White peers, who are likely to know previous applicants willing to share materials or to have the financial wherewithal to access paid services ( Albanese et al., 2003 ). Hence, the personal statements of CLD applicants could vary in their quality because of differences in resource availability and not ability ( Kendi, 2020 ).

Letters of Recommendation

Predictive value. Letters of recommendation may have limited predictive utility in admissions. On one hand, letter of recommendation quality—as measured by recommender prestige, apparent depth of knowledge of the applicant, reasons for recommending the applicant, and level of enthusiasm of recommendation—has predicted graduate GPA in speech-language pathology ( Halberstam & Redstone, 2005 ). However, a large-scale meta-analysis found that letters only weakly predicted graduate GPA, performance rating from faculty, and degree attainment ( Kuncel et al., 2014 ). Furthermore, letters of recommendation only accounted for a negligible proportion of unique variance in graduate GPA and faculty ratings of graduate school performance ( Kuncel et al., 2014 ). Although not specific to CSD, these findings suggest letters of recommendation have limited power in identifying qualified applicants to graduate programs.

Potential for bias. Using letters of recommendation to select applicants may introduce bias. First, some applicants may be at a disadvantage in obtaining the experiences requisite for strong letters of recommendation. Amid general student concerns about having to work outside school and obtaining letters of recommendation, Black/African American and Hispanic/Latinx master's students in speech-language pathology have reported being of lower SES than their White peers ( Fuse, 2018 ; Fuse & Bergen, 2018 ). Thus, if CLD applicants of lower SES must work outside school, they have less time for coursework, research, and extracurricular activities, all of which may help them develop relationships with letter writers and demonstrate the characteristics for a strong letter ( Fuse, 2018 ).

Second, some applicants may be at a disadvantage in receiving strong letters of recommendation, even when they are as equally qualified as peers of dominant backgrounds. Of all undergraduate students applying to a research experience program, minority applicants versus White applicants and applicants from institutions that were not research intensive versus research-intensive institutions received different letters of recommendation, despite having the same GPA ( Houser & Lemmons, 2018 ). Although letters for White students tended to describe them in terms of cognitive ability, productivity, and insight, letters for Black/African American and Hispanic/Latinx students tended to describe them in terms of affect and emotion ( Houser & Lemmons, 2018 ). Furthermore, graduate programs nationwide have reported knowing the author of letters of recommendation as an influence on the admissions process ( Okahana et al., 2018 ). In all, these findings warrant caution in using letters of recommendation to assess applicant quality.

Resumes or CVs

Predictive value. The resume or CV includes many of the other components: GPA, GRE scores, accomplishments, and experiences that are referred to in a personal statement and letters of recommendation. Because the resume or CV is essentially an organized listing of a subset of what is in other application materials, then the criticisms about the predictive utility of other application materials apply here. For example, research experience on the resume or CV is also probably mentioned in the personal statement, and undergraduate institution and performance are probably also mentioned in recommendation letters.

Potential for bias. Interpreting the resume or CV without considering the full array of factors that shaped the applicant may lead to lower ratings for CLD applicants, particularly those who are from less privileged backgrounds ( Bastedo et al., 2018 ). Master's students in speech-language pathology have reported feeling overwhelmed by the application process, such that application materials may not fully align to program expectations ( Sylvan et al., 2020 ). At the same time, many applicants to the health professions report receiving external help in preparing their applications ( Albanese et al., 2003 ). Hence, interpreting resumes or CVs at face value may affect bias against applicants without access to outside help ( Albanese et al., 2003 ).

Altogether, previous findings on application materials highlight the importance of evidence-based holistic review. There is no singular set of reliable predictors of applicant quality. An additional concern is that previous studies did not include rejected applicants, which limits the ability to predict later outcomes; thus, the predictive value of application materials may be even lower than what it appears ( Michel et al., 2019 ; Ryan et al., 1998 ). Given underrepresentation in speech-language pathology, confounds relevant to cultural and linguistic diversity may exist in the prediction of graduate outcomes, as such evidence informs admissions committees on what to consider. This problem is circular in nature; if programs fail to diversify, it is impossible to know what predicts graduate success across diverse backgrounds.

As shown in Figure 1 , admissions committees evaluate application materials for personal characteristics or criteria. However, the evaluation of criteria may be subject to bias, such that applicants who do not fit the stereotype of a speech-language pathology student may face additional obstacles in entering the profession ( Rogus-Pulia et al., 2018 ; Shapiro et al., 2002 ).

A Framework for Noncognitive Variables in Holistic Review

A framework for noncognitive variables in holistic review for all students comes from Sedlacek (1993) , who argued for the importance of noncognitive variables in holistic review. Noncognitive variables, which are qualitative metrics indicative of personal characteristics, entail experiential and contextual factors “relating to adjustment, motivation, and student perceptions” ( Sedlacek, 2011 , p. 180). Importantly, these variables may best predict success in nontraditional students: (a) positive self-concept, (b) realistic self-appraisal, (c) ability to successfully handle a system that was not designed for them (i.e., graduate admissions), (d) preference for long-term goals over short-term ones, (e) availability of a strong support person, (f) successful leadership experience, (g) demonstrated community service, and (h) knowledge acquired in or about a field ( Sedlacek, 2004 ). These variables are an indicator for success in higher education for all students and must be considered in order to truly generate diverse and socially just admissions decisions ( Sedlacek, 1993 , 2004 , 2005 , 2011 ). For reference, programs in the Council for Graduate Studies most commonly identified past academic performance, critical thinking, program fit, and writing ability as qualities relevant to master's admissions ( Kent & McCarthy, 2016 ).

An Instantiated Example of Holistic Review Criteria in Speech-Language Pathology

An example of holistic review criteria comes from the University of Kansas Intercampus Program in Communicative Disorders ( University of Kansas, Department of Hearing and Speech, 2018 ). The admissions committee evaluates applicants for criteria, which are social constructs whose evaluation depends on the indicators used and the interpretation of admissions committee members ( Boske et al., 2018 ). Although a detailed analysis is beyond the present scope, it is not always clear how the criteria below align to the noncognitive variables as proposed by Sedlacek (1993) . For example, the criteria do not mention or allude to an applicant's ability to handle a system that may not be designed for them.

Academic ability and preparation. Academic ability and preparation refer to the need to have a firm foundation in speech-language-hearing and broader knowledge of related areas, with the goal of being able to apply this knowledge in clinical practice. Indicators of this criterion include overall and GPA in speech-language-hearing, letters of reference, and resume.

Communication skills. Communication skills refer to the need of SLPs to communicate with clients, families, and other professionals using oral and written language. Indicators of this criterion include personal statement, letters of recommendation, and resume.

Interpersonal skills. Interpersonal skills refer to the need of SLPs to work collaboratively and effectively with clients, families, and other professionals. Indicators of this criterion include teamwork experience and clinical experience on the resume.

Analytical skills. Analytical skills refer to the need of SLPs to critically read, analyze, interpret, and apply research to evidence-based clinical practice, thus requiring a foundation in research, critical thinking, and clinical application. Indicators of this criterion include an essay, research, and clinical experience on the resume and letters of reference.

Potential for professionalism. Potential for professionalism refers to the need for SLPs to be organized, reliable, respectful, and able to grow from constructive feedback. Indicators of this criterion include letters of reference and personal statement.

Potential for leadership. Potential for leadership refers to the need of SLPs to advocate for their clients and for the profession. Indicators of this criterion include leadership experience on the resume and letters of reference.

Cultural and linguistic diversity. Cultural and linguistic diversity refers to the need for SLPs to work effectively with diverse and multilingual clients from a variety of backgrounds that differ from their own. Indicators of this criterion include personal or academic cultural experiences on the resume and letters of reference.

Indicators of Criteria

In addition to the application materials, indicators of criteria from the example are teamwork experience, clinical experience, and research experience. As with the application materials, these indicators may have limited predictive ability and potential for bias.

Teamwork experience. Teamwork may not reliably indicate applicant quality because effective teamwork may be something that CLD applicants do not highlight in their application materials as an individual accomplishment. For example, Native American academics from tribal communities have reported a gap between their cultural norms and those of predominantly White academia ( Dvorakova, 2019 ). Although relationality and communal cooperation were central to their respective cultures, academia emphasized individualism ( Dvorakova, 2019 ). Similarly, Korean undergraduates reported a greater sense of “oneness” with members of a whole (e.g., family and friend networks), whereas their White peers reported a greater sense of individualism ( Lim et al., 2011 ). Thus, sense of self—and of one's strengths, including teamwork as a type of accomplishment or skill—are culturally situated; CLD applicants may not consider positive teamwork experiences as an individualistic skill to explicitly mention.

Students may also face inequity in gaining teamwork experience. Undergraduate students in CSD have reported relying on cohort mates for social support ( Roos & Schreck, 2019 ). Furthermore, younger SLPs who recently graduated from master's programs have demonstrated significant bias against speakers with they perceive to have a “nonnative” accent ( Chakraborty et al., 2019 ). Together with the potential for homophily, one possibility is that CLD students are less able to access social support from their peers in a predominantly White profession ( Rogus-Pulia et al., 2018 ). Those with intersecting identities in multiple marginalized groups (i.e., racial/ethnic minority plus being perceived as a nonnative speaker of English) may face more barriers ( Crenshaw, 1989 ).

Research experience. Prior research experience may not predict academic performance, degree attainment, and clinical performance in the health sciences and professions ( A. Miller et al., 2020 ). Research experience is oftentimes unpaid, such that it may be accessible only to those who can afford to provide unpaid labor ( A. Miller et al., 2020 ). Consequently, using research experience as an indicator of analytical skills may reflect access to opportunity and disadvantage CLD applicants ( Houser & Lemmons, 2018 ; A. Miller et al., 2020 ). In speech-language pathology, family financial support is predictive of admissions outcomes to master's programs. Therefore, students who work outside school (who are disproportionately minority students) may be less likely to have research experience and appear to have less strong analytical skills due to inequity ( Fuse, 2018 ; Fuse & Bergen, 2018 ).

In addition, undergraduate research experience may only be available at some schools ( Houser & Lemmons, 2018 ; A. Miller et al., 2020 ). Even when paid research opportunities are available, students from institutions that are not research intensive and community colleges have been underrepresented in the applicant pool compared to their peers from research-intensive institutions, with 40% of 389 students applying versus 70% expected ( Houser & Lemmons, 2018 ). Thus, using prior research experience as an indicator may favor applicants at institutions with research opportunities ( A. Miller et al., 2020 ). By the same token, committees may perceive applicants to have weaker analytical skills, simply because research opportunities were unavailable at their institutions.

Clinical experience. Little is known about prior clinical experience as a reliable predictor of graduate outcomes in speech-language pathology. Findings from the allied health professions suggest clinical experience may not reliably predict graduate success. In nursing, prior clinical experience did not predict graduate GPA ( El-Banna et al., 2015 ; Patzer et al., 2017 ) or program completion ( Niemczyk et al., 2018 ). Similarly, in medicine, prior clinical experience did not predict medical school GPA, medical licensing exam outcomes, or later assessment of expertise and professionalism ( Artino et al., 2012 ; in contrast, see Shah et al., 2018 ). In all, these findings highlight the importance of caution in using clinical experience as an indicator.

Using clinical experience as an indicator also gives rise to potential bias. As with research experience, undergraduate clinical experience, such as internships, is often unpaid. Therefore, the same concerns with accessibility of research experience also apply to clinical experience. In addition, CLD students may face more hurdles than their White peers in clinical settings. For example, minority supervisors in psychology have reported spending the most time discussing multicultural issues if their supervisee was a minority; in contrast, White supervisors spent the least amount of time discussing multicultural issues if their supervisee was White and more time if their supervisee was a minority ( Hird et al., 2004 ). One conclusion is that minorities must navigate multicultural issues as an everyday reality, thus adding to the burden of gaining clinical experience ( Hird et al., 2004 ). Explicitly, minorities may be perceived as having more difficulties in clinical settings, even though the underlying issue is underrepresentation, such that clinical supervision methods and perceptions of clinical competency are based on the dominant majority alone ( Buchanan & Wiklund, 2020 ). Altogether, these findings highlight one way in which clinical experience may create bias.

In all, teamwork experience, clinical experience, and research experience may have limited utility in admissions if they are used as gatekeeping mechanisms and considered in the absence of applicant background. As Figure 1 shows, there are many steps in the application process, such that application materials may or may not truly reflect applicant characteristics and criteria ratings may or may not correspond to explicit admissions decisions. How do admissions committees interpret applicants of diverse backgrounds using holistic review criteria? In the section that follows, we propose a methodology for exploring this question.

Vignettes or information in a narrative paragraph format is an emerging method for probing real-world decision making. Medicine, speech-language pathology, academic reviewing, and admissions have used vignettes to examine the decision-making practices of gatekeepers as related to quality of care (i.e., the series of decisions that lead to improved outcomes) and evaluation in higher education contexts. We suggest that the admissions decisions brought about by holistic review are akin to quality of care, in that they may to lead to improved program outcomes ( AAMC, 2010 , 2014 ).

Quality of Care

In Peabody et al.'s (2000) study, physicians read eight vignettes and made decisions, with the outcome being quality of care. The study manipulated vignettes for clinical symptomatology and presented them in a simple or complex clinical scenario. In measuring quality of care or the “goodness” of decision making versus patient outcomes, this study removed the potential confounds of characteristics beyond the control of individual practitioners (e.g., underlying conditions) to isolate the role of practitioner knowledge. Importantly, findings showed that quality of care as measured by the vignettes was closer to the quality of care as measured by standardized patients (i.e., the gold standard in medicine) than chart abstraction (i.e., a report of diagnostic information).

Selin et al. (2019) expanded upon this methodology to explore quality of care in the context of SLP clinical decision-making practices for children with specific language impairment (SLI). As in Peabody et al. (2000) , the study manipulated clinical symptomatology across vignettes and removed confounds of characteristics beyond the control of individual SLPs (e.g., workplace policies for eligibility) by instructing respondents to use only best professional judgment and to assume neutral workplace conditions. Although all children in the vignettes had SLI, their characteristics were specified at impaired, borderline, or typical levels or not specified. This structure allowed for the examination of both child and SLP characteristics. Findings revealed SLPs identified children with SLI for services at higher rates than reported in the literature, thus indicating a higher quality of care than in actuality. In all, vignettes may be an effective method for understanding the role of individuals in decision-making practices.

Evaluation in Higher Education Contexts

Politzer-Ahles et al. (2020) used vignettes to explore how faculty and PhD students in CSD evaluate academic writing. The study manipulated conference abstracts to vary along one parameter: whether they conformed or not to international academic English. Respondents rated the vignettes using criteria, such as scientific quality and clarity of writing. Results showed that the abstract written in language that conformed less to international academic English received lower ratings of scientific quality than the abstract written in language that conformed to international academic English, despite having identical substantive content. Hence, vignettes may be useful for evaluating how those in CSD interpret and evaluate criteria across diverse contexts.

Turning to admissions, Bastedo et al. (2018) used vignettes to explore the decision-making practices of undergraduate admissions officers. Respondents made admissions decisions using full hypothetical admissions files for applicants who were of the same race, ethnicity, gender, college, and major but varied in their coursework, educational background, and academic metrics (i.e., grades and test scores). Two came from an upper middle-class high school with a strong or less strong academic background. The third came from a lower SES high school with the least strong academic background and had fewer opportunities in their academic environment. Respondents made decisions under one of two conditions: limited information or detailed information to contextualize their performance. Findings revealed that providing context on applicant background resulted in a higher admissions rate and that respondents who considered not only academic performance but also personal characteristics and applicant background were more likely to admit the applicant from the low-SES background. Thus, utilizing hypothetical profiles of applicants as vignettes may be informative for understanding evaluation of applicants using holistic review criteria.

Taking together what is known about holistic review and vignettes as a methodology, this study explored the evaluation of applicants along criteria used during holistic review. To isolate the role of individual interpretation in evaluation, respondents completed vignette items under neutral conditions (i.e., using only best professional judgment, assuming the application was complete, and evaluating the applicant as is). Thus, the research questions were as follows:

• Considering criteria used during holistic review, are applicants from CLD backgrounds less likely to be accepted into master's speech-language pathology programs than their peers from dominant backgrounds?
• Do applicant ratings predict admissions decisions?

The institutional review board at The Hong Kong Polytechnic University approved this study. Methods for the experiment were preregistered at https://osf.io/5ygzw . We report any analyses that deviate from the primary analyses of the preregistration as exploratory.

Sampling Procedure

To recruit a broadly representative respondent base, recruitment included posting information inviting study participation online in national professional groups: ASHA Students to Empowered Professionals Board; ASHA Special Interest Groups 1 (Language Learning & Education), 10 (Academic Affairs), and 14 (Multiculturalism) discussion boards; and social media groups, such as Clinical Research for SLPs on Facebook. Data collection took place online from mid-July 2020 to mid-September 2020 on Qualtrics ( http://www.qualtrics.com ). Respondents elected whether to participate by reading an information statement, indicating consent, and completing the survey with the ability to stop and return to it over a 2-week period. There was no compensation for participation.

The target sample size was 100–200 participants. This sample size was based on previous research in speech-language-hearing ( Selin et al., 2019 ) using similar methodologies. The stopping rule was to collect data until the survey had 100 completed observations. If data collection yielded over 10 responses per week, the survey would stay open until 200 responses were collected. However, if data collection yielded less than 10 responses per week across a 2-week period, the survey would close. Here, responses decreased to six responses in the penultimate week of data collection and one response in the ultimate week of data collection. Given that data collection took place during the COVID-19 pandemic and participants did not receive compensation, the authors determined reaching the target sample size was unlikely and ceased data collection when the survey had 66 responses. Of those 66 participants, 53 completed the first block (demographics), and 35 completed the survey. Inspection of the data did not suggest that any particular variables influenced attrition.

Participant Characteristics

To participate in this study, respondents had to be a faculty member, PhD student, or PhD candidate at an accredited program for speech-language pathology or equivalent (e.g., CSD) in the United States. The study included PhD students and candidates because they are likely to become faculty and serve on admissions committees. There were no restrictions based on demographic characteristics. As shown in Table 1 , participant demographics were consistent with ASHA demographics. Participants were mostly Caucasian, non-Hispanic, and women. About half held a research doctoral degree, and about half held a master's degree. There was diversity in current positions, with the most common being a PhD student or candidate, an associate professor or equivalent, and an assistant professor or equivalent. Over two thirds served on a master's admissions board.

Respondent characteristics.

Note.  Current positions add up to more than 100%, because one person was both an assistant professor and PhD student. AuD = Doctor of Audiology; SLPD = Doctor of Speech-Language Pathology.

The authors developed and piloted the survey with PhD candidates and faculty in speech-language pathology. Pilot testers provided feedback that informed survey revision, with key considerations being survey length and providing definitions for holistic admissions criteria. Participants completed an online survey (see Appendix ) implemented in Qualtrics. To respect privacy, respondents did not provide institution-specific information.

In the main portion of the survey, participants read six vignettes describing hypothetical applicants. Prior to the vignettes, the survey instructed respondents to use their best professional judgment to evaluate each applicant as is under the assumption that each applicant had a complete application and that there was no applicant interview or other available information. The survey included definitions of each criterion for use in applicant ratings from the University of Kansas Intercampus Program in Communicative Disorders ( University of Kansas, Department of Hearing and Speech, 2018 ). After reading this information, the survey presented six vignettes.

To avoid bias, the vignettes used initials and did not specify gender, race, or ethnicity ( Bertrand & Mullainathan, 2004 ; Milkman et al., 2015 ; Simonsohn, 2015 ). Furthermore, to control for order effects, respondents read and rated vignettes in a randomized order. As shown in Table 2 , indicators of seven criteria from a holistic review framework were conceptualized at a low, moderate, or high level. GPA scores for each level were based on findings about GPA for master's programs in CSD from the research literature ( Koay et al., 2016 ; Polovoy, 2014 ; Sylvan et al., 2020 ). As shown in Table 3 , the authors systematically manipulated indicators of these criteria across vignettes, such that applicants varied by level and specification (i.e., specified or not specified, meaning that information was not provided). Not specifying information allowed for the opportunity to examine default judgments.

Conceptualization of indicator levels of criteria.

Note.  Although the process of evaluating criteria and determination of ratings is subjective, this framework offers one way of conceptualizing the levels of indicators that reviewers use to inform their evaluation of applicants.

Vignette design of applicants to master's programs in speech-language pathology.

Note.  High = criterion specified and indicators of this criterion were highly positive; Moderate = criterion specified and indicators of this criterion were moderately positive or ambiguous; Not specified = information not included in the vignette; Low = criterion specified and indicators of this criterion were minimally positive; CLD = cultural and linguistic diversity.

For example, applicant A.B. graduated from a private college with a 3.8 GPA. Their resume showed that they worked as a teaching assistant for one semester and had an internship with the general counsel of General Electric Corporate. Thus, indicators of their academic ability and preparation (i.e., GPA and previous professional experience) were high. Furthermore, in their essay, A.B. wrote about growing up in an ethnic enclave. Because they did not specify whether this experience entailed working with people from backgrounds different from their own, indicators of their cultural and linguistic diversity were low. Their letters of recommendation came from three professors, one of whom supervised the student in their work as a teaching assistant. The professors reported that the student wrote well for assignments and produced comprehensive reports and client plans in clinic. Therefore, indicators of their analytical skills (i.e., academic writing) were high. However, the professor also reported they rarely participated in group work in class. Thus, indicators of their interpersonal skills (i.e., teamwork) were low. Furthermore, the supervising professor wrote that the student could be hard to reach and received below-average student ratings, indicating their communication skills and potential for leadership were low. Given the mixed findings (i.e., produced comprehensive plans, worked as a teaching assistant, and difficult to reach), indicators of their potential for professionalism were moderate.

After reading each vignette, respondents rated the applicant on criteria using a 5-point Likert scale from weak to very strong : (a) academic ability and preparation, (b) communication skills, (c) interpersonal skills, (d) analytical skills, (e) potential for professionalism, (f) potential for leadership, and (g) cultural and linguistic diversity. Respondents also selected an explicit admissions decision as admit, waitlist, or reject. To maximize the likelihood of capturing first impressions, respondents could not return to previous vignettes and post hoc change answers.

In addition to the vignettes, participants also answered questions about their own demographic background and professional background. Demographic items included race and ethnicity using categories from the National Institutes of Health, as well as gender. Professional background items included education level, current position, current experience on a master's admissions board for speech-language pathology or related programs, current experience on other admissions boards for speech-language pathology or related programs, and factors in applicant reviewal. Respondents could select multiple options from a list of factors in applicant reviewal. To prevent bias in responses, as the survey never explicitly stated the questions under review, professional background items (c)–(e) came after the vignettes. The demographic items and professional background items (a) and (b) came before the vignettes.

The key dependent variable was whether or not the applicant is accepted (i.e., whether they are in the top 50% of applicants) by a given respondent. This was calculated on a per-respondent basis. In other words, for each respondent, the 5-point Likert scale ratings across seven criteria were averaged into one number for each applicant, and then within that respondent, the six applicants were ranked. The top three applicants were considered “accepted” by that respondent, and the bottom three as “not accepted.” Thus, each applicant–respondent pair has an “accept” or “not accept” decision. This cutoff was determined by information from an actual accredited program in speech-language pathology, which accepts the top 40%–50% of applicants. Because it is a highly ranked program, this study adopted a 50% cutoff.

Analytic Strategy

Incomplete surveys were excluded from analysis. To compare the likelihood of acceptance for the applicant from the dominant background to that of the applicants from other backgrounds, the analytic plan was to dummy code applicants (with “0” for students from nondominant backgrounds and “1” for the student from a dominant background) and regress acceptance on applicant background using the following generalized (logistic) mixed-effects model: glmer(Acceptance ~ 0 + Background|Rater), data, family = “binomial.” The random effects in this model fit a different effect of Background (i.e., difference between the dominant background applicant and the others) for each rater but do not fit different intercepts for each rater. Secondary analyses included comparison of the likelihood of acceptance for the applicant from the dominant background to that for each other applicant. Exploratory analyses included descriptive analysis of likelihood of acceptance between respondent groups, which were determined by self-reported consideration of factors in admissions. Following Bastedo et al. (2018) , respondents who selected “application file,” “unique characteristics,” “family background,” and “educational background” were coded as “whole context,” and those who did not were coded as “not whole context.” In addition, exploratory analyses also included descriptive analysis of likelihood of acceptance by criteria.

We report preliminary findings of how respondents, or faculty and doctoral students in CSD, ranked and made explicit admissions decisions (i.e., admit, waitlist, and reject) for hypothetical applicants presented in vignettes. Again, respondents rated hypothetical applicants along seven criteria used during holistic review from an actual program.

Applicants of Varying Indicator Levels for Criteria Were Lower Ranked

Figure 2 shows, for each applicant, the proportion of respondents who ranked this applicant among their top three, alongside the proportion of respondents who gave the applicant an explicit “accept” decision. Applicant F.G. was far more likely to be accepted than the others. In fact, every rater ranked this applicant among their top three. This situation rendered our planned statistical analysis moot, as logistic regression is not possible when one condition has 100% of one kind of response, since the logit function is undefined for proportions of 0% or 100%. Nevertheless, the results support the conclusion that the applicant from the stereotypically “successful” background, who had a high indicator level for all criteria except for cultural and linguistic diversity, was more likely to be accepted than the applicants of varying backgrounds—who also had moderate or high indicator levels for cultural and linguistic diversity. Although our results do not prove cultural and linguistic diversity influenced the likelihood of acceptance across vignettes, they do suggest that likelihood of acceptance varied by it. This is because CLD background is confounded with other factors in this data set. Although applicant F.G. had the highest GPA, which is an important criterion in admissions decisions for master's programs in speech-language pathology ( Guiberson & Vigil, 2021 ), and high indicator levels for other criteria, all other applicants varied significantly more in their indicator levels (see Table 2 for details).

Likelihood of acceptance when acceptance is based on scores from holistic review criteria ratings (dark bars) versus when acceptance is based on explicit decisions (light bars).

Holistic Review Approaches and Criteria

As an additional exploration, we examined whether respondents who reported using a whole-context approach (i.e., considered applicant file, personal characteristics, and educational and family background) yielded different admission outcomes (as a function of ratings that translated into individual rankings) than respondents who reported using a whole-file (i.e., considered applicant file) or whole-person (i.e., considered applicant file plus personal characteristics) approach. As shown in Figure 3 , the three candidates who generally received lower rankings (A.B., B.C., and C.D.) were slightly more likely to be accepted by whole-context raters than by raters who did not take a whole-context approach. This effect was more pronounced in candidate E.F. Recall from Figure 2 that candidate E.F. received a fairly good ranking (and thus high likelihood of acceptance when acceptance was determined by ranking) but did not receive many explicit “accept” decisions. It appears that high rankings for E.F. were especially driven by raters who embodied a whole-context approach. The only candidate who received a worse ranking from whole-context raters than other raters was D.E.

Each candidate's likelihood of acceptance by raters who did not take a whole-context approach (dark bars) versus by raters who did take a whole-context approach (light bars).

Finally, we examined the relationship between the other properties of the candidate described in each vignette (see Table 2 ) and the candidate's likelihood of acceptance. It was not possible to analyze these data with regression, given the abovementioned problem (i.e., cells with 100% or 0% acceptance), the small amount of data overall, and the repeated-measures nature of the data (which preclude using a simple logistic regression and necessitate a mixed-effects logistic regression, which is difficult to get to converge without a large amount of data in each cell). Without regression, it is impossible to attribute increases or decreases in acceptance likelihood to any particular factor, since many of these factors are confounded. Nevertheless, some tentative trends can be noted from Figure 4 . This figure shows, for each factor, how likely applicants were to be accepted as a function of how much of that factor they had. For example, the solid red line for “academic ability” shows that applicants whose academic ability was not specified (i.e., not described) in their vignette had a very low probability of being accepted. In contrast, applicants whose indicators of academic ability were “low” or “high” had about a 60% chance of being accepted, and applicants whose indicators of academic ability were “medium” had about a 40% chance of being accepted. It is shown from the figure that indicator levels of communication skills were fairly strongly associated with the outcomes, applicants whose communication skills were not described had a very low chance of acceptance, and applicants whose indicators of communication skills were “high” had a very high chance of acceptance. The biggest predictors of acceptance appear to be having indicators of communication and potential for professionalism at a high level. As shown in Table 2 , these are precisely the indicator levels that the applicant F.G. had for these two criteria and the other applicants did not.

Likelihood of acceptance as a function of indicators of seven different applicant criteria. CLD = cultural and linguistic diversity.

This study explored how faculty and doctoral candidates rated vignettes of applicants to master's programs in speech-language pathology. Respondents were likely to rank applicants varying in levels of indicators of criteria lower than the applicant who was “high” across all indicators except for cultural and linguistic diversity. Respondents were also more likely to make an explicit “accept” decision for the latter applicant.

Equity in Admissions

Overall, the applicants in the vignettes reflected the real-world complexity of applicants. We manipulated vignettes to vary in the indicators of holistic review criteria that admissions committees use to evaluate applicants: academic ability and preparation, communication skills, cultural and linguistic diversity, interpersonal skills, analytical skills, potential for professionalism, and potential for leadership. Cultural and linguistic diversity was not manipulated independently from other factors; we did not compare applicants who were maximally similar other than their cultural and linguistic background.

A potential criticism of this study could be that if A.B. through E.F. received lower ratings than F.G., that could have occurred because of other factors (e.g., they had “weaker” applications) rather than because of their CLD background. That argument, however, presupposes that the goal of admissions should be for committees to ensure applicants with an equal demonstration of indicators of academic ability get equal admissions outcomes. We are approaching the problem, however, from an antideficit and systemic perspective ( AAMC, 2013 ; Urban Universities for Health, 2016 ). In holistic review, committees should take on the responsibility of creating an environment that honors and respects applicants' backgrounds, including potential for growth, in their evaluation systems. This necessarily includes admissions and extends to ongoing evaluation of students in the program ( AAMC, 2013 ).

In practice, being of a CLD background is often confounded with many of the indicators that committees evaluate—not because students from CLD backgrounds are weaker, but because of structural inequities which often set up students from dominant backgrounds with more chances to show their academic ability, leadership potential, and other characteristics that graduate admissions committees tend to recognize ( Kendi, 2020 ; McGlynn, 2017 ). Thus, if one makes the assumption that students from CLD backgrounds often face structural barriers that students from non-CLD backgrounds do not and thus that a CLD student who is just as qualified as a comparable non-CLD student may nevertheless appear weaker along certain indicators ( Bleske-Recheck & Browne, 2014 ; Fuse, 2018 ; Michel et al., 2019 ), then a goal of admissions committees should not be to achieve admissions outcomes that are blind to an applicants' background. Rather, the goal should be to create equitable admissions policies that work against inequitable outcomes ( Powell, 2012 ). This may mean ranking an applicant of a CLD background higher than a non-CLD applicant with comparable or slightly higher ratings on personal characteristics, such as academic achievement or potential for leadership, which structurally favor applicants from dominant backgrounds. As per Bastedo et al. (2018) , such a ranking would reflect an appreciation of applicant academic and family background. Under such a view, demonstrating that holistic admissions is effective would not require showing that a CLD applicant gets the same (i.e., equal) outcome as a maximally similar non-CLD applicant, that is, why we did not manipulate CLD status independently of other personal characteristics?

To be clear, this study does not assume that all CLD applicants are lower on criteria than their peers from dominant backgrounds, nor does it argue that all reviewers are not culturally responsive. Our argument is that, in light of empirical evidence documenting the systemic barriers that CLD students are likely to face, admissions committees risk evaluating them as lower on criteria if they do not proactively plan for just interpretation and use of application materials and indicators of applicant quality ( Messick, 1989 ). At the same time, admissions committee members are diverse themselves, with respect to their evaluation of applicants ( Bastedo et al., 2018 ). Here, the fact that the highest likelihood of acceptance occurred when indicators of all applicant characteristics, except for cultural and linguistic diversity, were high, which only F.G. had, may or may not be coincidental. As individuals who have succeeded in the field of speech-language-hearing, respondents may have been predisposed to favor those who were similar ( Rogus-Pulia et al., 2018 ; Wilson et al., 2019 ). Respondents may have more positively ranked applicants where they felt they could identify “success,” which may be tied to how well indicators of applicant characteristics conformed to their own backgrounds.

Recommendations for Graduate Admissions Processes Using Holistic Review

In full holistic review, the time commitment required for evaluation of all application components is significant. The preliminary results of this study suggest that at least one step of a holistic review process (i.e., ratings of criteria in applicants and subsequent ranking) may face challenges, to recognizing excellence across diverse applicant profiles. Nevertheless, with careful development and implementation, holistic review processes may increase diversity—and ultimately, educational excellence—without a substantial workload increase for admissions committees ( Wilson et al., 2019 ). General recommendations from holistic admissions in the health professions include creating an admissions mission statement that includes diversity and balancing academic and nonacademic criteria in initial screening of applicants ( Artinian et al., 2017 ). Here, we offer CSD-specific recommendations for programs seeking to develop effective holistic review processes in graduate admissions.

First, considering that applicant ratings in this study favored the applicant many committees would consider to be the most traditionally successful, admissions committees may have to pursue training to learn about diversity, how to assess characteristics and barriers across diverse cultures, and their own biases ( AAMC, 2020 ; Michel et al., 2019 ; Zerwic et al., 2018 ). However, learning about bias alone is insufficient. To actually counter bias, effective steps include having faculty panels that include faculty of diverse backgrounds (or faculty who recognize excellence across diverse backgrounds) review materials, proactively planning an order in which application materials will be reviewed and implementing candidate interviews ( Okahana et al., 2018 ).

Second, given the broader issue of underrepresentation among CSD faculty, programs might consider bringing in CLD alumni to serve as interviewers or advisory board members coaching admissions committees on how to mitigate bias in their decision-making structures and processes ( Okahana et al., 2018 ). Just as CLD faculty may be effective in mentoring CLD students in speech-language pathology ( Saenz, 2000 ), CLD alumni may be effective in interviewing applicants while also helping to not overburden minority faculty who are oftentimes very few and asked to represent all minority groups ( Addams et al., 2010 ). Furthermore, CLD interviewers may be more likely to recognize the barriers that CLD students often face through their own experiences. For example, a CLD mentee shared with one of the authors that they received a low grade in a clinical course. Knowing the student was insightful with cross-cultural perspectives, the mentor probed for more information. It became evident that their training did not include information on the cultural norms or expectations for clinical interactions. Thus, the CLD student had to figure out (a) that there were cultural norms that differed from their own background, (b) what those norms were, and (c) how to acquire this additional set of norms before even approaching clinical training itself. In contrast, their peers of dominant backgrounds were able to bypass (a) through (c) and focus on clinical training. This instantiated example runs counter to narratives, such as that of Ebert and Kohnert (2010) , which proposes personality traits drive clinical competence. Such a narrative suggests clinical competence is fixed and may yield racialized outcomes, especially considering the severe underrepresentation of diverse faculty in the discipline of CSD who are arguably better equipped than their White counterparts to appreciate excellence across diverse backgrounds ( Canning et al., 2019 ; Powell, 2012 ).

Third, programs aiming to implement holistic review must consider not only their admissions processes but also their overall structure to ensure students graduate and advance in the field of speech-language pathology. If the aim is to truly diversify the profession in an intersectional way ( Buchanan & Wiklund, 2020 ; Crenshaw, 1989 ), programs must also reevaluate and revise their ideas of excellence, outcomes, and supports from preadmissions to postgraduation. For example, if a program outcome, such as passing the Praxis, stands alone without supports in place to ensure students of all backgrounds have a fair opportunity at passing the Praxis, then CLD students and students of marginalized backgrounds may face additional challenges in entering the profession even if they receive admissions offers. Similarly, programs must proactively plan for how they will meaningfully support students throughout their time in the program ( Girolamo & Ghali, 2021 ). One example of a support relevant to re-envisioning excellence is inclusive teaching, such that students of all backgrounds have opportunities to acquire and demonstrate academic and clinical excellence.

Limitations

This study had several limitations. First, the sample size was well below the target sample size. Since data collection took place during the COVID-19 pandemic and a period of civil unrest in the United States, potential participants may have had less availability for study participation or received an influx of invitations to participate in such studies. Although the small sample size limits the precision of the estimates of the effect sizes we examined, we believe the findings are still useful as a preliminary demonstration of how evaluators use holistic review criteria, and we hope future studies will contribute more data to further clarify these patterns. Second, presenting applicant characteristics in vignettes may differ from what admissions committee members view in reality. Clearly, admissions committees complete many more steps of holistic review and, thus, evaluate applicants at each step of the process: screening, interviews, and selection of applicants for offers of admission. However, we pursued this methodology given the aim of conducting an exploratory investigation of holistic review criteria in master's speech-language pathology programs, evidence of vignettes as a valid measure of real-world decision-making behavior, and constraints on survey length to encourage completion.

Future Directions

This study highlights the need for future research on holistic review in speech-language pathology. One direction entails evaluating breakdown in holistic review in terms of diversity. A future study might implement the approach of Bastedo et al. (2018) , which employed a survey questionnaire with full hypothetical application files plus interviews. If holistic review fails to diversify accepted applicants, it would be useful to examine which steps of the process do or do not work. In a situation such as the one our study mimicked, in which respondents reviewed brief profiles, problems may occur not in the way the committee evaluates the vignettes but in how committee members construct profiles based on the application materials in the first place. One aim of holistic review is to consider the whole context, such that strengths in some areas may offset weaknesses in other areas ( Wilson et al., 2019 ). Further work is needed to understand how interpretation of applicant criteria plays out at each step, and evaluating holistic review models, perhaps using the model from AAMC (2010) , may inform this area ( Okahana et al., 2018 ). Future research could also explore what practices support admissions committees in considering an applicant's personal characteristics plus background. Evidence from biosciences and nursing suggests that training members for admissions committees on holistic review, as well as on the interpretation and use of master's application materials, is effective at increasing diversity ( Addams et al., 2010 ; Okahana et al., 2018 ; Urban Universities for Health, 2016 ; Wilson et al., 2019 ; Zerwic et al., 2018 ). However, training efficacy has yet to be tested in speech-language pathology.

A Final Note: Measurement and Merit

This study underlined the need to critically question admissions processes, even if they sound promising. Following AAMC (2013) , we must consider the fundamental principles of holistic review in the context of speech-language pathology. What constructs, or personal characteristics, should admissions committees measure? How should committees measure these characteristics? If committees use an evaluation system where characteristics are treated as fixed (e.g., Canning et al., 2019 ; Ebert & Kohnert, 2010 ), rather than ones which are socially situated, may or may not indicate excellence, or which could be cultivated through academic and clinical training, does this create or hinder excellence in the profession? Finally, who are our admissions systems built for and not built for? As Mandulak (2021) noted, “the resistance and difficulty with change, with respect to…assumptions about merit and achievement may be so well-entrenched in our processes within our programs” (p. 4). To achieve excellence for our profession, we must not only reshape our notions of merit but also restructure our systems to be for all students.

Acknowledgments

This work was supported by T32 DC000052 (Director: Mabel L. Rice) and R01 DC001803 (PI: Mabel L. Rice). The authors would like to thank the survey pilot testers, respondents, reviewers, Ivan Campos, and Matt Gillispie for their feedback.

Information Statement

An online study on academic peer reviewing.

You are invited to participate in a study conducted by Dr. Stephen Politzer-Ahles, who is a staff member of the Department of Chinese and Bilingual Studies in The Hong Kong Polytechnic University. The project has been approved by the Human Subjects Ethics Subcommittee (HSESC) of The Hong Kong Polytechnic University (HSESC Reference No. HSEARS20200703001).

The aim of this study is to better understand entry to speech-language pathology master's programs in the United States. You will be asked to read profiles of students while pretending that these are applicants to a master's program in speech-language pathology. For each profile, you will be asked to rate applicant quality. It is hoped that the results of this experiment will help us understand more about admissions for master's speech-language pathology programs.

The experiment has no risks or direct benefits to you. All information related to you will remain confidential and will be identifiable by codes only known to the researcher. You have every right to withdraw from the study before completing the survey, without penalty of any kind. The survey is expected to take between 10 and 15 minutes to complete.

If you would like to obtain more information about this study, please contact Dr. Stephen Politzer-Ahles (Tel. no.: +852 27662891/ kh.ude.uylop@tilopjs :liam-e ).

If you have any complaints about the conduct of this research study, please do not hesitate to contact Miss Cherrie Mok ( [email protected] ), Secretary of the HSESC of The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, in writing (c/o Research Office of the University), stating clearly the responsible person and department of this study as well as the HSESC Reference Number.

Thank you for your interest in participating in this study.

Stephen Politzer-Ahles, PhD

Principal Investigator

◯ I consent to participate in this study.

◯ I do not consent to participate in this study.

I am affiliated with a CAA-accredited program in speech-language pathology or the equivalent (e.g., communication science and disorders, communicative disorders) within the United States.

◯ No

◯ Yes

I am a PhD student/candidate or faculty member (nontenure track, tenure track, or tenured).

Survey instructions

Thank you for taking time to complete this survey. The purpose of this survey is to examine how faculty and PhD students/candidates evaluate applicants to master's programs in speech-language pathology. Completion of this survey is anonymous.

You can complete the survey over multiple sessions. Please keep in mind that you will not be able to return to previous questions once you move to the next page. The survey should take 10–15 minutes.

Demographic information

In order to track how representative this survey's respondent base is of the demographics of the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association, please answer the following questions.

(a) Select the item(s) that best describe yourself.

□ American Indian, Eskimo, Aleut

□ Asian or Pacific islander

□ Black or African American

□ Caucasian or White

□             Other:

□ Don't know

□ Prefer not to say

(b) Of Spanish-Hispanic/Latinx origin (select one)

◯ Don't know

◯ Prefer not to say

Which of the following describes your gender identity? Check all that apply.

□ Nonbinary

□ Multigender

□ Gender fluid

□ Agender/no gender

□ Genderqueer

□ Male

□ Female

□ Prefer not to respond

□             An option not listed here:

Professional background

What is the highest level of education that you have completed?

◯ Bachelor's degree or equivalent

◯ Master's degree or equivalent

◯ AuD or equivalent

◯ SLPD or equivalent

◯ PhD or equivalent

◯             Other:

What is your current position?

◯ PhD student or candidate

◯ Assistant professor or equivalent

◯ Associate professor or equivalent

◯ Clinical professor (nontenure track) or equivalent

◯ Full professor or equivalent

◯ Lecturer or equivalent

◯ Research associate/scientist or equivalent

Applicant profiles

The next section of the survey will present six profiles of prospective students who have applied to a master's program in speech-language pathology and ask you to evaluate each applicant.

Note: For this section, please use only your best professional judgment to evaluate each applicant as is . Assume there is no applicant interview or other available information and that each applicant has the required materials in their application. You may use the following information in your evaluation:

• Academic ability and preparation : Students need foundational knowledge in core speech-language-hearing concepts in addition to knowledge from related disciplines so they are able to learn how to apply this knowledge to clinical situations.
• Communication skills : SLPs need to communicate clearly and effectively with clients, families, and other professionals in spoken and written formats.
• Interpersonal skills : Given the importance of working with clients, families, and other professionals, SLPs need to be able to work effectively in collaboration with a wide range of people.
• Analytical skills : To implement evidence-based practice, SLPs need to critically read, analyze, interpret, and apply research to clinical practice. Accordingly, SLPs need a firm foundation in research, critical thinking, and clinical application.
• Potential for professionalism : Because SLPs work in busy and sometimes stressful environments, they need to be organized, reliable, and respectful. SLPs are also lifelong learners and need to be able to grow from constructive feedback.
• Potential for leadership : SLPs advocate for their clients to ensure they receive appropriate services and may also advocate for their profession at the local, state, or national level.
• Cultural and linguistic diversity : SLPs have diverse and multilingual caseloads, such that they need to value and work well with people from a variety of backgrounds that differ from their own.

A.B. graduated from a private college with a 3.8 GPA. Their resume shows that they worked as a Teaching Assistant (TA) for one semester and had an internship with the general counsel of General Electric Corporate. In their essay, A.B. wrote about growing up in an ethnic enclave. Their letter of recommendation writers were three professors, one of whom supervised the student in their work as a TA. One professor reported that the student wrote strong essays in class and produced comprehensive written reports and client plans in clinic. The other professor wrote that A.B. rarely participated in group work in class. The supervising professor wrote that the student could be hard to reach and received below average student ratings as a course TA.

Rate A.B. on each of the following:

Please indicate your admissions decision for A.B. based on the information available.

◯ Admit

◯ Waitlist

◯ Reject

Please leave any optional comments or reasoning for your ratings and admissions decision for A.B.

B.C. is a first-generation college graduate. Their resume shows they had a 3.3 overall GPA, had a 3.1 GPA in speech-language-hearing, and worked full time during college as a server. In their essay, B.C. wrote about finding free classes in their community to learn another language. Their letter of recommendation writers were their former employer and two professors. The employer reported that B.C. showed initiative at work and streamlined the process of taking and delivering orders to customers. One professor noted that the student's speaking style was not appropriate for clinic (i.e., spoke too casually with grammatical errors). The other professor wrote that despite showing interest for the profession, classmates reported difficulty working with the student on group projects due to their lack of availability.

Rate B.C. on each of the following:

Please indicate your admissions decision for B.C. based on the information available.

Please leave any optional comments or reasoning for your ratings and admissions decision for B.C.

C.D. graduated from a state university. Although sparse, their resume shows that they led some type of community cultural programming with a local nonprofit organization. The organization has an ethnic name, but the cultural connection is unclear. In their essay, C.D. wrote about how they needed to increase their flexibility to improve their leadership skills. Their letter of recommendation writers included two professors. One professor wrote that C.D. served in an affinity organization and worked well with fellow officers. However, they seemed to have difficulties getting along with a significant proportion of their classmates in clinic. The other professor wrote that the student was enthusiastic about their interests in the field of speech-language-hearing and sought out clinical shadowing opportunities.

Rate C.D. on each of the following:

Please indicate your admissions decision for C.D. based on the information available.

Please leave any optional comments or reasoning for your ratings and admissions decision for C.D.

D.E. is an international university graduate with borderline TOEFL scores and an overall GPA of 8.68 out of 10. Their resume shows they had several years of experience in the health professions as some type of student hourly or research assistant. Although their essay was short and choppy, D.E. wrote about working with families with children from a variety of backgrounds and with a wide range of speech-language service needs and their families in their country. Their letter of recommendation writers were two professors and one lab principal investigator who was their former boss. The professors' letters indicated that the student was compliant in following directions for coursework and clinic but required significant clinical supervision. The PI wrote that they interacted with families well.

Rate D.E. on each of the following:

Please indicate your admissions decision for D.E. based on the information available.

Please leave any optional comments or reasoning for your ratings and admissions decision for D.E.

Student E.F. graduated from a minority-serving institution with an overall GPA of 3.0 and a 3.4 GPA in speech-language-hearing. Their resume shows they are fluent in two languages. In their essay, E.F. wrote about being raised by their extended family and being inspired to pursue a career in the profession to help care for others as they did for their younger relatives. Their letter of recommendation writers included two professors. One was a tenured professor who was an officer in ASHA. They wrote that the student showed limited initiative in learning to use course materials independently. The other, a clinical faculty member, wrote that the student demonstrated strong critical thinking skills in their term papers but lagged behind their classmates in contributing to class discussion.

Rate E.F. on each of the following:

Please indicate your admissions decision for E.F. based on the information available.

Please leave any optional comments or reasoning for your ratings and admissions decision for E.F.

Student F.G. graduated with a 4.0 GPA. Their resume shows that they worked as an undergraduate research assistant and served on the boards of the National Student Speech-Language-Hearing Association and of a Greek organization. In their essay, F.G. wrote about what they learned in a month-long study-abroad volunteer program with children and in organizing an annual fundraiser for children with special education needs. Their letter of recommendation writers were two professors and the principal investigator of the lab where they worked. One professor wrote that they were frequently the leader during group work in class. The lab PI wrote that they were a good fit for the lab team with sharp thinking, clear communication skills, and responded promptly to electronic communications.

Rate F.G. on each of the following:

Please indicate your admissions decision for F.G. based on the information available.

Please leave any optional comments or reasoning for your ratings and admissions decision for F.G.

Professional background continued

Do you serve on an admissions board for a master's program in speech-language pathology, communication science and disorders, communicative disorders, or the equivalent?

Do you serve on some other admissions board (e.g., bachelor's or doctoral) in speech-language pathology or communication science and disorders?

Please indicate what you consider in applicant reviewal. Select all that apply.

□ Application file (i.e., application materials)

□ Family background

□ Previous educational environment

□ Undergraduate alumni status (i.e., whether or not student attended school for undergraduate degree)

□ Unique contributions the applicant would bring to the program

Do you have any comments regarding this survey? Thank you for your time and effort.

Funding Statement

This work was supported by T32 DC000052 (Director: Mabel L. Rice) and R01 DC001803 (PI: Mabel L. Rice).

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A Powerful Statement of Resistance from a College Student on Trial in Moscow

By Masha Gessen

I was going to write a column about Wednesday’s impeachment hearing , about the way it once again showcased the two non-overlapping realities into which American politics has split. But then I caught up on another hearing that took place on Wednesday, this one in a Moscow court. A twenty-one-year-old university student named Yegor Zhukov stood accused of “extremism,” for posting YouTube videos in which he talked about nonviolent protest, his campaign for a seat on the Moscow City Council, and different approaches to political power. In his most recent video, recorded four months ago, he suggested that “madmen” like Vladimir Putin view power as an end in itself, while political activists view it as an instrument of common action. In many of his vlog entries, Zhukov is seated against the backdrop of the Gadsden flag—“Don’t Tread on Me”—which appears to hang in his bedroom in his parents’ apartment. The prosecutor had asked for four years of prison time for Zhukov. On Friday, a Moscow court sentenced Zhukov to three years’ probation—an unusually light punishment probably explained by the public response to Zhukov’s speech, which several Russian media outlets dared to publish. Hundreds of people gathered in front of the courthouse on the day of the sentencing. As a condition of his probation, Zhukov is banned from posting to the Internet. The judge also ordered that the flag, which was confiscated by police, be destroyed.

Instead of writing my own column, I have translated Zhukov’s final statement, delivered in court on Wednesday. I did it because it is a beautiful text that makes for instructive reading. Parts of it seem to describe American reality as accurately as the Russian one. Parts of it show what resistance can be. All of it, I hope, will make readers think twice before they use the word “Russians” to mean goons . I also hope it will serve as a reminder of what we miss while we are—rightly—obsessed with American politics, which is made more provincial every day by its isolationist President and the need to try to reduce the harm he causes. As for the column I was going to write, I will still have plenty of opportunities to write it, while the very young man who spoke the following words will be unable to publish for the next three years.

“This court hearing is concerned primarily with words and their meaning. We have discussed specific sentences, the subtleties of phrasing, different possible interpretations, and I hope that we have succeeded at showing to the honorable court that I am not an extremist, either from the point of view of linguistics or from the point of view of common sense. But now I would like to talk about a few things that are more basic than the meaning of words. I would like to talk about why I did the things I did, especially since the court expert offered his opinion on this. I would like to talk about my deep and true motives. The things that have motivated me to take up politics. The reasons why, among other things, I recorded videos for my blog.

“But first I want to say this. The Russian state claims to be the world’s last protector of traditional values. We are told that the state devotes a lot of resources to protecting the institution of the family, and to patriotism. We are also told that the most important traditional value is the Christian faith. Your Honor, I think this may actually be a good thing. The Christian ethic includes two values that I consider central for myself. First, responsibility. Christianity is based on the story of a person who dared to take up the burden of the world. It’s the story of a person who accepted responsibility in the greatest possible sense of that word. In essence, the central concept of the Christian religion is the concept of individual responsibility.

“The second value is love. ‘Love your neighbor as yourself’ is the most important sentence of the Christian faith. Love is trust, empathy, humanity, mutual aid, and care. A society built on such love is a strong society—probably the strongest of all possible societies.

“To understand why I’ve done what I’ve done, all you have to do is look at how the Russian state, which proudly claims to be a defender of these values, does in reality. Before we talk about responsibility, we have to consider what the ethics of a responsible person are. What are the words that a responsible individual repeats to himself throughout his life? I think these words are ‘Remember that your path will be difficult, at times unbearably so. All your loved ones will die. All your plans will go awry. You will be betrayed and abandoned. And you cannot escape death. Life is suffering. Accept it. But once you accept it, once you accept the inevitability of suffering, you must still accept your cross and follow your dream, because otherwise things will only get worse. Be an example, be someone on whom others can depend. Do not obey despots, fight for the freedom of body and soul, and build a country in which your children can be happy.’

“Is this really what we are taught? Is this really the ethics that children absorb at school? Are these the kinds of heroes we honor? No. Our society, as currently constituted, suppresses any possibility of human development. [Fewer than] ten per cent of Russians possess ninety per cent of the country’s wealth. Some of these wealthy individuals are, of course, perfectly decent citizens, but most of this wealth is accumulated not through honest labor that benefits humanity but, plainly, through corruption.

“An impenetrable barrier divides our society in two. All the money is concentrated at the top and no one up there is going to let it go. All that’s left at the bottom—and this is no exaggeration—is despair. Knowing that they have nothing to hope for, that, no matter how hard they try, they cannot bring happiness to themselves or their families, Russian men take their aggression out on their wives, or drink themselves to death, or hang themselves. Russia has the world’s [second] highest rate of suicide among men. As a result, a third of all Russian families are single mothers with their kids. I would like to know: Is this how we are protecting the institution of the family?

“Miron Fyodorov [a rap artist who performs under the name Oxxxymiron], who attended many of my court hearings, has observed that alcohol is cheaper than a textbook in Russian. The state is pushing Russians to make a choice between responsibility and irresponsibility, in favor of the latter.

“Now I’d like to talk about love. Love is impossible in the absence of trust. Real trust is formed of common action. Common action is a rarity in a country where few people feel responsible. And where common action does occur, the guardians of the state immediately see it as a threat. It doesn’t matter what you do—whether you are helping prison inmates, speaking up for human rights, fighting for the environment—sooner or later you’ll either be branded a ‘foreign agent’ or just locked up. The state’s message is clear: ‘Go back to your burrow and don’t take part in common action. If we see more than two people together in the street, we’ll jail you for protesting. If you work together on social issues, we’ll assign you the status of a “foreign agent.” ’ Where can trust come from in a country like this—and where can love grow? I’m speaking not of romantic love but of the love of humanity.

“The only social policy the Russian state pursues consistently is the policy of atomization. The state dehumanizes us in one another’s eyes. In the state’s own eyes, we stopped being human a long time ago. Otherwise, why would it treat its citizens the way it does? Why does it punctuate its treatment of people through daily nightstick beatings, prison torture, inaction in the face of an H.I.V. epidemic, the closure of schools and hospitals, and so on?

“Let’s look at ourselves in the mirror. We let this be done to us, and who have we become? We have become a nation that has unlearned responsibility. We have become a nation that has unlearned love. More than two hundred years ago, Alexander Radishchev [widely regarded as the first Russian political writer], as he travelled from St. Petersburg to Moscow, wrote, ‘I gazed around myself, and my soul was wounded by human suffering. I then looked inside myself, and saw that man’s troubles come from man himself.’ Where are these kinds of people today? Where are the people whose hearts ache this much for what is happening in our country? Why are hardly any people like this left?

“It turns out that the only traditional institution that the Russian state truly respects and protects is the institution of autocracy. Autocracy aims to destroy anyone who actually wants to work for the benefit of the homeland, who isn’t scared to love and take on responsibility. As a result, our long-suffering citizens have had to learn that initiative will be punished, that the boss is always right just because he is the boss, that happiness may be within reach—but not for them. And having learned this, they gradually started to disappear. According to the state statistical authority, Russians are slowly vanishing, at the rate of four hundred thousand people a year. [Deaths exceeded births by nearly two hundred thousand in the first six months of 2019.] You can’t see the people behind the statistics. But try to see them! These are the people who are drinking themselves to death from helplessness, the people freezing to death in unheated hospitals, the people murdered by others, and those who kill themselves. These are people. People like you and me.

“By this point, it’s probably clear why I did what I did. I really want to see these two qualities—responsibility and love—in my fellow-citizens. Responsibility for one’s self, for one’s neighbors, for one’s country. This wish of mine, Your Honor, is another reason why I could not have called for violence. Violence breeds impunity, which breeds irresponsibility. By the same token, violence does not bear love. Still, despite all obstacles, I have no doubt that my wish will come true. I am looking ahead, beyond the horizon of years, and I see a Russia full of responsible, loving people. It will be a truly happy place. I want everyone to imagine Russia like this. And I hope this image can lead you in your work, as it has led me in mine.

“In conclusion, I would like to state that if the court decides that these words are spoken by a truly dangerous criminal, the next few years of my life will be marked by deprivation and adversity. But I look at the people [who have been jailed in the latest wave of activist arrests] and I see smiles on their faces. Two people I met briefly during pretrial detention, Lyosha Minyaylo and Danya Konon, never complained. I will try to follow their example. I will endeavor to take joy in having this chance—the chance to be tested in the name of values I hold dear. In the end, Your Honor, the more frightening my future, the broader the smile with which I look at it. Thank you.”

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By Joshua Yaffa