library research vs empirical research

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Introduction to Empirical Research

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• Introductory Video This video covers what empirical research is, what kinds of questions and methods empirical researchers use, and some tips for finding empirical research articles in your discipline.

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Empirical research in the social sciences and education.

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Introduction: What is Empirical Research?

Empirical research is based on observed and measured phenomena and derives knowledge from actual experience rather than from theory or belief. 

How do you know if a study is empirical? Read the subheadings within the article, book, or report and look for a description of the research "methodology."  Ask yourself: Could I recreate this study and test these results?

Key characteristics to look for:

• Specific research questions to be answered
• Definition of the population, behavior, or   phenomena being studied
• Description of the process used to study this population or phenomena, including selection criteria, controls, and testing instruments (such as surveys)

Another hint: some scholarly journals use a specific layout, called the "IMRaD" format, to communicate empirical research findings. Such articles typically have 4 components:

• Introduction : sometimes called "literature review" -- what is currently known about the topic -- usually includes a theoretical framework and/or discussion of previous studies
• Methodology: sometimes called "research design" -- how to recreate the study -- usually describes the population, research process, and analytical tools used in the present study
• Results : sometimes called "findings" -- what was learned through the study -- usually appears as statistical data or as substantial quotations from research participants
• Discussion : sometimes called "conclusion" or "implications" -- why the study is important -- usually describes how the research results influence professional practices or future studies

Reading and Evaluating Scholarly Materials

Reading research can be a challenge. However, the tutorials and videos below can help. They explain what scholarly articles look like, how to read them, and how to evaluate them:

• CRAAP Checklist A frequently-used checklist that helps you examine the currency, relevance, authority, accuracy, and purpose of an information source.
• IF I APPLY A newer model of evaluating sources which encourages you to think about your own biases as a reader, as well as concerns about the item you are reading.
• Credo Video: How to Read Scholarly Materials (4 min.)
• Credo Tutorial: How to Read Scholarly Materials
• Credo Tutorial: Evaluating Information
• Credo Video: Evaluating Statistics (4 min.)
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Empirical Research: Defining, Identifying, & Finding

Defining empirical research, what is empirical research, quantitative or qualitative.

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Calfee & Chambliss (2005)  (UofM login required) describe empirical research as a "systematic approach for answering certain types of questions."  Those questions are answered "[t]hrough the collection of evidence under carefully defined and replicable conditions" (p. 43). 

The evidence collected during empirical research is often referred to as "data." 

Characteristics of Empirical Research

Emerald Publishing's guide to conducting empirical research identifies a number of common elements to empirical research: 

• A  research question , which will determine research objectives.
• A particular and planned  design  for the research, which will depend on the question and which will find ways of answering it with appropriate use of resources.
• The gathering of  primary data , which is then analysed.
• A particular  methodology  for collecting and analysing the data, such as an experiment or survey.
• The limitation of the data to a particular group, area or time scale, known as a sample [emphasis added]: for example, a specific number of employees of a particular company type, or all users of a library over a given time scale. The sample should be somehow representative of a wider population.
• The ability to  recreate  the study and test the results. This is known as  reliability .
• The ability to  generalize  from the findings to a larger sample and to other situations.

If you see these elements in a research article, you can feel confident that you have found empirical research. Emerald's guide goes into more detail on each element. 

Empirical research methodologies can be described as quantitative, qualitative, or a mix of both (usually called mixed-methods).

Ruane (2016)  (UofM login required) gets at the basic differences in approach between quantitative and qualitative research:

• Quantitative research  -- an approach to documenting reality that relies heavily on numbers both for the measurement of variables and for data analysis (p. 33).
• Qualitative research  -- an approach to documenting reality that relies on words and images as the primary data source (p. 33).

Both quantitative and qualitative methods are empirical . If you can recognize that a research study is quantitative or qualitative study, then you have also recognized that it is empirical study. 

Below are information on the characteristics of quantitative and qualitative research. This video from Scribbr also offers a good overall introduction to the two approaches to research methodology: 

Characteristics of Quantitative Research 

Researchers test hypotheses, or theories, based in assumptions about causality, i.e. we expect variable X to cause variable Y. Variables have to be controlled as much as possible to ensure validity. The results explain the relationship between the variables. Measures are based in pre-defined instruments.

Examples: experimental or quasi-experimental design, pretest & post-test, survey or questionnaire with closed-ended questions. Studies that identify factors that influence an outcomes, the utility of an intervention, or understanding predictors of outcomes. 

Characteristics of Qualitative Research

Researchers explore “meaning individuals or groups ascribe to social or human problems (Creswell & Creswell, 2018, p3).” Questions and procedures emerge rather than being prescribed. Complexity, nuance, and individual meaning are valued. Research is both inductive and deductive. Data sources are multiple and varied, i.e. interviews, observations, documents, photographs, etc. The researcher is a key instrument and must be reflective of their background, culture, and experiences as influential of the research.

Examples: open question interviews and surveys, focus groups, case studies, grounded theory, ethnography, discourse analysis, narrative, phenomenology, participatory action research.

Calfee, R. C. & Chambliss, M. (2005). The design of empirical research. In J. Flood, D. Lapp, J. R. Squire, & J. Jensen (Eds.),  Methods of research on teaching the English language arts: The methodology chapters from the handbook of research on teaching the English language arts (pp. 43-78). Routledge.  http://ezproxy.memphis.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=nlebk&AN=125955&site=eds-live&scope=site .

Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2018).  Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches  (5th ed.). Thousand Oaks: Sage.

How to... conduct empirical research . (n.d.). Emerald Publishing.  https://www.emeraldgrouppublishing.com/how-to/research-methods/conduct-empirical-research .

Scribbr. (2019). Quantitative vs. qualitative: The differences explained  [video]. YouTube.  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a-XtVF7Bofg .

Ruane, J. M. (2016).  Introducing social research methods : Essentials for getting the edge . Wiley-Blackwell.  http://ezproxy.memphis.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=nlebk&AN=1107215&site=eds-live&scope=site .  

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Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research: The Differences Explained

From Scribbr 

Empirical Research

What is empirical research.

"Empirical research is research that is based on observation and measurement of phenomena, as directly experienced by the researcher. The data thus gathered may be compared against a theory or hypothesis, but the results are still based on real life experience. The data gathered is all primary data, although secondary data from a literature review may form the theoretical background."

Characteristics of Empirical Research

Emerald Publishing's  guide to conducting empirical research  identifies a number of common elements to empirical research: 

A  research question , which will determine research objectives.

A particular and planned  design  for the research, which will depend on the question and which will find ways of answering it with appropriate use of resources.

The gathering of  primary data , which is then analysed.

A particular  methodology  for collecting and analysing the data, such as an experiment or survey.

The limitation of the data to a particular group, area or time scale, known as a  sample  [emphasis added]: for example, a specific number of employees of a particular company type, or all users of a library over a given time scale. The sample should be somehow representative of a wider population.

The ability to  recreate  the study and test the results. This is known as  reliability .

The ability to  generalize  from the findings to a larger sample and to other situations.

If you see these elements in a research article, you can feel confident that you have found empirical research. Emerald's guide goes into more detail on each element. 

Emerald Publishing (n.d.). How to... conduct empirical research. https://www.emeraldgrouppublishing.com/how-to/research-methods/conduct-empirical-research-l 

• Quantitative vs. Qualitative
• Data Collection Methods
• Analyzing Data

When collecting and analyzing data,  quantitative research  deals with numbers and statistics, while  qualitative research  deals with words and meanings. Both are important for gaining different kinds of knowledge.

Quantitative research

Common quantitative methods include experiments, observations recorded as numbers, and surveys with closed-ended questions.

Qualitative research

Common qualitative methods include interviews with open-ended questions, observations described in words, and literature reviews that explore concepts and theories.

Streefkerk, R. (2022, February 7). Qualitative vs. quantitative research: Differences, examples & methods. Scibbr. https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/qualitative-quantitative-research/ 

Quantitative and qualitative data can be collected using various methods. It is important to use a  data collection  method that will help answer your research question(s).

Many data collection methods can be either qualitative or quantitative. For example, in surveys, observations or  case studies , your data can be represented as numbers (e.g. using rating scales or counting frequencies) or as words (e.g. with open-ended questions or descriptions of what you observe).

However, some methods are more commonly used in one type or the other.

Quantitative data collection methods

• Surveys :  List of closed or multiple choice questions that is distributed to a  sample  (online, in person, or over the phone).
• Experiments :  Situation in which  variables  are controlled and manipulated to establish cause-and-effect relationships.
• Observations:  Observing subjects in a natural environment where variables can’t be controlled.

Qualitative data collection methods

• Interviews : Asking open-ended questions verbally to respondents.
• Focus groups:  Discussion among a group of people about a topic to gather opinions that can be used for further research.
• Ethnography : Participating in a community or organization for an extended period of time to closely observe culture and behavior.
• Literature review :  Survey of published works by other authors.

When to use qualitative vs. quantitative research

A rule of thumb for deciding whether to use qualitative or quantitative data is:

• Use quantitative research if you want to  confirm or test something  (a theory or hypothesis)
• Use qualitative research if you want to  understand something  (concepts, thoughts, experiences)

For most  research topics  you can choose a qualitative, quantitative or  mixed methods approach . Which type you choose depends on, among other things, whether you’re taking an  inductive vs. deductive research approach ; your  research question(s) ; whether you’re doing  experimental ,  correlational , or  descriptive research ; and practical considerations such as time, money, availability of data, and access to respondents.

Streefkerk, R. (2022, February 7).  Qualitative vs. quantitative research: Differences, examples & methods.  Scibbr. https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/qualitative-quantitative-research/ 

Qualitative or quantitative data by itself can’t prove or demonstrate anything, but has to be analyzed to show its meaning in relation to the research questions. The method of analysis differs for each type of data.

Analyzing quantitative data

Quantitative data is based on numbers. Simple math or more advanced  statistical analysis  is used to discover commonalities or patterns in the data. The results are often reported in graphs and tables.

Applications such as Excel, SPSS, or R can be used to calculate things like:

• Average scores
• The number of times a particular answer was given
• The  correlation or causation  between two or more variables
• The  reliability and validity  of the results

Analyzing qualitative data

Qualitative data is more difficult to analyze than quantitative data. It consists of text, images or videos instead of numbers.

Some common approaches to analyzing qualitative data include:

• Qualitative content analysis : Tracking the occurrence, position and meaning of words or phrases
• Thematic analysis : Closely examining the data to identify the main themes and patterns
• Discourse analysis : Studying how communication works in social contexts

Comparison of Research Processes

Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2018).  Research design : qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches  (Fifth). SAGE Publications.

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Identifying Empirical Research Articles

Identifying empirical articles.

• Searching for Empirical Research Articles

What is Empirical Research?

An empirical research article reports the results of a study that uses data derived from actual observation or experimentation. Empirical research articles are examples of primary research. To learn more about the differences between primary and secondary research, see our related guide:

• Primary and Secondary Sources

By the end of this guide, you will be able to:

• Identify common elements of an empirical article
• Use a variety of search strategies to search for empirical articles within the library collection

Look for the  IMRaD  layout in the article to help identify empirical research. Sometimes the sections will be labeled differently, but the content will be similar. 

• I ntroduction: why the article was written, research question or questions, hypothesis, literature review
• M ethods: the overall research design and implementation, description of sample, instruments used, how the authors measured their experiment
• R esults: output of the author's measurements, usually includes statistics of the author's findings
• D iscussion: the author's interpretation and conclusions about the results, limitations of study, suggestions for further research

Parts of an Empirical Research Article

Parts of an empirical article.

The screenshots below identify the basic IMRaD structure of an empirical research article. 

Introduction

The introduction contains a literature review and the study's research hypothesis.

The method section outlines the research design, participants, and measures used.

Results 

The results section contains statistical data (charts, graphs, tables, etc.) and research participant quotes.

The discussion section includes impacts, limitations, future considerations, and research.

Learn the IMRaD Layout: How to Identify an Empirical Article

This short video overviews the IMRaD method for identifying empirical research.

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Quantitative and Empirical Research vs. Other Types of Research: What are Scholarly Journals?

• Quantitative Research
• Other Types of Research
• What are Scholarly Journals?

DEFINITION 1

     Periodical: A generic term meaning any type of publication that is published more than once a year. Magazines, newspapers, newsletters, and journals are all periodicals.

• Cheetahs on the Edge This is an example of a popular magazine article.

DEFINITION 2

     Scholarly Journal : A special type of periodical preferred by researchers. Your professor may use any of the terms below, but they all mean the same thing—scholarly journals!

• academic journals
• juried publications
• original research
• primary research
• refereed publications
• Large Carnivore Menus: Factors Affecting Hunting Decisions by Cheetahs in the Serengeti This is an example of a scholarly journal article.

WHAT MAKES SCHOLARLY JOURNALS SPECIAL?

• S cholarly journals exist in order to make results of original research done by scholars readily available to other scholars and researchers.  
• O nly the person or people who actually did the research can submit an article for publication (no second-hand information).  
• E ach article submitted is carefully examined by several reviewers who are experts and researchers in the relevant field, the peers of the author (peer-review process), before being accepted by a board of editors for publication.

     Therefore, the quality of the information contained in scholarly journals is more reliable and of  higher quality than the information in ordinary magazines. It also is more complete. While an ordinary magazine may have an article that talks about the researchers interested in starfish and what they have been doing, you will not get the full details of the experiments or research conducted. A scholarly journal article written by the starfish researchers will tell you everything.

• When the Last Star Goes Out This is an example of a popular magazine article.
• Up in Arms: Immune and Nervous System Response to Sea Star Wasting Disease This is an example of a scholarly journal article.

HOW CAN I RECOGNIZE THEM?

• No advertisements
• Articles are lengthy
• Articles have abstracts/summaries at the beginning
• The language used is more complex than magazine articles
• Articles have bibliographies/references at the end

HOW DO I GET THEM?

      M ost of the library's databases allow you to limit your search results to scholarly journals one way or another.

     Look for a box to click on the search screen or a menu option to the side of your list of results.

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Psychology Research Guide

What is empirical research, finding empirical research, what is peer review.

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Empirical research  is based on observed and measured phenomena and derives knowledge from actual experience rather than from theory or belief. 

How do you know if a study is empirical? Read the subheadings within the article, book, or report and look for a description of the research "methodology." Ask yourself: Could I recreate this study and test these results?

Key characteristics to look for:

• Specific research questions  to be answered
• Definition of the  population, behavior, or   phenomena  being studied
• Description of the  process  used to study this population or phenomena, including selection criteria, controls, and testing instruments (such as surveys)

Another hint: some scholarly journals use a specific layout, called the "IMRaD" format, to communicate empirical research findings. Such articles typically have 4 components:

• Introduction : sometimes called "literature review" -- what is currently known about the topic -- usually includes a theoretical framework and/or discussion of previous studies
• Methodology:  sometimes called "research design" -- how to recreate the study -- usually describes the population, research process, and analytical tools
• Results : sometimes called "findings"  --  what was learned through the study -- usually appears as statistical data or as substantial quotations from research participants
• Discussion : sometimes called "conclusion" or "implications" -- why the study is important -- usually describes how the research results influence professional practices or future studies

Adapted from PennState University Libraries, Empirical Research in the Social Sciences and Education

Empirical research is published in books and in scholarly, peer-reviewed journals. Keep in mind that most library databases do not offer straightforward ways to identifying empirical research.

Finding Empirical Research in PsycINFO

• PsycInfo Use the "Advanced Search" Type your keywords into the search boxes Scroll down the page to "Methodology," and choose "Empirical Study" Choose other limits, such as publication date, if needed Click on the "Search" button

Finding Empirical Research in PubMed

• PubMED One technique is to limit your search results after you perform a search: Type in your keywords and click on the "Search" button To the left of your results, under "Article Types," check off the types of studies that interest you Another alternative is to construct a more sophisticated search: From PubMed's main screen, click on "Advanced" link underneath the search box On the Advanced Search Builder screen type your keywords into the search boxes Change one of the empty boxes from "All Fields" to "Publication Type" To the right of Publication Type, click on "Show Index List" and choose a methodology that interests you. You can choose more than one by holding down the "Ctrl" or "⌘" on your keyboard as you click on each methodology Click on the "Search" button

Finding Empirical Research in Library OneSearch & Google Scholar

These tools do not have a method for locating empirical research. Using "empirical" as a keyword will find some studies, but miss many others. Consider using one of the more specialized databases above.

• Library OneSearch
• Google Scholar

This refers to the process where authors who are doing research submit a paper they have written to a journal. The journal editor then sends the article to the author's peers (researchers and scholars) who are in the same discipline for review. The reviewers determine if the article should be published based on the quality of the research, including the validity of the data, the conclusions the authors' draw and the originality of the research. This process is important because it validates the research and gives it a sort of "seal of approval" from others in the research community.

Identifying a Journal is Peer-Reviewed

One of the best places to find out if a journal is peer-reviewed is to go to the journal website.

Most publishers have a website for a journal that tells you about the journal, how authors can submit an article, and what the process is for getting published.

If you find the journal website, look for the link that says information for authors, instructions for authors, submitting an article or something similar.

Finding Peer-Reviewed Articles

Start in a library database. Look for a peer-review or scholarly filter.

• PsycInfo Most comprehensive database of psychology. Filters allow you to limit by methodology. Articles without full-text can be requested via Interlibrary loan.
• Library OneSearch Search almost all the library resources. Look for a peer-review filter on the left.
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Qualitative and Quantitative Research

What is "empirical research".

• empirical research
• Locating Articles in Cinahl and PsycInfo
• Locating Articles in PubMed
• Getting the Articles

Empirical research  is based on observed and measured phenomena and derives knowledge from actual experience rather than from theory or belief. 

How do you know if a study is empirical? Read the subheadings within the article, book, or report and look for a description of the research "methodology."  Ask yourself: Could I recreate this study and test these results?

Key characteristics to look for:

• Specific research questions  to be answered
• Definition of the  population, behavior, or   phenomena  being studied
• Description of the  process  used to study this population or phenomena, including selection criteria, controls, and testing instruments (such as surveys)

Another hint: some scholarly journals use a specific layout, called the "IMRaD" format, to communicate empirical research findings. Such articles typically have 4 components:

• Introduction : sometimes called "literature review" -- what is currently known about the topic -- usually includes a theoretical framework and/or discussion of previous studies
• Methodology:  sometimes called "research design" --  how to recreate the study -- usually describes the population, research process, and analytical tools
• Results : sometimes called "findings"  --  what was learned through the study -- usually appears as statistical data or as substantial quotations from research participants
• Discussion : sometimes called "conclusion" or "implications" -- why the study is important -- usually describes how the research results influence professional practices or future studies
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Empirical Research: Quantitative & Qualitative

• Quantitative vs. Qualitative
• Empirical Research

What's the Difference Between Qualitative and Quantitative?

Distinguishing quantitative & qualitative methods, word clues to identify methods.

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What’s the Difference Between Qualitative and Quantitative Methods?

From: Suter, W. N. (2012). Qualitative Data, Analysis, and Design. In  Introduction to educational research: A critical thinking approach . SAGE Publications, Inc., www.galileo.usg.edu/redirect?inst=pie1&url=https://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781483384443

The words in this table can be used to evaluate whether an article tends more toward the quantitative or qualitative domain. Well-written article abstracts will contain words like these to succinctly characterize the article's content.

Adapted from: McMillan, J. H. (2012).  Educational research: Fundamentals for the consumer  (6th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson.

Search SAGE Research Methods for resources about qualitative methods

Search SAGE Research Methods for resources about quantitative methods

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Empirical & Descriptive Articles: Empirical vs. Descriptive

• Empirical vs. Descriptive
• Locating Empirical Articles
• Understanding Findings

Empirical & Descriptive

Empirical articles are articles that report research findings from an original study.

Empirical Articles:

• Articles that report research findings from an original study
• Always contain a “Methods” section
• Usually discusses a sample
• Tells the reader how the research was done
• May contain statistics or words to describe findings
• Can be found in databases/search engines and academic journals
• Used for research papers that need to be evidence-based & to learn about new research studies

Descriptive Articles

Descriptive articles  are articles that describe a topic and sometimes have a literature review but do not include a research study. They may use other researcher’s findings to create a new way of looking at an issue.

Descriptive Articles:

• Use other researcher findings to create a new way of looking at an issue
• May contain statistics from other research
• May have “literature review”, findings, and/or “conclusions sections
• Can be found in databases/search engines, Academic Journals, & magazines
• Use for general information gathering & research papers
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Conceptual Vs. Empirical Research: Which Is Better?

Scientific research is often divided into two classes: conceptual research and empirical research. There used to be distinct ways of doing research and a researcher would proudly claim to be one or the other, praising his method and scorning the alternative. Today the distinction is not so clear.

What is Conceptual Research?

Conceptual research focuses on the concept or theory that explains or describes the phenomenon being studied. What causes disease? How can we describe the motions of the planets? What are the building blocks of matter? The conceptual researcher sits at his desk with pen in hand and tries to solve these problems by thinking about them. He does no experiments but may make use of observations by others, since this is the mass of data that he is trying to make sense of. Until fairly recently, conceptual research methodology was considered the most honorable form of research—it required using the brain, not the hands. Researchers such as the alchemists who did experiments were considered little better than blacksmiths—“filthy empiricists.”

What is Empirical Research?

For all of their lofty status, conceptual researchers regularly produced theories that were wrong. Aristotle taught that large cannonballs fell to earth faster than small ones, and many generations of professors repeated his teachings until Galileo proved them wrong. Galileo was an empiricist of the best sort, one who performed original experiments not merely to destroy old theories but to provide the basis for new theories. A reaction against the ivory tower theoreticians culminated in those who claimed to have no use for theory, arguing that empirical acquisition of knowledge was the only way to the truth. A pure empiricist would simply graph data and see if he got a straight line relation between variables. If so, he had a good “empirical” relationship that would make useful predictions. The theory behind the correlation was irrelevant.

The Scientific Method: A Bit of Both

The modern scientific method is really a combination of empirical and conceptual research. Using known experimental data a scientist formulates a working hypothesis to explain some aspect of nature. He then performs new experiments designed to test predictions of the theory, to support it or disprove it. Einstein is often cited as an example of a conceptual researcher, but he based his theories on experimental observations and proposed experiments, real and thought, which would test his theories. On the other hand, Edison is often considered an empiricist, the “Edisonian method” being a by-word for trial and error. But Edison appreciated the work of theorists and hired some of the best. Random screening of myriad possibilities is still valuable: pharmaceutical companies looking for new drugs do this, sometimes with great success. Personally, I tend to be a semi-empiricist. In graduate school I used the Hammett linear free-energy relation (a semi-empirical equation) to gain insight into chemical transition states. So I don’t debate on “conceptual vs. empirical research.” There is a range of possibilities between both the forms, all of which have their uses.

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Albert Einstein did theoretical work–he had no laboratory, Put simply, through new conceptual models, he re-interpreted the findings of others and expressed them mathematically.

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BY 499 - Senior Seminar

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Biology Articles

Primary Databases

Featuring thousands of full-text journals, this collection of scholarly trade and popular articles offers information on a broad range of important areas including: anthropology, biology, chemistry, ethnic & multicultural studies, law, mathematics, music, psychology, women's studies, and many other fields. Part of the Database Offerings in GALILEO, Georgia’s Virtual Library

ProQuest Research Library™ provides access to more than 5,060 titles —over 3,600 in full text— on a wide range of popular academic subjects. The database features a diversified mix of scholarly journals, trade publications, magazines, and newspapers.  Part of the Database Offerings in GALILEO, Georgia’s Virtual Library

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This database contains more than 820 leading full-text journals covering relevant aspects of the scientific and technical community. In addition to full text, Science & Technology Collection™ offers indexing and abstracts for more than 1,750 journals. Topics include aeronautics, astrophysics, biology, chemistry, computer technology, geology, aviation, physics, archaeology, marine sciences and materials science. Part of the Database Offerings in GALILEO, Georgia’s Virtual Library

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Empirical Versus Non-empirical Research

Empirical research is based on observed and measured phenomena and derives knowledge from actual experience rather than from theory or belief.

How do you know if a study is empirical? Read the subheadings within the article, book, or report and look for a description of the research "methodology." Ask yourself: Could I recreate this study and test these results?

Key characteristics to look for:

• Specific research questions to be answered
• Definition of the population, behavior, or   phenomena being studied
• Description of the process used to study this population or phenomena, including selection criteria, controls, and testing instruments (such as surveys)
• Author(s) present a new set of findings from original research after conducting an original experiment
• Firsthand collection of data

Another hint: some scholarly journals use a specific layout, called the "IMRaD" format, to communicate empirical research findings. Such articles typically have 4 components:

• Introduction : sometimes called "literature review" -- what is currently known about the topic -- usually includes a theoretical framework and/or discussion of previous studies
• Methodology: sometimes called "research design" -- how to recreate the study -- usually describes the population or variables to be researched, research process, and analytical tools
• Results : sometimes called "findings" -- what was learned through the study -- usually appears as statistical data or as substantial quotations from research participants
• Discussion : sometimes called "conclusion" or "implications" -- why the study is important -- usually describes how the research results influence professional practices or future studies

Here are some common characteristics of review articles:

• Author(s) analyze and summarize existing research
• Author(s) did NOT do original research. They are summarizing work of others.
• Often focus on a general topic (such as breast cancer treatment) and bring together all relevant, useful articles on that topic in one review article.
• Do not contain sections such as Methods (and Materials), Results because they did not do any original research!

Fermentation and quality of yellow pigments from golden brown rice solid culture by a selected Monascus mutant.

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Information, Information, Everywhere!

Libraries locate, collect, preserve, describe, and organize a lot of information so that people can access it for a variety of purposes., there are many types of resources you can access through the gsu library , for example:.

• Special Collections and Archives : Historical artifacts that convey information (and disinformation), in many forms.
• Newspapers, Trade Magazines, and Popular Magazines : Articles published with the intent to quickly inform the public, often containing advertisements, errors, and forms of disinformation that may be updated or corrected over time.
• Scholarly (peer-reviewed) : Articles published according to a rigorous set of standards, and reviewed by professional peers. This includes open access literature and systematic reviews.
• Empirical (scientific) : Articles that are scholarly, but which also report findings of original scientific studies that address specific research questions.

This means that not everything inside a library's collection will meet your specific needs. The relevance of information you find while performing a systematic search is determined by your research scope .

To determine your research scope, you may set parameters by asking yourself:

• What date range do I want to set for research publication?
• Am I performing historical research? If so, I may be seeking information produced a long time ago.
• Am I examining pop culture? If so, I may seek to explore popular magazines and newspapers.
• Do I need to find first-person narratives for my research? If so, I may want to explore archival material, newspaper op-eds, or trade magazines.
• Do I need more reliable information? If so, I may be seeking peer-reviewed journals and would select "peer-reviewed" when searching for articles inside scholarly databases.
• Am I seeking a review of previous research in a certain area? If so, I may want to perform a title search that includes the terms "systematic review," "annual review," or "literature review."
• Am I seeking resources that report the findings of original research? If so, I need to review article abstracts to look for identifying qualities like: methodology sections, results sections, and data visualizations.

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Figure it out!

Here are two article records found in the Sociological Abstracts database  - Which one is EMPIRICAL RESEARCH?  

The Division of Household Labor

Beth Anne Shelton, and John Daphne.  Annual Review of Sociology  22 (1996): 299-322.

Abstract (summary)

In this chapter we review research on the division of household labor and its consequences. The review summarizes research focused on issues of measurement, including research on methods of gathering data on housework time and time use in general and discussions of various ways to operationalize the division of household labor. Some attention is paid to historical and theoretical work on housework and women's responsibility for it in particular, followed by a more detailed discussion of current empirical approaches to explaining the division of household labor as well as criticisms of these approaches. Finally, we review research that examines the consequences of the division of household labor, focusing on those studies that examine its impact on labor force participation and wages, marital and family satisfaction, psychological well-being, and perceptions of fairness.

Macro-Level Gender Inequality and the Division of Household Labor in 22 Countries  

Fuwa, Makiko.  American Sociological Review  69 (2004): 751-767.

While most previous studies focus on the effects of individuals' and couples' characteristics on the division of housework, this study argues that macro-level factors are equally important in the dynamics of housework distribution between spouses. Data from the 1994 International Social Survey Programme is used to examine whether macro-level gender inequality limits the effect of individual-level variables (relative resources, time availability, and gender ideology) on the division of housework in 22 industrialized countries. The results show that the equalizing effects of time availability and gender ideology are stronger for women in more egalitarian countries; women in less egalitarian countries benefit less from their individual-level assets. Additional analysis shows that other macro-level factors (economic development, female labor-force participation, gender norms, and welfare regimes) may also influence the division of housework. The results suggest that changes in individual-level factors may not be enough to achieve an equal division of housework without the reduction of macro-level gender inequality.

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Empirical Articles

Review Articles

What is a Peer Reviewed Article?

Peer review is a process that many, but not all, journals use. Article manuscripts submitted to peer-reviewed journals are not automatically accepted and published.

In peer review, a panel of experts in the given field review the manuscript to determine aspects such as the quality of research, appropriateness for the journal, and relevance to the field. One of three decisions is made: accept, reject, or revise based on commentary from reviewers.

The process of peer review is thought to help ensure that high quality articles appear in journals.

Another term for peer-reviewed is  refereed . Peer-reviewed journals may also be called  scholarly.

Remember that magazines, Internet sources, and books are not the same as peer-reviewed journals.

In psychology, articles that report on original/new research studies may be referred to as primary sources or empirical .

• Common sections in a research/empirical article include introduction, literature review, methods/process, data, results, discussion, conclusion / suggestions for further study, and references.
• If the article is not divided into sections, it does not automatically mean it is not an empirical article.
• You cannot assume that an article is empirical just because it is divided into sections.
• In the methods section [which may be called something similar], or otherwise usually toward the beginning or middle of the article [if it does not have sections]: The authors will describe how they actively conducted new or original research -- such as an experiment or survey. Examples of what would likely be explained: How they identified participants, that they received Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval, control vs. experimental groups, and so forth about their research.

Articles that either interpret or analyze empirical articles are considered  review articles.  Such articles are often referred to as  secondary  sources  or  secondary research.

• An entire article that is purely a literature review [usually a review of select other articles considered to be the best support for a research question/topic]
• Systematic review
• Meta-analysis / meta-analyses
• Meta-synthesis / meta-syntheses
• If an article is a review article, it is likely [but not always] to have the words literature review, systematic review, integrative review, meta-analysis, meta-synthesis, or other mention of review in the title.
• The main indicator of a review article is if authors are just interpreting, analyzing, and/or comparing the results of empirical articles. So, in comparison to an empirical article, the authors of a review article do not describe an experiment or survey they conducted.
• If there is a methods section, it will usually describe how the authors searched for other articles [which databases they searched, what search terms they used] and decided the criteria for articles to include and exclude as part of their review. Again, they will not be describing how they conducted new or original research, such as an experiment or survey.
• In a literature review, for example, the authors' might point out what they believe to be the most pertinent/applicable research articles.
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Teens and social media: Key findings from Pew Research Center surveys

For the latest survey data on social media and tech use among teens, see “ Teens, Social Media, and Technology 2023 .” 

Today’s teens are navigating a digital landscape unlike the one experienced by their predecessors, particularly when it comes to the pervasive presence of social media. In 2022, Pew Research Center fielded an in-depth survey asking American teens – and their parents – about their experiences with and views toward social media . Here are key findings from the survey:

Pew Research Center conducted this study to better understand American teens’ experiences with social media and their parents’ perception of these experiences. For this analysis, we surveyed 1,316 U.S. teens ages 13 to 17, along with one parent from each teen’s household. The survey was conducted online by Ipsos from April 14 to May 4, 2022.

This research was reviewed and approved by an external institutional review board (IRB), Advarra, which is an independent committee of experts that specializes in helping to protect the rights of research participants.

Ipsos invited panelists who were a parent of at least one teen ages 13 to 17 from its KnowledgePanel , a probability-based web panel recruited primarily through national, random sampling of residential addresses, to take this survey. For some of these questions, parents were asked to think about one teen in their household. (If they had multiple teenage children ages 13 to 17 in the household, one was randomly chosen.) This teen was then asked to answer questions as well. The parent portion of the survey is weighted to be representative of U.S. parents of teens ages 13 to 17 by age, gender, race, ethnicity, household income and other categories. The teen portion of the survey is weighted to be representative of U.S. teens ages 13 to 17 who live with parents by age, gender, race, ethnicity, household income and other categories.

Here are the questions used  for this report, along with responses, and its  methodology .

Majorities of teens report ever using YouTube, TikTok, Instagram and Snapchat. YouTube is the platform most commonly used by teens, with 95% of those ages 13 to 17 saying they have ever used it, according to a Center survey conducted April 14-May 4, 2022, that asked about 10 online platforms. Two-thirds of teens report using TikTok, followed by roughly six-in-ten who say they use Instagram (62%) and Snapchat (59%). Much smaller shares of teens say they have ever used Twitter (23%), Twitch (20%), WhatsApp (17%), Reddit (14%) and Tumblr (5%).

Facebook use among teens dropped from 71% in 2014-15 to 32% in 2022. Twitter and Tumblr also experienced declines in teen users during that span, but Instagram and Snapchat saw notable increases.

TikTok use is more common among Black teens and among teen girls. For example, roughly eight-in-ten Black teens (81%) say they use TikTok, compared with 71% of Hispanic teens and 62% of White teens. And Hispanic teens (29%) are more likely than Black (19%) or White teens (10%) to report using WhatsApp. (There were not enough Asian teens in the sample to analyze separately.)

Teens’ use of certain social media platforms also varies by gender. Teen girls are more likely than teen boys to report using TikTok (73% vs. 60%), Instagram (69% vs. 55%) and Snapchat (64% vs. 54%). Boys are more likely than girls to report using YouTube (97% vs. 92%), Twitch (26% vs. 13%) and Reddit (20% vs. 8%).

Majorities of teens use YouTube and TikTok every day, and some report using these sites almost constantly. About three-quarters of teens (77%) say they use YouTube daily, while a smaller majority of teens (58%) say the same about TikTok. About half of teens use Instagram (50%) or Snapchat (51%) at least once a day, while 19% report daily use of Facebook.

Some teens report using these platforms almost constantly. For example, 19% say they use YouTube almost constantly, while 16% and 15% say the same about TikTok and Snapchat, respectively.

More than half of teens say it would be difficult for them to give up social media. About a third of teens (36%) say they spend too much time on social media, while 55% say they spend about the right amount of time there and just 8% say they spend too little time. Girls are more likely than boys to say they spend too much time on social media (41% vs. 31%).

Teens are relatively divided over whether it would be hard or easy for them to give up social media. Some 54% say it would be very or somewhat hard, while 46% say it would be very or somewhat easy.

Girls are more likely than boys to say it would be difficult for them to give up social media (58% vs. 49%). Older teens are also more likely than younger teens to say this: 58% of those ages 15 to 17 say it would be very or somewhat hard to give up social media, compared with 48% of those ages 13 to 14.

Teens are more likely to say social media has had a negative effect on others than on themselves. Some 32% say social media has had a mostly negative effect on people their age, while 9% say this about social media’s effect on themselves.

Conversely, teens are more likely to say these platforms have had a mostly positive impact on their own life than on those of their peers. About a third of teens (32%) say social media has had a mostly positive effect on them personally, while roughly a quarter (24%) say it has been positive for other people their age.

Still, the largest shares of teens say social media has had neither a positive nor negative effect on themselves (59%) or on other teens (45%). These patterns are consistent across demographic groups.

Teens are more likely to report positive than negative experiences in their social media use. Majorities of teens report experiencing each of the four positive experiences asked about: feeling more connected to what is going on in their friends’ lives (80%), like they have a place where they can show their creative side (71%), like they have people who can support them through tough times (67%), and that they are more accepted (58%).

When it comes to negative experiences, 38% of teens say that what they see on social media makes them feel overwhelmed because of all the drama. Roughly three-in-ten say it makes them feel like their friends are leaving them out of things (31%) or feel pressure to post content that will get lots of comments or likes (29%). And 23% say that what they see on social media makes them feel worse about their own life.

There are several gender differences in the experiences teens report having while on social media. Teen girls are more likely than teen boys to say that what they see on social media makes them feel a lot like they have a place to express their creativity or like they have people who can support them. However, girls also report encountering some of the pressures at higher rates than boys. Some 45% of girls say they feel overwhelmed because of all the drama on social media, compared with 32% of boys. Girls are also more likely than boys to say social media has made them feel like their friends are leaving them out of things (37% vs. 24%) or feel worse about their own life (28% vs. 18%).

When it comes to abuse on social media platforms, many teens think criminal charges or permanent bans would help a lot. Half of teens think criminal charges or permanent bans for users who bully or harass others on social media would help a lot to reduce harassment and bullying on these platforms. 

About four-in-ten teens say it would help a lot if social media companies proactively deleted abusive posts or required social media users to use their real names and pictures. Three-in-ten teens say it would help a lot if school districts monitored students’ social media activity for bullying or harassment.

Some teens – especially older girls – avoid posting certain things on social media because of fear of embarrassment or other reasons. Roughly four-in-ten teens say they often or sometimes decide not to post something on social media because they worry people might use it to embarrass them (40%) or because it does not align with how they like to represent themselves on these platforms (38%). A third of teens say they avoid posting certain things out of concern for offending others by what they say, while 27% say they avoid posting things because it could hurt their chances when applying for schools or jobs.

These concerns are more prevalent among older teen girls. For example, roughly half of girls ages 15 to 17 say they often or sometimes decide not to post something on social media because they worry people might use it to embarrass them (50%) or because it doesn’t fit with how they’d like to represent themselves on these sites (51%), compared with smaller shares among younger girls and among boys overall.

Many teens do not feel like they are in the driver’s seat when it comes to controlling what information social media companies collect about them. Six-in-ten teens say they think they have little (40%) or no control (20%) over the personal information that social media companies collect about them. Another 26% aren’t sure how much control they have. Just 14% of teens think they have a lot of control.

Despite many feeling a lack of control, teens are largely unconcerned about companies collecting their information. Only 8% are extremely concerned about the amount of personal information that social media companies might have and 13% are very concerned. Still, 44% of teens say they have little or no concern about how much these companies might know about them.

Only around one-in-five teens think their parents are highly worried about their use of social media. Some 22% of teens think their parents are extremely or very worried about them using social media. But a larger share of teens (41%) think their parents are either not at all (16%) or a little worried (25%) about them using social media. About a quarter of teens (27%) fall more in the middle, saying they think their parents are somewhat worried.

Many teens also believe there is a disconnect between parental perceptions of social media and teens’ lived realities. Some 39% of teens say their experiences on social media are better than parents think, and 27% say their experiences are worse. A third of teens say parents’ views are about right.

Nearly half of parents with teens (46%) are highly worried that their child could be exposed to explicit content on social media. Parents of teens are more likely to be extremely or very concerned about this than about social media causing mental health issues like anxiety, depression or lower self-esteem. Some parents also fret about time management problems for their teen stemming from social media use, such as wasting time on these sites (42%) and being distracted from completing homework (38%).

Note: Here are the questions used  for this report, along with responses, and its  methodology .

CORRECTION (May 17, 2023): In a previous version of this post, the percentages of teens using Instagram and Snapchat daily were transposed in the text. The original chart was correct. This change does not substantively affect the analysis.

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Emily A. Vogels is a former research associate focusing on internet and technology at Pew Research Center

Risa Gelles-Watnick is a research analyst focusing on internet and technology research at Pew Research Center

How Teens and Parents Approach Screen Time

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