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Successful Scientific Writing and Publishing: A Step-by-Step Approach

John k. iskander.

1 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia

Sara Beth Wolicki

2 Association of Schools and Programs of Public Health, Washington, District of Columbia

Rebecca T. Leeb

Paul z. siegel.

Scientific writing and publication are essential to advancing knowledge and practice in public health, but prospective authors face substantial challenges. Authors can overcome barriers, such as lack of understanding about scientific writing and the publishing process, with training and resources. The objective of this article is to provide guidance and practical recommendations to help both inexperienced and experienced authors working in public health settings to more efficiently publish the results of their work in the peer-reviewed literature. We include an overview of basic scientific writing principles, a detailed description of the sections of an original research article, and practical recommendations for selecting a journal and responding to peer review comments. The overall approach and strategies presented are intended to contribute to individual career development while also increasing the external validity of published literature and promoting quality public health science.

Introduction

Publishing in the peer-reviewed literature is essential to advancing science and its translation to practice in public health ( 1 , 2 ). The public health workforce is diverse and practices in a variety of settings ( 3 ). For some public health professionals, writing and publishing the results of their work is a requirement. Others, such as program managers, policy makers, or health educators, may see publishing as being outside the scope of their responsibilities ( 4 ).

Disseminating new knowledge via writing and publishing is vital both to authors and to the field of public health ( 5 ). On an individual level, publishing is associated with professional development and career advancement ( 6 ). Publications share new research, results, and methods in a trusted format and advance scientific knowledge and practice ( 1 , 7 ). As more public health professionals are empowered to publish, the science and practice of public health will advance ( 1 ).

Unfortunately, prospective authors face barriers to publishing their work, including navigating the process of scientific writing and publishing, which can be time-consuming and cumbersome. Often, public health professionals lack both training opportunities and understanding of the process ( 8 ). To address these barriers and encourage public health professionals to publish their findings, the senior author (P.Z.S.) and others developed Successful Scientific Writing (SSW), a course about scientific writing and publishing. Over the past 30 years, this course has been taught to thousands of public health professionals, as well as hundreds of students at multiple graduate schools of public health. An unpublished longitudinal survey of course participants indicated that two-thirds agreed that SSW had helped them to publish a scientific manuscript or have a conference abstract accepted. The course content has been translated into this manuscript. The objective of this article is to provide prospective authors with the tools needed to write original research articles of high quality that have a good chance of being published.

Basic Recommendations for Scientific Writing

Prospective authors need to know and tailor their writing to the audience. When writing for scientific journals, 4 fundamental recommendations are: clearly stating the usefulness of the study, formulating a key message, limiting unnecessary words, and using strategic sentence structure.

To demonstrate usefulness, focus on how the study addresses a meaningful gap in current knowledge or understanding. What critical piece of information does the study provide that will help solve an important public health problem? For example, if a particular group of people is at higher risk for a specific condition, but the magnitude of that risk is unknown, a study to quantify the risk could be important for measuring the population’s burden of disease.

Scientific articles should have a clear and concise take-home message. Typically, this is expressed in 1 to 2 sentences that summarize the main point of the paper. This message can be used to focus the presentation of background information, results, and discussion of findings. As an early step in the drafting of an article, we recommend writing out the take-home message and sharing it with co-authors for their review and comment. Authors who know their key point are better able to keep their writing within the scope of the article and present information more succinctly. Once an initial draft of the manuscript is complete, the take-home message can be used to review the content and remove needless words, sentences, or paragraphs.

Concise writing improves the clarity of an article. Including additional words or clauses can divert from the main message and confuse the reader. Additionally, journal articles are typically limited by word count. The most important words and phrases to eliminate are those that do not add meaning, or are duplicative. Often, cutting adjectives or parenthetical statements results in a more concise paper that is also easier to read.

Sentence structure strongly influences the readability and comprehension of journal articles. Twenty to 25 words is a reasonable range for maximum sentence length. Limit the number of clauses per sentence, and place the most important or relevant clause at the end of the sentence ( 9 ). Consider the sentences:

• By using these tips and tricks, an author may write and publish an additional 2 articles a year.
• An author may write and publish an additional 2 articles a year by using these tips and tricks.

The focus of the first sentence is on the impact of using the tips and tricks, that is, 2 more articles published per year. In contrast, the second sentence focuses on the tips and tricks themselves.

Authors should use the active voice whenever possible. Consider the following example:

• Active voice: Authors who use the active voice write more clearly.
• Passive voice: Clarity of writing is promoted by the use of the active voice.

The active voice specifies who is doing the action described in the sentence. Using the active voice improves clarity and understanding, and generally uses fewer words. Scientific writing includes both active and passive voice, but authors should be intentional with their use of either one.

Sections of an Original Research Article

Original research articles make up most of the peer-reviewed literature ( 10 ), follow a standardized format, and are the focus of this article. The 4 main sections are the introduction, methods, results, and discussion, sometimes referred to by the initialism, IMRAD. These 4 sections are referred to as the body of an article. Two additional components of all peer-reviewed articles are the title and the abstract. Each section’s purpose and key components, along with specific recommendations for writing each section, are listed below.

Title. The purpose of a title is twofold: to provide an accurate and informative summary and to attract the target audience. Both prospective readers and database search engines use the title to screen articles for relevance ( 2 ). All titles should clearly state the topic being studied. The topic includes the who, what, when, and where of the study. Along with the topic, select 1 or 2 of the following items to include within the title: methods, results, conclusions, or named data set or study. The items chosen should emphasize what is new and useful about the study. Some sources recommend limiting the title to less than 150 characters ( 2 ). Articles with shorter titles are more frequently cited than articles with longer titles ( 11 ). Several title options are possible for the same study ( Figure ).

Two examples of title options for a single study.

Abstract . The abstract serves 2 key functions. Journals may screen articles for potential publication by using the abstract alone ( 12 ), and readers may use the abstract to decide whether to read further. Therefore, it is critical to produce an accurate and clear abstract that highlights the major purpose of the study, basic procedures, main findings, and principal conclusions ( 12 ). Most abstracts have a word limit and can be either structured following IMRAD, or unstructured. The abstract needs to stand alone from the article and tell the most important parts of the scientific story up front.

Introduction . The purpose of the introduction is to explain how the study sought to create knowledge that is new and useful. The introduction section may often require only 3 paragraphs. First, describe the scope, nature, or magnitude of the problem being addressed. Next, clearly articulate why better understanding this problem is useful, including what is currently known and the limitations of relevant previous studies. Finally, explain what the present study adds to the knowledge base. Explicitly state whether data were collected in a unique way or obtained from a previously unstudied data set or population. Presenting both the usefulness and novelty of the approach taken will prepare the reader for the remaining sections of the article.

Methods . The methods section provides the information necessary to allow others, given the same data, to recreate the analysis. It describes exactly how data relevant to the study purpose were collected, organized, and analyzed. The methods section describes the process of conducting the study — from how the sample was selected to which statistical methods were used to analyze the data. Authors should clearly name, define, and describe each study variable. Some journals allow detailed methods to be included in an appendix or supplementary document. If the analysis involves a commonly used public health data set, such as the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System ( 13 ), general aspects of the data set can be provided to readers by using references. Because what was done is typically more important than who did it, use of the passive voice is often appropriate when describing methods. For example, “The study was a group randomized, controlled trial. A coin was tossed to select an intervention group and a control group.”

Results . The results section describes the main outcomes of the study or analysis but does not interpret the findings or place them in the context of previous research. It is important that the results be logically organized. Suggested organization strategies include presenting results pertaining to the entire population first, and then subgroup analyses, or presenting results according to increasing complexity of analysis, starting with demographic results before proceeding to univariate and multivariate analyses. Authors wishing to draw special attention to novel or unexpected results can present them first.

One strategy for writing the results section is to start by first drafting the figures and tables. Figures, which typically show trends or relationships, and tables, which show specific data points, should each support a main outcome of the study. Identify the figures and tables that best describe the findings and relate to the study’s purpose, and then develop 1 to 2 sentences summarizing each one. Data not relevant to the study purpose may be excluded, summarized briefly in the text, or included in supplemental data sets. When finalizing figures, ensure that axes are labeled and that readers can understand figures without having to refer to accompanying text.

Discussion . In the discussion section, authors interpret the results of their study within the context of both the related literature and the specific scientific gap the study was intended to fill. The discussion does not introduce results that were not presented in the results section. One way authors can focus their discussion is to limit this section to 4 paragraphs: start by reinforcing the study’s take-home message(s), contextualize key results within the relevant literature, state the study limitations, and lastly, make recommendations for further research or policy and practice changes. Authors can support assertions made in the discussion with either their own findings or by referencing related research. By interpreting their own study results and comparing them to others in the literature, authors can emphasize findings that are unique, useful, and relevant. Present study limitations clearly and without apology. Finally, state the implications of the study and provide recommendations or next steps, for example, further research into remaining gaps or changes to practice or policy. Statements or recommendations regarding policy may use the passive voice, especially in instances where the action to be taken is more important than who will implement the action.

Beginning the Writing Process

The process of writing a scientific article occurs before, during, and after conducting the study or analyses. Conducting a literature review is crucial to confirm the existence of the evidence gap that the planned analysis seeks to fill. Because literature searches are often part of applying for research funding or developing a study protocol, the citations used in the grant application or study proposal can also be used in subsequent manuscripts. Full-text databases such as PubMed Central ( 14 ), NIH RePORT ( 15 ), and CDC Stacks ( 16 ) can be useful when performing literature reviews. Authors should familiarize themselves with databases that are accessible through their institution and any assistance that may be available from reference librarians or interlibrary loan systems. Using citation management software is one way to establish and maintain a working reference list. Authors should clearly understand the distinction between primary and secondary references, and ensure that they are knowledgeable about the content of any primary or secondary reference that they cite.

Review of the literature may continue while organizing the material and writing begins. One way to organize material is to create an outline for the paper. Another way is to begin drafting small sections of the article such as the introduction. Starting a preliminary draft forces authors to establish the scope of their analysis and clearly articulate what is new and novel about the study. Furthermore, using information from the study protocol or proposal allows authors to draft the methods and part of the results sections while the study is in progress. Planning potential data comparisons or drafting “table shells” will help to ensure that the study team has collected all the necessary data. Drafting these preliminary sections early during the writing process and seeking feedback from co-authors and colleagues may help authors avoid potential pitfalls, including misunderstandings about study objectives.

The next step is to conduct the study or analyses and use the resulting data to fill in the draft table shells. The initial results will most likely require secondary analyses, that is, exploring the data in ways in addition to those originally planned. Authors should ensure that they regularly update their methods section to describe all changes to data analysis.

After completing table shells, authors should summarize the key finding of each table or figure in a sentence or two. Presenting preliminary results at meetings, conferences, and internal seminars is an established way to solicit feedback. Authors should pay close attention to questions asked by the audience, treating them as an informal opportunity for peer review. On the basis of the questions and feedback received, authors can incorporate revisions and improvements into subsequent drafts of the manuscript.

The relevant literature should be revisited periodically while writing to ensure knowledge of the most recent publications about the manuscript topic. Authors should focus on content and key message during the process of writing the first draft and should not spend too much time on issues of grammar or style. Drafts, or portions of drafts, should be shared frequently with trusted colleagues. Their recommendations should be reviewed and incorporated when they will improve the manuscript’s overall clarity.

For most authors, revising drafts of the manuscript will be the most time-consuming task involved in writing a paper. By regularly checking in with coauthors and colleagues, authors can adopt a systematic approach to rewriting. When the author has completed a draft of the manuscript, he or she should revisit the key take-home message to ensure that it still matches the final data and analysis. At this point, final comments and approval of the manuscript by coauthors can be sought.

Authors should then seek to identify journals most likely to be interested in considering the study for publication. Initial questions to consider when selecting a journal include:

• Which audience is most interested in the paper’s message?
• Would clinicians, public health practitioners, policy makers, scientists, or a broader audience find this useful in their field or practice?
• Do colleagues have prior experience submitting a manuscript to this journal?
• Is the journal indexed and peer-reviewed?
• Is the journal subscription or open-access and are there any processing fees?
• How competitive is the journal?

Authors should seek to balance the desire to be published in a top-tier journal (eg, Journal of the American Medical Association, BMJ, or Lancet) against the statistical likelihood of rejection. Submitting the paper initially to a journal more focused on the paper’s target audience may result in a greater chance of acceptance, as well as more timely dissemination of findings that can be translated into practice. Most of the 50 to 75 manuscripts published each week by authors from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) are published in specialty and subspecialty journals, rather than in top-tier journals ( 17 ).

The target journal’s website will include author guidelines, which will contain specific information about format requirements (eg, font, line spacing, section order, reference style and limit, table and figure formatting), authorship criteria, article types, and word limits for articles and abstracts.

We recommend returning to the previously drafted abstract and ensuring that it complies with the journal’s format and word limit. Authors should also verify that any changes made to the methods or results sections during the article’s drafting are reflected in the final version of the abstract. The abstract should not be written hurriedly just before submitting the manuscript; it is often apparent to editors and reviewers when this has happened. A cover letter to accompany the submission should be drafted; new and useful findings and the key message should be included.

Before submitting the manuscript and cover letter, authors should perform a final check to ensure that their paper complies with all journal requirements. Journals may elect to reject certain submissions on the basis of review of the abstract, or may send them to peer reviewers (typically 2 or 3) for consultation. Occasionally, on the basis of peer reviews, the journal will request only minor changes before accepting the paper for publication. Much more frequently, authors will receive a request to revise and resubmit their manuscript, taking into account peer review comments. Authors should recognize that while revise-and-resubmit requests may state that the manuscript is not acceptable in its current form, this does not constitute a rejection of the article. Authors have several options in responding to peer review comments:

• Performing additional analyses and updating the article appropriately
• Declining to perform additional analyses, but providing an explanation (eg, because the requested analysis goes beyond the scope of the article)
• Providing updated references
• Acknowledging reviewer comments that are simply comments without making changes

In addition to submitting a revised manuscript, authors should include a cover letter in which they list peer reviewer comments, along with the revisions they have made to the manuscript and their reply to the comment. The tone of such letters should be thankful and polite, but authors should make clear areas of disagreement with peer reviewers, and explain why they disagree. During the peer review process, authors should continue to consult with colleagues, especially ones who have more experience with the specific journal or with the peer review process.

There is no secret to successful scientific writing and publishing. By adopting a systematic approach and by regularly seeking feedback from trusted colleagues throughout the study, writing, and article submission process, authors can increase their likelihood of not only publishing original research articles of high quality but also becoming more scientifically productive overall.

Acknowledgments

The authors acknowledge PCD ’s former Associate Editor, Richard A. Goodman, MD, MPH, who, while serving as Editor in Chief of CDC’s Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report Series, initiated a curriculum on scientific writing for training CDC’s Epidemic Intelligence Service Officers and other CDC public health professionals, and with whom the senior author of this article (P.Z.S.) collaborated in expanding training methods and contents, some of which are contained in this article. The authors acknowledge Juan Carlos Zevallos, MD, for his thoughtful critique and careful editing of previous Successful Scientific Writing materials. We also thank Shira Eisenberg for editorial assistance with the manuscript. This publication was supported by the Cooperative Agreement no. 1U360E000002 from CDC and the Association of Schools and Programs of Public Health. The findings and conclusions of this article do not necessarily represent the official views of CDC or the Association of Schools and Programs of Public Health. Names of journals and citation databases are provided for identification purposes only and do not constitute any endorsement by CDC.

The opinions expressed by authors contributing to this journal do not necessarily reflect the opinions of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, the Public Health Service, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, or the authors' affiliated institutions.

Suggested citation for this article: Iskander JK, Wolicki SB, Leeb RT, Siegel PZ. Successful Scientific Writing and Publishing: A Step-by-Step Approach. Prev Chronic Dis 2018;15:180085. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5888/pcd15.180085 .

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How to Introduce a Journal Article in an Essay

Last Updated: February 9, 2024

This article was co-authored by Noah Taxis and by wikiHow staff writer, Jennifer Mueller, JD . Noah Taxis is an English Teacher based in San Francisco, California. He has taught as a credentialed teacher for over four years: first at Mountain View High School as a 9th- and 11th-grade English Teacher, then at UISA (Ukiah Independent Study Academy) as a Middle School Independent Study Teacher. He is now a high school English teacher at St. Ignatius College Preparatory School in San Francisco. He received an MA in Secondary Education and Teaching from Stanford University’s Graduate School of Education. He also received an MA in Comparative and World Literature from the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign and a BA in International Literary & Visual Studies and English from Tufts University. This article has been viewed 34,683 times.

Using a journal article in your essay can add to your credibility and make your points more persuasive. When you introduce an article to your readers, you help them understand why you're using it as a source. We've gathered a number of different ways you can introduce the journal article and transition between your thoughts and those of the other author. Pick the one that works best for you and your personal writing style.

List the title and the author.

• For example, you might write: "Albus Dumbledore describes the origin of the four Hogwarts houses in his article 'Separating Hogwarts Fact and Fiction.'"
• Put the title of the article in double-quotation marks in your text. [1] X Research source
• If you're quoting directly from the source, include the author's full name the first time you quote them. [2] X Research source

Summarize the article.

• For example, you might write: "The history of Hogwarts makes clear that the houses were never intended to be seen as 'good' or 'evil.' Rather, each house emphasizes and nurtures specific traits students have—how they use those traits is up to them."
• Paraphrasing from the article is similar to summarizing. However, when you summarize, you're covering the entire article in a sentence or two. A paraphrase typically only covers a small portion of the article.

Provide any necessary background.

• For example, you might write: "Professor Slughorn was one of the longest-serving teachers at Hogwarts, schooling generations of students in potions until his retirement."
• You might also include some background if the author of the article is controversial or the article's conclusions have been seriously questioned. If you're doing this, go on to explain why you're using the article in your essay.

Explain the purpose of the source in your essay.

• For example, you might write: "Although this essay doesn't discuss defenses against the dark arts, Gilderoy Lockhart's article provides an example of how you can't learn anything by plagiarizing the work of others."

Frame the source in the context of your own essay.

• For example, you might write: "This article demonstrates broad support for the idea that Hogwarts should continue to sort students into four houses."

Add a signal phrase to distinguish ideas from the source.

• For example, you might write: "McGonagall argues that Slytherin House should be disbanded after the Battle of Hogwarts."

Discuss the source's limitations.

• For example, you might write: "While McGonagall makes a compelling argument that Slytherin House should be disbanded, she was biased by her experiences. In this essay, I will show that the personality traits emphasized by Slytherin are positive traits that can be used for good."

Expert Q&A

• Remember to include an in-text citation for the source if required by your citation guide. You'll also need an entry for the source in your reference list at the end of your paper. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0
• In an academic essay, you typically introduce a journal article in the first sentence of a paragraph. Then, use the sentences that follow to show how the material from the article relates to the rest of your essay. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0

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• ↑ https://rasmussen.libanswers.com/faq/32501
• ↑ https://www.ursinus.edu/live/files/1160-integrating-quotespdf
• ↑ https://www.una.edu/writingcenter/docs/Writing-Resources/Source%20Integration.pdf
• ↑ https://www.stetson.edu/other/writing-center/media/Handout%20-%20Incorporating%20Sources%20Effectively.pdf

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History and Literature 97: Decolonization

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HOLLIS Searching in the Everything mode will bring up articles, both academic and non-scholarly. If you wish, you can limit your search results to peer-reviewed articles, and refine them further by language, publication date, subject, etc.

Decolonization: Indigeneity, Education & Society From 2012 to 2018, this peer-reviewed journal was dedicated to "centering the stories of the colonized and to displacing colonial forms of knowledge production."

Social Science Premium Collection This collection provides access to databases covering the international literature in the social sciences, including politics, sociology, social services, anthropology, criminology and education. ♦ Sample article: "Becoming Imperialist: Italian Colonies in Fascist Textbooks for Primary Schools"

Africa-Wide Information This collection comprises twenty-seven African, European and North American databases with close to 2 million records indexing printed texts, maps and music recordings on all topics in African studies. ♦ Sample article: "African Heimat: German colonies in Wilhelmine and Weimar reading books"

Bibliography of Asian Studies The most comprehensive Western-language resource for research on Asia, with nearly 900,000 records on all subjects (especially in the humanities and social sciences) pertaining to East, Southeast, and South Asia published worldwide from 1971 to the present. ♦ Sample article: "American colonial education policy and Filipino labour migration to the US (1900-1935)"

Middle Eastern and Central Asian Studies This database indexes scholarly journals, books, and other sources on the countries and peoples of the Middle East, Central Asia, and North Africa.

Historical Abstracts Covering the history of the world since 1450 (except North America), this database provides abstracts for scholarly articles from nearly 2,000 historical journals, as well as books, book chapters, and dissertations. Many articles are available in full text.

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Chinese Literature: Essays, Articles, Reviews (CLEAR) is published annually.

CLEAR journal is a leading resource for Chinese Literature academic discussion worldwide and has been published for over 30 years.

Click below for two most recent CLEAR journal Table of Contents.

CLEAR History

CLEAR was created based on discussions between eight scholars‒Eugene Eoyang, Joseph S. M. Lau, Leo Ou-fan Lee, Wu-chi Liu, Irving Lo, Ronald Miao, William H. Nienhauser, Jr., and William Schultz‒from the universities of Arizona, Indiana and Wisconsin spread over the early months of 1977. The journal was formally launched at a meeting on 18 March 1977 in Irving Lo’s living room in Bloomington, IN. Over the next year the founding editors, Eoyang and Nienhauser, received grants from the American Council of Learned Societies, the Association for Asian Studies, and the three affiliated universities as well as from members of the original editorial board (especially Elling Eide and Irving Lo) and individuals (especially Nancy C. Ing), allowing the production of the first two issues in 1979. Over the years CLEAR has published symposia, essays, articles, reviews and occasional forums on all aspects of traditional and modern Chinese literature. It is still the only western-language periodical devoted to Chinese literature. Having gained a worldwide reputation and audience, CLEAR now appears annually in December under the direction of editors Haun Saussy, Michelle Yeh and Rania Huntington.

Characters on the website were written by Chow Tse-tsung (1916-2007). Copyright © 2012-2024 by CLEAR | ALL RIGHTS RESERVED | International Standard Serial Number (ISSN) #0161-9705

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Navigating time equity: Balancing urgency and inclusivity in pandemic treaty negotiations

Roles Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, Supervision, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

* E-mail: [email protected]

Affiliation School of Law, University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom

Roles Investigation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

Roles Funding acquisition, Investigation, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation Department of Global Health and Social Medicine, Kings College London, London, United Kingdom

Roles Investigation, Project administration

• Sharifah Sekalala, 
• Shajoe Lake, 
• Sarah Hodges, 
• Yureshya Perera

Published: April 22, 2024

• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgph.0003118
• Reader Comments

Citation: Sekalala S, Lake S, Hodges S, Perera Y (2024) Navigating time equity: Balancing urgency and inclusivity in pandemic treaty negotiations. PLOS Glob Public Health 4(4): e0003118. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgph.0003118

Editors: Madhukar Pai (McGill University, CANADA), Catherine Kyobutungi (APHRC, KENYA), and Julia Robinson (PLOS: Public Library of Science, UNITED STATES)

Copyright: © 2024 Sekalala et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Funding: This publication was funded by the Wellcome Trust. SS and YP are supported by the Wellcome Trust, grant number: 225238/Z/22/Z After the End: Lived Experiences and Aftermaths of Diseases, Disasters and Drugs in Global Health. SH's work is funded by the Wellcome Trust, grant number: 212584/C/18/Z What’s at stake in the fake? Indian pharmaceuticals, African markets and global health. ( https://wellcome.org/ ).

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Since the start of the COVID-19 pandemic, there have been a surge in calls for equity to protect the world from future crises. Calls have emphasized equitable distribution of vaccines, a fair access and benefit sharing (ABS) system, and health systems strengthening, all leading to negotiation of a Pandemic Treaty [ 1 ].

Unlike previous global health agreements, the finalization of this treaty was expected within two years. Recently, the Director-General of the World Health Organization (WHO) intensified the urgency, stressing that ‘time is very short’ and countries should get on board to reach an agreement by May 2024 [ 2 ]. Upon first glance, this expedited timeline may seem justifiable. Researchers estimate that almost 16 million people died at the peak of the COVID-19 pandemic between 2021–2022, reversing a 70-year trend in declining mortality rates [ 3 ]. Given the increased chances of another pandemic, there is a compelling argument for expediting the treaty-making process to facilitate faster and more equitable access to life-saving medications. In response, countries can capitalize on this momentum to swiftly adopt a much-needed global framework aimed at bolstering access to medical countermeasures and strengthening health systems to confront inevitable future pandemics [ 1 ]. Nonetheless, this rapid pace prompts concerns about what we refer to as ‘time equity’––the fair allocation of time and resources for deliberation and decision-making among all stakeholders.

The danger of the ‘time is very short’ rhetoric

The rhetoric that ‘time is very short’ presents a significant danger, particularly for low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) advocating for vaccine equity and an equitable ABS system. Pressure to act swiftly or risk missing out on the treaty’s promise effectively warns LMICs that this is their sole opportunity, insisting they must conform to the timeline.

Historically, this notion of being time-limited has been wielded against citizens in LMICs. In the realm of climate governance, for instance, there is a growing recognition that calls for LMICs to urgently decarbonize and transition to sustainable energy sources may disproportionately impact these countries. The push for rapid decarbonization may sideline the deliberative processes of citizens from the global south, potentially undermining their voices and agency in shaping climate policies and strategies [ 4 ]. This reflects a broader anthropological argument that citizens in high income countries (HICs) exist ‘outside of time,’ with their schedules and priorities taking precedence over those in LMICs [ 5 ]. This critique also resonates with a broader understanding of how urgency may undermine deliberative processes and democratic principles, prioritizing speed over thorough consideration and inclusive participation.

Anthropologists have consistently highlighted how urgency has been historically wielded as a tool to marginalize certain groups. Western conceptions of time, for example, have often been employed to denigrate Indigenous cultures and their perspectives on time, portraying them as “primitive” or “backward” and thus justifying colonial domination [ 5 ]. Moreover, in many LMICs affected by settler colonialism, states of emergency were frequently declared, leading to overnight changes in legislation that served to legitimize the continued colonization of these countries [ 6 ]. Urgency, in this context, is not merely a call to action but a mechanism that reinforces existing power dynamics. By framing the negotiation timeline as urgent and non-negotiable, it effectively sidelines the voices of LMICs, positioning them as less relevant to the urgency of the moment and perpetuates their marginalization. This fundamental flaw in the current approach to treaty negotiations stands in stark contrast to principles of equity.

Multiple reports from Geneva suggest that HICs and LMICs alike remain intractable. Key issues dividing negotiators include the sharing of genomic data on pathogens and the creation of sustainable financing mechanisms to support treaty implementation [ 7 ]. With less than three months remaining, delegates from HICs and LMICs alike express pessimism about reaching an agreement [ 8 , 9 ]. Further, many of the initial equity and accountability elements of the treaty have been diluted by a handful of rich nations, with very few enforceable obligations [ 10 ].

Resource disadvantage

Throughout history, LMICs have encountered inherent challenges in multilateral treaty negotiations, primarily stemming from resource inequities and knowledge asymmetries. Unlike their HIC counterparts, establishing diplomatic ties and exchanging expertise around shared objectives typically demands more time for LMICs [ 11 – 13 ]. While HICs often boast extensive diplomatic teams with broad subject matter knowledge, many LMICs are represented by single-person delegations lacking equivalent expertise [ 12 – 14 ]. Even if they possess scientific proficiency, they may lack the technical legal resources required to ensure that high-level commitments are effectively translated into enforceable obligations.

Negotiation dynamics

Negotiation dynamics further exacerbate the challenges faced by LMICs. For instance, Namibia, alongside Brazil, Indonesia, and Thailand, representing 72 LMICs, spearheaded a significant effort at the WHO. This initiative aimed to compel manufacturers to share benefits, including annual financial contributions, when utilizing genetic resources from LMICs for vaccines, therapeutics, and other health product development. However, there is growing concern about pressure on LMICs which could create shifts in negotiations [ 14 ].

Moreover, there are unfavorable dynamics in negotiation coordination. Some countries have proposed holding informal sessions to expedite negotiations due to time constraints, but resistance from certain LMICs persists, viewing this approach as undermining the process’s integrity. While some countries have formed subgroups to address specific provisions, smaller delegations prefer sequential discussions over parallel sessions, fearing that the latter may enable larger countries to engage in non-transparent talks, effectively excluding others from crucial discussions [ 9 ].

So, what now?

The urgency surrounding the negotiation process may unfairly disadvantage LMICs, especially those with limited delegation capacity. To address this, ample time should be provided for LMICs to engage in meaningful dialogue and collective strategizing. Balancing the need for expediency with inclusivity and transparency is crucial to safeguard the interests of all parties involved.

Regarding process, the optimal approach is to view the initial May 2024 deadline as a moment for reassessment, not a final agreement. This would allow for evaluating progress and providing LMICs with additional time for collaborative efforts on key issues. Alternatively, a consensus could be reached on key issues that must be agreed upon by May 2024, with a redesigned inclusive process to effectively use the next three months.

Regarding outcomes, LMICs may choose to focus on a few key objectives. These could include identifying at least three priority issues for immediate inclusion in the treaty, while deferring other substantive matters to subsequent protocols where they retain decision-making authority. Priority areas highlighted by LMICs include time-bound waivers of intellectual property rights and an equitable access and benefit-sharing system backed by commitments for sustainable financing for health system strengthening [ 15 ]. Ancillary concerns such as providing resources for national focal points and flexibility for longer transitional periods should also be addressed.

Equity was the driving force behind countries’ participation in negotiations, with the promise of a more just response to future pandemics. However, the negotiation process to design the instrument to achieve this does not align with this vision. To design a treaty that delivers fair outcomes, attention must be given to both the process and the results. Focusing on these critical areas over the next three months will demonstrate a genuine commitment to crafting a treaty that produces equitable outcomes. Otherwise, the past year would have been a costly misuse of resources.

• 1. COVID-19 shows why united action is needed for more robust international health architecture [Internet]. World Health Organisation. 2021 [cited 2024 Feb 23]. https://www.who.int/news-room/commentaries/detail/op-ed---covid-19-shows-why-united-action-is-needed-for-more-robust-international-health-architecture .
• 2. AFP. Global pandemic agreement at risk of falling apart, WHO warns. The Guardian [Internet]. 2024 Jan 22 [cited 2024 Feb 23]; https://www.theguardian.com/world/2024/jan/22/global-pandemic-agreement-at-risk-of-falling-apart-who-warns
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• 4. Kumar A, Höffken J, Pols A. Dilemmas of Energy Transitions in the Global South: Balancing Urgency and Justice [Internet]. 1st ed. London: Routledge; 2021 [cited 2024 Mar 17]. https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9780367486457
• 5. Fabian J. Time and the other: how anthropology makes its object. New York: Columbia University Press; 2014. 223 p.
• 6. Hussain N. The jurisprudence of emergency: colonialism and the rule of law. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press; 2003. 194 p. (Law, meaning, and violence).
• 7. Deadline for pandemic treaty accord at risk, officials warn [Internet]. [cited 2024 Mar 14]. https://www.ft.com/content/afd0b4ba-bdd0-4450-ad51-26326eacad1d
• 8. POLITICO [Internet]. 2024 [cited 2024 Feb 23]. Why the world’s first pandemic treaty may never happen. https://www.politico.eu/article/pandemic-treaty-negotiations-countries-risking-failure-covid-who-sharing-mechanism/
• 9. Patnaik P. ‘Pandemic Treaty Talks Hobbled by Inefficient Process’: Negotiators. Countries Struggle Charting a Path While Also Debating Provisions [Internet]. Geneva Health Files. 2023 [cited 2024 Feb 23]. https://genevahealthfiles.substack.com/p/inb7-pandemic-treaty-delay-geneva-process-equity
• 12. Gupta J. ‘On behalf of my delegation,…’: a survival guide for developing country climate negotiators. Washington: Center for Sustainable Development of the Americas; 2000. 98 p.
• 13. Chasek P, Rajamani L. Steps Toward Enhanced Parity: Negotiating Capacity and Strategies of Developing Countries. In: Kaul I, editor. Providing Global Public Goods [Internet]. 1st ed. Oxford University PressNew York; 2003 [cited 2024 Feb 23]. p. 245–62. https://academic.oup.com/book/38714/chapter/336867706
• 14. Patnaik P. EXCLUSIVE: Did Some Developed Countries Oust Africa Group’s Key Negotiator, a Forceful Voice on Equity Provisions in INB-IHR Negotiations? [Internet]. Geneva Health Files. 2023 [cited 2024 Feb 23]. https://genevahealthfiles.substack.com/p/us-eu-namibia-africa-pandemic-treaty-ihr-geneva

Thursday, February 23: The Clark Library is closed today.

APA Style (7th Edition) Citation Guide: Journal Articles

• Introduction
• Journal Articles
• Magazine/Newspaper Articles
• Books & Ebooks
• Government & Legal Documents
• Biblical Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Films/Videos/TV Shows
• How to Cite: Other
• Additional Help

Table of Contents

Journal article from library database with doi - one author, journal article from library database with doi - multiple authors, journal article from a website - one author.

Journal Article- No DOI

Note: All citations should be double spaced and have a hanging indent in a Reference List.

A "hanging indent" means that each subsequent line after the first line of your citation should be indented by 0.5 inches.

This Microsoft support page contains instructions about how to format a hanging indent in a paper.

• APA 7th. ed. Journal Article Reference Checklist

If an item has no author, start the citation with the article title.

When an article has one to twenty authors, all authors' names are cited in the References List entry. When an article has twenty-one or more authors list the first nineteen authors followed by three spaced ellipse points (. . .) , and then the last author's name. Rules are different for in-text citations; please see the examples provided.

Cite author names in the order in which they appear on the source, not in alphabetical order (the first author is usually the person who contributed the most work to the publication).

Italicize titles of journals, magazines and newspapers. Do not italicize or use quotation marks for the titles of articles.

Capitalize only the first letter of the first word of the article title. If there is a colon in the article title, also capitalize the first letter of the first word after the colon.

If an item has no date, use the short form n.d. where you would normally put the date.

Volume and Issue Numbers

Italicize volume numbers but not issue numbers.

Retrieval Dates

Most articles will not need these in the citation. Only use them for online articles from places where content may change often, like a free website or a wiki.

Page Numbers

If an article doesn't appear on continuous pages, list all the page numbers the article is on, separated by commas. For example (4, 6, 12-14)

Library Database

Do not include the name of a database for works obtained from most academic research databases (e.g. APA PsycInfo, CINAHL) because works in these resources are widely available. Exceptions are Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, ERIC, ProQuest Dissertations, and UpToDate.

Include the DOI (formatted as a URL: https://doi.org/...) if it is available. If you do not have a DOI, include a URL if the full text of the article is available online (not as part of a library database). If the full text is from a library database, do not include a DOI, URL, or database name.

In the Body of a Paper

Books, Journals, Reports, Webpages, etc.: When you refer to titles of a “stand-alone work,” as the APA calls them on their APA Style website, such as books, journals, reports, and webpages, you should italicize them. Capitalize words as you would for an article title in a reference, e.g., In the book Crying in H Mart: A memoir , author Michelle Zauner (2021) describes her biracial origin and its impact on her identity.

Article or Chapter: When you refer to the title of a part of a work, such as an article or a chapter, put quotation marks around the title and capitalize it as you would for a journal title in a reference, e.g., In the chapter “Where’s the Wine,” Zauner (2021) describes how she decided to become a musician.

The APA Sample Paper below has more information about formatting your paper.

• APA 7th ed. Sample Paper

Author's Last Name, First Initial. Second Initial if Given. (Year of Publication). Title of article: Subtitle if any. Name of Journal, Volume Number (Issue Number), first page number-last page number. https://doi.org/doi number

Smith, K. F. (2022). The public and private dialogue about the American family on television: A second look. Journal of Media Communication, 50 (4), 79-110. https://doi.org/10.1152/j.1460-2466.2000.tb02864.x

Note: The DOI number is formatted as a URL: https://doi.org/10.1152/j.1460-2466.2000.tb02864.xIf. 

In-Text Paraphrase:

(Author's Last Name, Year)

Example: (Smith, 2000)

In-Text Quote:

(Author's Last Name, Year, p. Page Number)

Example: (Smith, 2000, p. 80)

Author's Last Name, First Initial. Second Initial if Given., & Last Name of Second Author, First Initial. Second Initial if Given. (Year of Publication). Title of article: Subtitle if any. Name of Journal, Volume Number (Issue Number), first page number-last page number. https://doi.org/doi number

Note: Separate the authors' names by putting a comma between them. For the final author listed add an ampersand (&) after the comma and before the final author's last name.

Note: In the reference list invert all authors' names; give last names and initials for only up to and including 20 authors. When a source has 21 or more authors, include the first 19 authors’ names, then three ellipses (…), and add the last author’s name. Don't include an ampersand (&) between the ellipsis and final author.

Note : For works with three or more authors, the first in-text citation is shortened to include the first author's surname followed by "et al."

Reference List Examples

Two to 20 Authors

Case, T. A., Daristotle, Y. A., Hayek, S. L., Smith, R. R., & Raash, L. I. (2011). College students' social networking experiences on Facebook. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 3 (2), 227-238. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2008.12.010

21 or more authors

Kalnay, E., Kanamitsu, M., Kistler, R., Collins, W., Deaven, D., Gandin, L., Iredell, M., Saha, J., Mo, K. C., Ropelewski, C., Wang, J., Leetma, A., . . . Joseph, D. (1996). The NCEP/NCAR 40-year reanalysis project. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society , 77 (3), 437-471. https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0477(1996)077<0437:TNYRP>2.0.CO;2

In-Text Citations

Two Authors/Editors

(Case & Daristotle, 2011)

Direct Quote: (Case & Daristotle, 2011, p. 57)

Three or more Authors/Editors

(Case et al., 2011)

Direct Quote: (Case et al., 2011, p. 57)

Author's Last Name, First Initial. Second Initial if Given. (Year of Publication). Title of article: Subtitle if any.  Name of Journal, Volume Number (Issue Number if given). URL

Flachs, A. (2010). Food for thought: The social impact of community gardens in the Greater Cleveland Area.  Electronic Green Journal, 1 (30). http://escholarship.org/uc/item/6bh7j4z4

Example: (Flachs, 2010)

Example: (Flachs, 2010, Conclusion section, para. 3)

Note: In this example there were no visible page numbers or paragraph numbers, in this case you can cite the section heading and the number of the paragraph in that section to identify where your quote came from. If there are no page or paragraph numbers and no marked section, leave this information out.

Journal Article - No DOI

Author's Last Name, First Initial. Second Initial if Given. (Year of Publication). Title of article: Subtitle if any.  Name of Journal, Volume Number (Issue Number), first page number-last page number. URL [if article is available online, not as part of a library database]

Full-Text Available Online (Not as Part of a Library Database):

Steinberg, M. P., & Lacoe, J. (2017). What do we know about school discipline reform? Assessing the alternatives to suspensions and expulsions.  Education Next, 17 (1), 44–52.  https://www.educationnext.org/what-do-we-know-about-school-discipline-reform-suspensions-expulsions/

Example: (Steinberg & Lacoe, 2017)

(Author's Last Name, Year, p. Page number)

Example: (Steinberg & Lacoe, 2017, p. 47)

Full-Text Available in Library Database:

Jungers, W. L. (2010). Biomechanics: Barefoot running strikes back.  Nature, 463 (2), 433-434.

Example: (Jungers, 2010)

Example: (Jungers, 2010, p. 433)

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• Services & Software

What You Should Know About Apple's Journal App

If you've wanted to journal but haven't gotten in the habit, this app could help you change that.

• Apple software beta tester, "Helps make our computers and phones work!" - Zach's grandparents

When Apple unveiled iOS 17 at its WWDC event in June , the Journal app drew a lot of attention. While Apple didn't release the app with iOS 17 in September or with the iPhone 15 series , the tech giant did release the app with  iOS 17.2  in December.

Journaling has been linked with many mental health benefits, including helping manage  anxiety , reducing stress and coping with depression . Some people might have a difficult time remembering to journal or figuring out what to write. Apple's Journal app makes it easy to jot down a few thoughts when you're on your phone, and it provides you with writing prompts and other reminders about what you've done in a day.

Here's what you should know about the Journal app and how it works. 

Read more: You Should Really Download iOS 17.4.1 Right Now

What is Journal?

Journal is an app developed by Apple to help users write journal entries and easily insert pictures, videos and other content. Your entries are stored locally on your iPhone, and you can have backups on iCloud. 

Journal can suggest Reflections or other moments to write about.

Journal provides prompts, called Reflections, that you can write about. Some Reflections the app gave me included, "Think about something you love to do and why it brings you joy," and "Describe someone in your life who you really appreciate but forget to thank."

The app can also access certain data and give you suggestions about what to write based on that data. For example, on my first weekend with Journal, it suggested I write about a coffee shop and park that I visited. You can control what types of data and other apps Journal can access to create these suggestions. 

How do you get Journal?

Apple included Journal in the  iOS 17.2  update, so if you've downloaded the update -- or later updates like iOS 17.4 -- you should see the app on your home screen.

How secure is Journal?

According to Apple , the app has end-to-end encryption between your device and iCloud, and it uses on-device processes to create journaling suggestions including Reflections. That means the data it uses stays on your iPhone.

"No one but you can access your journal -- not even Apple," the company wrote online.

Beyond that, you can require the app to ask for your FaceID or passcode after it's been inactive for 1, 5 or 15 minutes. If you don't want to take any chances, you can set it to immediately lock when you switch apps or your iPhone goes to sleep -- you know, in case of snooping siblings or roommates.

How do you write an entry in Journal?

On the Journal homepage, you'll see your recent journal entries and a plus ( + ) sign across the bottom of your screen. Tap the plus sign and you'll be taken to a new menu.

You can also write about something you saw or thought about on your morning walk.

In this new menu, you'll see suggested Reflections as well as moments from your day that you can write about, like a picture you took or a Podcast you listened to. Tap any of these for a short overview of the suggestion, and then tap Start Writing . You'll be taken to a new page that looks similar to a new note in the Notes app, but the suggestion will show across the top of the screen. You can write your entry on this page, and you can add other content like photos, videos or voice notes.

You can also just write an entry without a suggestion. After tapping the plus sign on the Journal homepage, there is an option across the top of the new menu that reads New Entry . Tap this, and you can jot down any thoughts or feelings you're having at the moment, or you can add your own content here.

Once you're finished, tap Done in the top-right corner and the entry will be saved to the Journal homepage. You can also edit or update entries once they've been saved to the homepage. Tap the three dots ( ... ) in the bottom-right corner of the entry you want to edit, then tap Edit . 

What if I need help keeping a journaling schedule?

Have no fear: You can set the app to remind you to journal. A splash screen in Journal asks you to set a schedule the first time you open the app.

You can set reminders to journal in the app.

If you don't see this splash screen, or you want to change your schedule, go to Settings > Journal > Journaling Schedule and then tap the switch next to Schedule . A menu will appear below Schedule  that will allow you to set a reminder to journal every day -- or certain days -- at a certain time. 

17 Hidden iOS 17 Features You Should Definitely Know About

For more Apple news, check out what other features could be coming to your iPhone in iOS 17.5 and what was included in iOS 17.4 . You can also check out our iOS 17 cheat sheet .

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Education: California State University, Los Angeles, BS; Washington University School of Medicine, MD; University of Oxford, MSc

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Journal of Materials Chemistry A

Donor–acceptor iron phthalocyanine-based hyper-crosslinked polymers with a modulated electronic structure for efficient oxygen reduction reaction in aluminum–air batteries †.

* Corresponding authors

a College of Materials Science and Engineering, Sichuan University, No. 24 South Section 1, Yihuan Road, Chengdu, China E-mail: [email protected] , [email protected] Tel: +86-028-85418786

b National University of Singapore (Chongqing) Research Institute, Chongqing, China

Iron phthalocyanine (FePc) with an ideal N-coordinated environment has been regarded as a promising catalyst for the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR). However, its self-aggregation and inferior stability remain to be solved for further application. Herein, poly-FePc-based hyper-crosslinked polymers with tetrathiafulvalene (TTF) modification (named pFePc-TTF) are innovatively constructed and applied as an efficient ORR catalyst for aluminum–air batteries (AABs). Thanks to the donor (TTF)–acceptor (FePc) effect, the resultant pFePc-TTF catalyst exhibits satisfactory ORR activity with a half-wave potential of 0.90 V, a four-electron transfer process, methanol tolerance, and excellent stability in alkaline electrolytes. The improved electrocatalytic performance might be ascribed to the introduction of TTF as an electron donor, which effectively modulates the electron distribution of the Fe atom and optimizes the absorption energy of intermediate species. As expected, both liquid AABs and all-solid-state flexible AABs equipped with pFePc-TTF display outstanding battery performance in comparison to those equipped with commercial Pt/C. This novel metal macrocycle-based compound provides an effective strategy for the design of efficient and durable ORR catalysts for energy-related applications.

Supplementary files

• Supplementary information PDF (1441K)

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Donor–acceptor iron phthalocyanine-based hyper-crosslinked polymers with a modulated electronic structure for efficient oxygen reduction reaction in aluminum–air batteries

X. Dong, Y. Luo, S. Tao, J. Liu, X. Tan, Z. Lu, G. Wang, J. Chen, R. Wang and J. Zhang, J. Mater. Chem. A , 2024, Advance Article , DOI: 10.1039/D4TA01084A

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