essay on environment and health education

Essay on Environment and Human Health for Students and Children

500+ words essay on environment and human health.

The environment is all that surrounds us. It can be a living or a non-living thing. It includes many forces that are physical, chemical and other natural forces. These living things live in their environment. They consistently react with it and adapt themselves according to the conditions in their environment. In the environment, there are various interactions between the animals, plants , water, soil and other living and many non-living things present in nature. Since everything is a part of this environment of something else, we use the term environment talking about various things. People in different fields use this term differently.

Importance of Environment

The environment is very important for every living being. No one can survive without the environment. It matters a lot because planet earth is the only home for human beings. It provides food, air, water and millions of other things. Humanity’s entire life-supporting system totally depends on the well-being of all the species living the earth.

We call it the biosphere. Biosphere means one global ecological system under which all living things are depending upon each other relatively. In the ecosystem or overall biosphere, there are some smaller ecosystems like the rainforests , deserts , oceans and the tundra.

An ecosystem has both living and non-living parts. It can be terrestrial or aquatic. It explains the valuing ecosystem services: towards better environmental decision making that is available through the National Academy Press. The non-living things are like soil , water, air, nutrients, and living elements are the plants, micro-organisms , animals and human beings.

A healthy ecosystem consists of all the chemical elements and nutrients that circulate in a cycle while supporting billions of species. The species helps in the process of cycling the elements when they produce any food. It also happens during their eating, going about their lives and even though their deaths. In this process creation of a variety of goods and services takes place that is very useful for human beings.

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Human Health Issues

It is very rare for children to get seriously ill without any warning. According to the symptoms of your child, you should contact your children’s pediatrician for advice on a regular basis. Time to time treatment of symptoms or usual illness can prevent your child from getting seriously affected with any disease or making that worse or turning it into an emergency.

A true emergency occurs when you believe a severe injury or any sort of illness is threatening your child or his/her life is in danger, or it might cause any permanent harm. In this scenario, one needs emergency medical treatment immediately as soon as possible. Discuss it with the doctor about what should you do in case of a true emergency.

The use of vaccines is improving the health of the children at a huge level over a very short period. Much infectious illness one is having as a child. For example, chickenpox or polio no longer affects many children in today’s time.

FAQs on Environment and Human Health

Q.1. Name some needs that are fulfilled by the environment:

Ans. There are many needs that are fulfilled by the environment. We get food, shelter, oxygen, water, sunlight, air, and many more things. The most important thing we get from the environment is food. Because we cannot survive without food.

Q.2.What should be done in the case off health illness?

Ans. Firstly, we should diagnose the problem and then go to a doctor and do proper treatment of that particular disease or illness. And then we should cure that disease according to the guidelines of the doctor.

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The Importance of Environmental Education for a Sustainable Future

Environmental education is vital to winning the fight against climate change. Without it, the leaders of tomorrow will be ill-equipped to overcome the environmental challenges the world will face. Parents and teachers can help students understand their role as environmental stewards by encouraging student outdoor learning programs and supporting young folks who engage in student activism. To celebrate World Teachers’ Day 2023, which every year falls on October 5, we take a look at the importance of environmental education and how to address climate change in classrooms.

Education can make a difference in the fight against climate change. Recent surveys show that people with more education were more likely to view climate change as a threat and that, today, most people see climate change as a major threat to our planet.  

However, promoting environmental education in schools can be tricky. Climate change is seen as a bipartisan “political” issue in some countries, and many educational bodies push against climate education entirely. 

More must be done to ensure that young people have access to environmental education. Robust climate education will give the decision-makers of tomorrow the skills they need to advocate for nature, protect vulnerable environments, and mitigate the effects of global warming. 

The Importance of Environmental Education

Education is often overlooked in the fight against climate change. While policy changes and global commitments are necessary to prevent global warming from further worsening, improved education is the first step toward achieving our goals. 

Environmental education can help alleviate climate anxiety , too. This is broadly defined as a “chronic fear of environmental doom” and may be exacerbated by a lack of understanding. Educational resources that clearly explain the mechanisms behind global warming equip students with the knowledge they need to do something about climate change. This can help them feel empowered and foster a greater appreciation for the planet’s resources. 

Environmental education can also promote critical thinking, communication, and problem-solving skills. This is particularly important today, as students need to be able to evaluate the long-term impact of social, economic, and ecological policies. Combating climate change effectively requires a global effort and activism often relies heavily on a thorough understanding of the issue and the ability to persuade others that something must be done. 

Improvements in public education may also promote a sense of stewardship and aid conservation efforts. In particular, environmental education programming can make a real difference to researchers who are advocating for policy changes. 

For example, recent public programmes like the BBC’s Planet Earth II and Wild Isles appear to have significantly impacted researchers at the University of Exeter in the United Kingdom. Reflecting on the public program, Professor Callum Roberts states that the “UK must now deliver genuine protection for wildlife,” and should focus on building resilience against climate change. 

Connecting Students with High-Quality, Reliable Resources

Environmental education can empower the decision-makers of tomorrow and improve the public understanding of climate change. However, connecting students with the resources they need to understand global warming can be difficult – particularly if students live in a nation like the US, where climate change is seen as a partisan “political” issue. 

Climate-aware parents can introduce their children to climate change with outdoor play in natural environments. Natural playgrounds, like those built from sustainable materials and found objects, are the perfect place to discuss environmental protection and the importance of stewardship over the Earth’s resources. 

Living a sustainable lifestyle at home can be an important part of children’s environmental education. Parents can help their kids understand the importance of sustainability by reducing their home’s carbon footprint together, by implementing and practicing environmentally friendly habits in the home. Simple sustainable activities — such as upcycling furniture and composting leftover food scraps as well as teaching children how to recycle – help reduce our own emissions and promote a sense of responsibility for the environment. 

You might also like: How to Live a More Sustainable Life in 2023

Student Activism

A sense of stewardship is vital for the long-term preservation of the Earth’s natural resources. However, students who care about climate change should be empowered to engage in activism, too. Youth activism has a meaningful impact on policy and shows politicians that climate change is a hot-button issue for future voters. 

Successful activism begins by educating students about the issues. Teachers can strengthen their students’ understanding of climate change and ecological protection by hosting student projects that encourage outdoor learning . By building eco-systems on school grounds or signing up for community clean-ups, students will learn to take pride in the world around them and become well-equipped to share their knowledge with others.

Most high schools and universities have a climate advocacy group that young people can join to amplify their voices and make a difference. Students can further their climate advocacy by joining groups that have partnered with the Climate Action Network (CAN). The CAN helps 1900+ organisations get the support and funding they need to prevent environmental degradation and fight climate change. 

Climate-conscious students can also partner with non-governmental organisations (NGOs) like: 

• African Conservation Foundation
• Born Free USA
• Break Free From Plastic

These NGOs tackle the biggest environmental issues today and can put students in a position to maximise their impact and gain important professional development skills. 

You might also like: How Youth Climate Action Is Shaping a More Sustainable Future

Professional Development

Preventing climate change requires more than goodwill and public understanding. The decision-makers of tomorrow need to be equipped with interdisciplinary skills to tackle the challenges that climate change presents. However, many teachers are ill-equipped to teach environmental education in their classrooms. 

More must be done to empower climate-conscious teachers. Professors should feel comfortable discussing the facts of climate change in their classrooms. They should be able to identify the transferable skills that their class can give to climate-conscious students. Fortunately, teachers today can find plenty of free resources from sites like: 

• Our own environmental news website dedicated to our younger audience, Kids.Earth.Org
• NASA’s Vital Signs of the Planet
• WWF’s Science that Affects Our World
• British Council’s Climate Resources for School Teachers

These resources are entirely free and can be weaved into any class. A climate-inspired project will help students connect with the importance of environmental education and give them the skills they need to take on skeptics in the future. 

Conclusion  

Environmental education is key to understanding and preventing climate change. A robust climate education can empower students and help them engage with advocacy and activism groups. Even minor education experiences, like participating in a community clean-up, can help students understand the importance of stewardship and build the interdisciplinary skills they need to advocate for environmental protection. 

In case you didn’t know, we have a Kids’ website aimed at explaining a wide range of environmental topics to younger generations. Visit Kids.Earth.Org to learn more about climate change

About the Author

Charlie Fletcher

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Article contents

The environment in health and well-being.

• George Morris George Morris European Centre for Environment and Human Health, University of Exeter Medical School, Truro, United Kingdom
•  and  Patrick Saunders Patrick Saunders University of Staffordshire, University of Birmingham, and WHO Collaborating Centre
• https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780199389414.013.101
• Published online: 29 March 2017

Most people today readily accept that their health and disease are products of personal characteristics such as their age, gender, and genetic inheritance; the choices they make; and, of course, a complex array of factors operating at the level of society. Individuals frequently have little or no control over the cultural, economic, and social influences that shape their lives and their health and well-being. The environment that forms the physical context for their lives is one such influence and comprises the places where people live, learn work, play, and socialize, the air they breathe, and the food and water they consume. Interest in the physical environment as a component of human health goes back many thousands of years and when, around two and a half millennia ago, humans started to write down ideas about health, disease, and their determinants, many of these ideas centered on the physical environment.

The modern public health movement came into existence in the 19th century as a response to the dreadful unsanitary conditions endured by the urban poor of the Industrial Revolution. These conditions nurtured disease, dramatically shortening life. Thus, a public health movement that was ultimately to change the health and prosperity of millions of people across the world was launched on an “environmental conceptualization” of health. Yet, although the physical environment, especially in towns and cities, has changed dramatically in the 200 years since the Industrial Revolution, so too has our understanding of the relationship between the environment and human health and the importance we attach to it.

The decades immediately following World War II were distinguished by declining influence for public health as a discipline. Health and disease were increasingly “individualized”—a trend that served to further diminish interest in the environment, which was no longer seen as an important component in the health concerns of the day. Yet, as the 20th century wore on, a range of factors emerged to r-establish a belief in the environment as a key issue in the health of Western society. These included new toxic and infectious threats acting at the population level but also the renaissance of a “socioecological model” of public health that demanded a much richer and often more subtle understanding of how local surroundings might act to both improve and damage human health and well-being.

Yet, just as society has begun to shape a much more sophisticated response to reunite health with place and, with this, shape new policies to address complex contemporary challenges, such as obesity, diminished mental health, and well-being and inequities, a new challenge has emerged. In its simplest terms, human activity now seriously threatens the planetary processes and systems on which humankind depends for health and well-being and, ultimately, survival. Ecological public health—the need to build health and well-being, henceforth on ecological principles—may be seen as the society’s greatest 21st-century imperative. Success will involve nothing less than a fundamental rethink of the interplay between society, the economy, and the environment. Importantly, it will demand an environmental conceptualization of the public health as no less radical than the environmental conceptualization that launched modern public health in the 19th century, only now the challenge presents on a vastly extended temporal and spatial scale.

• environmental and human health
• environment
• environmental epidemiology
• environmental health inequalities
• ecological public health

Introduction

This article traces the development of ideas about the environment in human health and well-being over time. Our primary focus is the period since the early 19th century , sometimes termed the “modern public health era.” This has been not only a time of unprecedented scientific, technological, and societal transition but also a time during which perspectives on the relationship of humans to their environment, and its implications for their health and well-being, have undergone significant change.

Curiosity about the environment as a factor in human health and well-being, and indeed health-motivated interventions to manage the physical context for life, substantially predate the modern public health era. The archaeological record provides evidence of sewer lines, primitive toilets, and water-supply arrangements in settlements in Asia, the Middle East, South America, and Southern Europe, dating back many thousands of years (Rosen, 1993 ). Some religious traditions also imply recognition of the importance of environmental factors in health. For example, restrictions on the consumption of certain foods probably derive from a belief that these foods carried risks to health; a passage in the book of Leviticus conveys the existence of a belief in the relationship between the internal state of a house and the health of its occupants (Leviticus [14:33–45], quoted in Frumkin, 2005 ).

The sixty-two books of the “Hippocratic Corpus” dating from 430–330 bc are the accepted bedrock of Western medicine (Lloyd, 1983 ), not least because they departed from the purely supernatural explanations for health and disease which hitherto held sway. For the first time, ideas about medicine, diseases, and their causes were being written down. Among these were ideas about the environment and its relationship to mental and physical health (Lloyd, 1983 ; Rosen, 1993 ; Kessel, 2006 ). While scarcely a template for how societies would come to think about environment and health in the modern era, one Hippocratic text in particular, On Airs, Waters and Places , introduces several ideas that do retain currency. For example, the simple message that good health is unlikely to be achieved and maintained in poor environmental conditions is enduring. Also, through specific reference to the health relevance of changes in water, soil, vegetation, sunlight, winds, climate, and seasonality, On Airs, Waters and Places conceives an environment made up of distinct compartments and spatial scales from local to global, recognizing that perturbations in these compartments, and on these scales, may result in disease. Such thinking remains conceptually and operationally relevant today. Hazardous agents are still frequently addressed in “environmental compartments” such as water, soil, air, and food or by developing and applying environmental standards for the different categories of place where people work, live, learn, and socialize. In parts, the Hippocratic Corpus also presages the ecological perspectives now coloring 21st-century public health thinking. These include an understanding of the potential for human activity to impact negatively on the natural world and the importance of viewing the body within its environment as a composite whole.

Environment and Health in the Modern Public Health Era

Epidemiology is the basic science of public health and is concerned with the distribution of health and disease in populations across time and spaces, together with the determinants of that distribution. Environmental epidemiology is a subspecialty dealing with the effects of environmental exposures on health and disease, again, in populations. Since the early 19th century , the outputs of epidemiology have been key components of a “mixed economy of evidence” that has shaped and reshaped priorities and informed the decisions society takes to protect and improve population health (Petticrew et al., 2004 ; Baker & Nieuwenhuijsen, 2008 ).

In a classic paper from the 1990s, the respected epidemiologists, Mervyn and Ezra Susser, helpfully described different “epidemiological eras” in modern public health, each driven by a dominant paradigm concerning the causes of disease and supported by a particular analytical approach (Susser & Susser, 1996 ). This differentiation offers a useful framework within which to consider changing perspectives on the role of environment in health since the early 1900s.

The Environment in an “Era of Sanitary Statistics”

The Industrial Revolution came first to 19th-century Britain driven by technological innovation, abundant coal supplies, and supportive political/economic conditions. Also influential was a post-Reformation philosophy that extolled the work ethic and self-sufficiency. The events were to resonate throughout the world, bringing great prosperity to some, but others, especially the urban poor, endured poor housing, severe overcrowding, and an absence of wholesome water or sanitation. The growing industrial cities became crucibles of squalor, disease, and severely reduced life expectancy as their citizens suffered the ravages of typhus, tuberculosis, and successive cholera epidemics. Unhealthy working conditions and grossly polluted air also damaged health and compounded the misery of urban life at this time. Such challenges were common to all locations touched by the Industrial Revolution and became the catalyst for a new public health movement across Europe and North America (Rayner & Lang, 2012 ; Rosen, 1993 ).

Using the new science of medical statistics, investigators quickly established the locations with the poorest living conditions to be also those where disease and early death were most prevalent (Chadwick, 1842 ), fueling an ultimately transformational societal response—a “sanitary revolution” (Rosen, 1993 ). Such was the impact of this mix of slum clearance with the introduction of waterborne sewerage and piped water supplies that readers of the British Medical Journal , voting almost two centuries later, still chose it, from a shortlist of 15, as the most important medical milestone since the Journal was first published in 1840 . The 11,300 readers who voted even placed it above the discovery of antibiotics and the development of anaesthesia (Ferriman, 2007 ).

Despite its impact, the “sanitary revolution” was famously initiated and sustained on a biologically flawed paradigm regarding the mechanistic causes of disease. Yet “miasma” (the transmission of disease through noxious vapors), because it served as a metaphor for squalid insanitary conditions, still drove effective intervention (Morris et al., 2006 ; Nash, 2006 ). During this time, however, the emergence of epidemiology as the primary mode of inquiry of public health was also pivotal to success. Endorsing this view, Susser and Susser labeled the first half of the 19th century an “Era of Sanitary Statistics,” citing the frequent use of district-level data to link disease to, for example: filthy and degraded urban environments; overcrowding and poor housing and working conditions; and social factors like infant care (Susser & Susser, 1996 )).

Thus, recognition that the environment (physical and social) mattered for health and notions of a “permeable” human body in close connection with other organisms and the abiotic environment were embedded at the launch of the 19th-century public health movement. It is notable that the perspective of the reformers was quite properly “proximal,” that is, rooted in an acceptance of the importance of the local environment, physical and social. While the term “ecology” would not be coined until 1866 (Haekel, 1866 ) and “social ecology” much later still (Bookchin, 1990 ), the public health pioneers embraced what, in today’s terms, we would understand as a broadly socioecological perspective and discerned no conflict in this with their efforts to understand the immediate causes of disease and intervene in a focused way to prevent it (Nash, 2006 ).

Especially through the efforts to stop cholera, the sanitarians affirmed the pathogenic potential of unsanitary conditions and pioneered the epidemiological approach, initially as “environmental epidemiology” (Baker & Nieuwenhuijsen, 2008 ). Other legacies of the Era of Sanitary Statistics have been less enduring. Despite recent advocacy of a “precautionary principle” (see, e.g., Martuzzi, 2007 ; European Environment Agency, 2013 ), the willingness to act on the basis of strong suspicion of a societal-level environmental threat to population health has diminished, perhaps an inevitable casualty of increasing sophistication and “evidence-based” approaches in medicine and policy (Kessel, 2006 ; Brownson et al., 2009 ). Many of public health’s greatest triumphs have flowed from interventions that would have struggled to satisfy today’s evidential criteria. Also, despite a recent reconnection with such arguments, the inherent logic of seeing and tackling disease in its social and environmental context, so obvious to the pioneers of public health, has periodically been less visible in the rhetoric and actions of their successors.

It is appropriate at this point to emphasize the international character of the 19th-century public health movement. This movement can all too easily be presented as a British phenomenon, with seminal contributions from John Snow ( 1813–1858 ) on the investigation of cholera (Vinten-Johansen et al., 2003 ); William Farr ( 1807–1883 ), also on cholera but more widely on medical statistics (Susser & Adelstein,, 1975 ); Edward Jenner ( 1749–1823 ) on vaccination (Baxby, 2004 ), and Edwin Chadwick ( 1800–1890 ) on the assembly of data relating disease to the filth and squalor that came with poverty (Chadwick, 1842 ). In reality, public health, then as now, advanced through the contribution of many individuals in many nations. For example, the German pioneer of cellular biology, Rudolf Virchow ( 1821–1902 ), and his fellow countryman, the hygienist Johan Peter Frank ( 1745–1821 ), were hugely important (Rather, 1985 ). In France, Louis-Rene Vilerme ( 1782–1863 ), the doctor and pioneer of social epidemiology, highlighted links between poverty and death rates (Rosen, 1993 ) and, in the United States, the meticulous work of Lemuel Shattuck ( 1793–1859 ) bears direct comparison with that of Chadwick (Rayner & Lang, 2012 ).

It might be supposed that the consolidated outputs of European laboratories, especially in the decades between 1830 and 1870 , would have quickly expunged the miasmic paradigm from 19th-century medicine and public health. Yet, the concept of miasma was so inculcated in Western thought that, for many, it retained significant explanatory power. Thus, for much of the 19th century there was not a single settled view on disease contagion (e.g., see Kokayeff, 2013 ). Indeed, as late as 1869 some distinguished Medical Officers of Health in England still attributed diseases such as typhoid to “the insidious miasma of sewer gases” and dismissed germs as “pure nonsense.”

The Environment in an “Era of Infectious Disease Epidemiology”

Increasingly contested, the miasmic theory of disease was effectively supplanted in the 1880s by broad acceptance of the germ theory, ushering a new “Era of Infectious Disease Epidemiology” (Susser & Susser, 1996 ). In 1882 , Louis Pasteur’s techniques for growing organisms made it possible for Robert Koch ( 1843–1910 ) to demonstrate that a mycobacterium was the cause of tuberculosis and, shortly thereafter, to provide scientific proof that cholera was waterborne (Foster, 1970 ; Collard, 1976 ; Brock, 1999 ). In so doing, Koch established, what had been hypothesized by his teacher, Jacob Henle ( 1809–1885 ), some 40 years earlier that disease was microbial. Henle, Snow, Koch, and the biologist Ferdinand Cohn ( 1828–1898 ) are rightly seen as fathers of the science of medical microbiology that for a time would come to dominate thinking in medicine and public health (Rayner & Lang, 2012 ).

Initially at least, the germ theory did little to diminish interest in the environment as a determinant of health. Indeed, by revealing causal linkages between organisms isolated from their environmental carriers and specific diseases, it conferred scientific coherence on the established sanitary model and vindicated efforts to secure hygienic water, food, and housing. As Lesley Nash has observed, the germ theorists were initially content to meld the insights of bacteriology with longstanding environmental beliefs. Notions of a body in constant interaction with, and closely dependent on, its local social and physical context (in today’s terms a socioecological perspective) did not conflict with the narrower perspectives of laboratory science (Nash, 2006 ).

While relative contributions may be debated, over a short timeframe medical microbiology, isolation, immunization, and improving social/environmental conditions combined to sharply reduce the burden of infectious disease for Western society. Yet, by the early years of the 20th century , the capacity to examine disease at the microscopic level, which was the engine of diagnostics and therapeutics, was beginning to act on the very foundations that support public health. Medical science gradually made its focus the pathogenic agents of disease, moving attention away from the environment and eroding socioecological perspectives. Doctors seemed quite content to express health as an absence of disease, and medical science to project its role as the maintenance and reinforcement of “self-contained” human bodies (Nash, 2006 ). Through a growing tendency to see health, disease, and their determinants as attributes of individuals rather than characteristics of communities, wider society seemed almost complicit in an ‘individualization’ of health status. One implication of this blunting of a social/environmental thrust of public health was to divorce health from place, a development that would have profound implications in the very different epidemiological context that emerged following World War II.

The Environment in an Era of Chronic Disease Epidemiology

The dramatic reduction in infectious disease was certainly one reason why the epidemiological climate in Western society changed substantially in the mid- 20th century . But just as important was the emergence of a quite disparate set of pathologies believed to be of noncommunicable etiology. Coronary heart disease, cancers, and peptic ulcers, which became the targets in a new “Era of Chronic Disease Epidemiology” (Susser & Susser, 1996 ), were thought rather unlikely to have origins in exposure to what was an increasingly regulated and ostensibly improving physical environment. While the outputs of much postwar epidemiology seemed to endorse this view, it is useful, with hindsight, to recognize the influence of what might be seen as “fashions” in epidemiological inquiry. These fashions would influence how medical science and the wider society would come to regard diseases and their causes for a generation.

The response of the public health community to the new and alarming “noncommunicable” threats was, logically, to deploy descriptive epidemiology to reveal those most likely to be affected. Perhaps surprisingly, those who traditionally were most vulnerable to disease (the young, the old, the immunocompromised, etc.) did not appear to be at increased risk. Rather, the new epidemics disproportionately affected men in their middle years (Nabel & Braunwald, 2012 ). Supported by enhanced computing power and methodological advance (Susser & Susser, 1996 ), researchers began to converge on specific risk factors that correlated with diseases of greatest concern. Many, it seemed, were aspects of individual lifestyle and behaviors, ostensibly freely chosen. A particular attraction for the proponents of what was to become known as “risk factor epidemiology” was its capacity to represent, mathematically, the “relative risk” of contracting a disease between people exposed to a putative risk and those who were not. Some have dubbed this epidemiological approach to noncommunicable or chronic disease “black box epidemiology” because it can relate exposure to outcomes “without any necessary obligation to interpolate either intervening factors or even pathogenesis” (Susser & Susser, 1996 ). Another unfortunate characteristic of this approach to epidemiology is that, despite its laudable intent to understand and address disease in populations , its focus is on individuals within those populations. As a result, it fails to elucidate the societal forces whose influence and interplay shape the health and health-relevant choices of those individuals. When viewed through a policy lens, this mitigates in favor of simplistic solutions that target individuals divorced from context and that lack the traction to produce meaningful change.

In summary, the desire to create a mathematical measure of relative risk for a specific factor is understandable. However, risk factor epidemiology uses an approach that is much more flexible than material reality. In the real world, many different factors coexist and interact to create and destroy health. This is not, however, to deny risk factor epidemiology’s capacity, particularly in synergy with laboratory-based research, to break new ground. Notably, these methodologically driven approaches were key to elucidating links between smoking and lung cancer, heart disease and serum cholesterol, and between levels of prenatal folic acid intake and neural tube defects (Susser & Susser, 1996 ; Kessel, 2006 ; Perry, 1997 ).

The same basic criticism is voiced where similar “black box” epidemiological approaches are used to explore the contribution of a specific environmental agent, as in the case of much recent air pollution epidemiology (see below) (Kessel, 2006 ). Any specific pollutant under epidemiological investigation inevitably coexists with other pollutants and in a specific exposure context (e.g., prevailing climatic conditions). These coexisting factors may be critical in determining the health outcomes from exposure to the pollutant under investigation. Because the outputs of black box epidemiology are abstractions, the relative risk calculation represents an abstraction that can be limited in its capacity to inform policy.

The decades following World War II were a time of declining influence for public health and population perspectives, largely for reasons we have outlined. Yet, in its rhetoric and activities, the discipline of public health seemed at times almost complicit. Even its defining science of epidemiology seemed for a time more concerned to reinforce the insights of clinical medicine than to play the exploratory role on which its reputation had been founded (Susser & Susser, 1996 ). On the face of it, academic public health and the wider public health discipline had little to say about environment, no longer presenting it as an active component in the then current health challenges for Western society. As Nash has observed, physical environments were “recast as homogenous spaces which were traversed by pathogenic agents.” Nevertheless, divorced from the prevailing rhetoric, in many locations there was a parallel narrative depicting a workforce that continued to work at a local level, within established legal and administrative frameworks, to protect and maintain health-relevant environmental quality standards. However, the environmental health function was often set in the narrow, hazard-focused, and compartmentalized terms framed for it by laboratory science. The task was largely confined to identifying, monitoring, and controlling a limited set of toxic or infectious threats in their environmental carriers. Only when pathogenic organisms or toxic agents demonstrably escaped their industrial, agricultural, or marine confines to damage health and reinforce the porosity of the human body did environment briefly assume a higher profile.

Against this backdrop, it was not necessarily predictable or inevitable that environment would regain a central place in public health. Yet, by the end of the 20th century , a much richer understanding of the environmental contribution to human health and well-being had indeed emerged. This change cannot be attributed to a single factor in isolation. Some point to the key influence of Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring in 1962 (Carson, 1962 ), which expressed grave concern for the ecosystem effects of DDT, the linkage to potential human health effects, and the implications of a growing disconnect between humankind and nature. We do not deny the status of Carson’s work as a seminal text of a modern “environmentalism” that would rapidly gather pace and influence (Nash, 2006 ). However, we submit that it is only now, in the 21st century , when the reality of unprecedented anthropogenic damage to global processes and systems and its health implications is self-evident, that the health sector has fully made common cause with the environmentalist movement (e.g., see Butler et al., 2005 ; Butler & Harley, 2010 ) (We discuss this development later in this article under Ecological Public Health.

However, for reasons that are distinct from a mounting concern over anthropogenic threats to global environmental systems and processes, we argue that the closing decades of the 20th century and the early years of this century did see a rekindling of public health and societal interest in the local or proximal environment. This interest has continued into the 21st century . Developing interest in well-being as a concept, the belief that it is important and that it might be enhanced through the organized efforts of society, continues to engage the attention of academics and policymakers. Although well-being demonstrably impacts health and vice versa, well-being is about much more than health. Rather, it is a measure of what matters to people in every sphere of their lives. Despite its importance, well-being has proved a challenging target for policy. Some of its components are beyond the reach of policy. However, others, including aspects of the built and natural environment and people’s connection to it, are amenable to manipulation. Accordingly, research has been especially concerned to identify the qualities of their environment that are important for different people’s well-being, quality of life, and health at various life stages (Royal College of Physicians, 2016 ). Also, on a practical level, integrating the various well-being frameworks and indices that continue to emerge is an ongoing challenge. However, it is sufficient at this point simply to recognize that elevated concern for well-being and its connection to environment can only broaden and deepen concern for the environment in public health. It will continue to drive renewed interest in matters such as landscape, natural beauty and scenery; crime free, clean places; green, blue, and natural environments; and so on.

Reconnecting Health with Place

Five issues/developments merit particular mention for their role in reestablishing the local environment as a mainstream consideration in health in the developed world in the late 20th century . While recognizing that there is an interrelationship among some of the factors discussed, for simplicity, we discuss them separately here.

Air Pollution

In citing air pollution as a key factor in a late- 20th-century resurgence of interest in the environment, we recognize its much longer history as a contributor to ill health (Evelyn, 1661 ; Lloyd, 1983 ). We acknowledge, too, that accounts of the modern public health era since its inception have been suffused with references to air pollution events, their health implications, and the political and professional campaigns that have sought to mitigate risk (Kessel, 2006 ). However, despite a compelling case for action, the need for urgent intervention was only fully accepted after a number of high-profile air pollution episodes in the 20th century . In 1930 , a severe smog incident in Belgium’s Meuse Valley resulted in the death of sixty people. Prophetically, investigators were quick to highlight the potential for many more deaths, were such an incident to be repeated in a more highly populated area (Bell & Samet, 2005 ). In 1948 , a further twenty people were to die and many more suffer injury after an industrial pollution incident in Donora, Pennsylvania (Hamil, 2008 ), but the tipping point came four years later, with the London Smog of 1952 .

Between December 5 and December 9, a dense fog descended on London where it mixed with air, polluted by domestic and industrial emissions. The resulting thick smog was familiar to many urban dwellers, but in this case, a combination of cold weather and stagnant atmospheric conditions caused sulfur dioxide and smoke concentrations to reach and maintain extremely high levels for a sustained period. The smog had a paralyzing effect on the city’s transport system, and many other aspects of daily life were severely disrupted. But the most dramatic effects were on health. Death rates were to reach three times the normal level for the time of year, and demand for hospital beds far exceeded supply (Baker & Nieuwenhuijsen, 2008 ). While the smog dissipated after a few days, deaths rates remained high for several months thereafter. Subsequent analysis has revealed that, rather than the 3,000–4,000 deaths linked to the episode in at the time, a figure of 10,000–12,000 deaths is more probable (Bell et al., 2004 ).

The London smog is historically important, obviously because of the distressing toll in morbidity and mortality and because it catalyzed long-overdue legislative intervention in the UK in the form of the Clean Air Act of 1956 and the U.S. Clean Air Act 1963 . Critically, however, it reminded the public and politicians of the reality that, given the right conditions, population-level environmental exposures were still entirely capable of producing significant morbidity and mortality.

In combination with other factors, the clean air legislation that emerged in the wake of the smog reduced domestic and industrial fossil fuel emissions, and helped to secure significant reductions in background concentrations of smoke and sulfur dioxide (Royal College of Physicians, 2016 ). However, by the late 1980s, a new, more insidious, urban air pollution threat had begun to emerge. This pollution had its origins not in fixed-point emissions, but in the rapidly increasing numbers of motor vehicles and other fossil fuel-driven forms of transport in towns and cities. The pollutants of concern here, which lacked the visibility of the earlier sulfurous smogs, were fine particles, oxides of nitrogen, and ozone. So-called time-series analyses, using data on the temporal variation in environmental exposure and in health, aggregated over the same time period, were now applied to explore the issue of urban air pollution and health (e.g., see Pope et al., 1995 ; Dockery & Pope, 1996 ; Kessel, 2006 ). The studies revealed the cardiopulmonary effects of long-term exposure to much lower levels of ambient air pollution and, later, following further investigation, the absence of a threshold level for causing health effects. Recent outputs of ‘life-course’ epidemiology have also shown that air pollution affects health, not only through the exacerbation of symptoms in the elderly, but through various processes that have impacts from the womb, through childhood to adolescence, early adulthood, and on into middle and older age (Royal College of Physicians, 2016 ). Also, appreciation that air pollutants can be resident in the air for days or even weeks makes air pollution not simply a local problem, but one that demands source control at city, regional, and international levels. In the UK, for example, the equivalent of around 40,000 deaths every year can be attributed to fine particulates and NO 2 exposure from outdoor air (Royal College of Physicians, 2016 ).

Air pollution is probably the most thoroughly investigated of all environmental threats to health and well-being. Revelations about the true extent of its impact on health keep the issue in the headlines and emphasize the centrality of the physical environment within the public health project. Despite being a focus for academic interest and research fundings, the problem of urban air pollution is a very long way from resolution and is one factor that demands a fundamental reappraisal of how, as a species, we live, consume, and travel. (We discuss a wider, global dimension of the air pollution challenge later in this article.)

Everything Matters: The Environment as an Ingredient in Social Complexity

Another important and often overlooked reason for the late- 20th-century rekindling of interest in the environment and human health can be traced to developments within the wider discipline of public health. Ironically, the thinking behind what, by the 1990s, was being termed the “new public health” had its origins in much older ideas that gave prominence to the social structures in which health is created and destroyed (Baum, 1998 ; Awefeso, 2004 ). If we accept that health, disease, and social patterning in these matters are products of a complex interaction of influences at the level of society with the characteristics of individuals, then such complexity ought to be reflected in the policies and partnerships formed to address them. A growing number of analyses, beginning in the 1970s, would turn a spotlight on this complexity and fundamentally challenge the dominance of the biomedical/health care model and its capacity to solve the problems that beset public. These problems included the intractable burden of noncommunicable disease; growing levels of obesity; diminished psychological well-being; and, not least, stubborn and widening inequalities in the health and well-being of different social groups. Concern also mounted over containing rising, and potentially bankrupting, health care costs.

“A New Perspective on the Health of Canadians,” more commonly referred to as the Lalonde Report, after Canada’s then health minister Marc Lalonde, was published in 1974 (Lalonde, 1974 ). Despite its national focus, the report assumed wider relevance because of its analysis of one of public health’s greatest generic challenges, that of navigating among the many complex and interacting determinants of health to identify effective policies and actions. Implicitly offering a socioecological perspective, the Lalonde Report spoke of a “Health Field,” which included all matters that affect health and comprised four core elements: human biology, environment, lifestyle, and health care organization. Any issue, it was proposed, could be traced to one, or a combination, of these elements, allowing the creation of a “map of the health territory” for any problem (Lalonde, 1974 ). In this way, the contribution and interaction of the elements could be assessed. The analysis affirmed the health relevance of a complex environment comprising interacting physical and social dimensions in interaction with the human body. Lalonde’s message was logical and important, yet more than just an echo of an earlier, more inclusive, understanding of the determinants of health and disease. It recast these largely abandoned perspectives for a more scientific and sophisticated era. The proposal that thousands of “pieces” relevant to health and its determinants could be organized in “an orderly pattern” was alluring and progressive, as was the notion that the exercise alone would allow all contributors to more fully appreciate their roles and influence (Morris et al., 2006 ). In the ensuing years, Lalonde’s proposals for understanding and addressing complexity in the determinants of health have been refined and given greater policy relevance by others. In part, this has been through the development of conceptual models of the socioecological determinants of health. These models have been promoted as tools for presenting evidence that can make their implications more apparent (Evans & Stoddart, 1990 ; Dahlgren & Whitehead, 1991 ). In most of these representations, the local environment is accepted as a key driver of health and well-being (Morris et al., 2006 ).

Despite its inherent logic, the socioecological perspectives that emerged in the closing decades of the 20th century created scientific and policy challenges for all constituencies concerned with public health. There were obvious generic challenges, for example, around which of the models (each, necessarily, a gross simplification of a complex reality) might point to solutions (Morris et al., 2006 ; Evans & Stoddart, 1990 ; Reis et al., 2015 ); around the nature of evidence and its interpretation (Petticrew et al., 2004 ; Tannahill, 2008 ); and how, in practice, to traverse professional and policy silos to produce the interdisciplinary approaches that are inevitably required. In this connection, the task of motivating, supporting, and delivering effective intersectoral working, an abiding challenge for public health policy and practice, assumed a much higher profile in the late 20th century with the emergence of the socioecological model of health.

We emphasize that the continuing failure to adequately confront this challenge has the gravest implications for global public health. As Prüss-Üstün et al. recently observed, “Tackling environmental risks requires intersectoral collaboration. After nearly 50 years of actively promoting this concept, whether referred to as intersectoral action, breaking down silos or the nexus approach, it remains elusive as ever. The statement ‘intersectoral collaboration: loved by all, funded by no-one’ points to obstacles, mainly vested interests, that have burdened this approach ever since it was included as part of the WHO/UNICEF Alma Ata Declaration on Primary Health Care in 1978 . Environmental health, quintessentially intersectoral, has suffered most from this lack of progress” (Prüss-Üstün et al., 2016a ).

With specific reference to the role of the local environment, the recognition of socioecological complexity as the determinant of health meant that strict adherence to narrow hazard-focused and compartmentalized approaches became intellectually unsustainable. Yet, acceptance of the dynamic interaction of environment with other determinants of health demands a richer understanding of the environmental contribution than can be provided by toxicology or microbiology in isolation.

The Role of the Environment in Health Inequalities

The fact that the poorest, most degraded urban neighborhoods were those most blighted by disease and reduced life expectancy was clear even to the public health pioneers of the 19th century . Indeed, throughout much of the modern public health era, an acceptance of the importance of the environment for health and well-being has been accompanied by a recognition of the interplay between sociodemographic, economic, and physical factors in creating and sustaining health inequalities.

The term “health inequalities” refers to general differences in health, however caused. Where the differences in health are unfair, unjust, and avoidable, as they often are when linked to social variables, they should more properly be termed “health inequities.” However, in the extensive literature on the topic and in common usage, inequities are termed inequalities, and we adopt this convention here. Despite their importance, the emphasis on tackling health inequalities has varied considerably over time and according to place.

In 2008 , the final report of the Commission on the Social Determinants of Health (CSDH, 2008 ) elevated the global profile of health inequalities and emphasized the interplay of many societal-level factors in their creation in the 21st century . The significant achievements in public health across the world over nearly two centuries have not been shared equally between countries or by all social groups within countries. An important component has been the health-relevant differences in the physical context for people’s lives—the quality of the physical environment. Sometimes expressed in terms of environmental justice , or elsewhere as environmental health inequalities, attention to this area is key to tackling health inequalities across the world (CSDH, 2008 ; Morris & Braubach, 2012 ).

Estimates of the impact of environmental quality on health and well-being vary widely, depending on the definition of environment used. However, that impact is undeniable. Over a billion people in developing countries, for example, have inadequate access to water, and 2.6 billion lack basic sanitation . The World Health Organization estimates that environmental factors were responsible for 12.6 million deaths worldwide in 2012 , 23 percent of all deaths, and 22 percent of the total burden of disease. Addressing environmental risks could prevent 26 percent of all deaths of children under the age of 5 (Prüss-Üstün et al., 2016b ).

In addition, there is clear evidence that a “good” environment empowers health through access to environmental assets such as green spaces, access to a healthy diet, and safe environments in which to walk, cycle, play, and socialize. However, as these data suggest, there is also a fundamental equity dimension to the distribution of both the cause and distribution of environmental stressors, the susceptibility to exposure, and the adverse effects of those exposures. Deprived communities almost invariably live in poorer quality environments, with higher levels of indoor and outdoor air pollution, contaminated land, polluting industrial processes, overcrowded and poor quality housing, and lower levels of environmental assets (Prüss-Üstün et al., 2016a ; 2016b ; Royal College of Physicians, 2016 ; The Marmot Review Team, 2010 ). Populations in developed countries, including the former communist states of eastern Europe living in areas of high air pollution, are disproportionately deprived, for example (Kriger et al, 2014 ; Bell & Ebisu, 2012 ; Branis & Linhartova, 2012 ; Goodman et al., 2011 ). Poor indoor air quality is associated with unfit or inadequate housing standards, conditions that overwhelmingly affect the deprived (The Marmot Review Team, 2010 ). There is evidence that deprived communities are not only more exposed to environmental hazards but are also more susceptible to the effects of those exposures (Goodman et al., 2011 ; Carder et al., 2008 ; Richardson et al., 2011 ; 2013 ; Vinikoor-Imler et al., 2012 ). There are also concerns that stress, at both the individual and community level, can weaken the body’s defenses against external insult and influence the internal dose of toxicants (Gee & Payne-Sturges, 2004 ).

This effect is also seen in social and physical environments. An adequate and nutritious diet is essential to a healthy, productive, and fulfilling life, and it is a fundamental right predicated by a range of factors including personal knowledge, choice, convenience, availability, quality, cost, and social norms. The evidence is clear that deprivation compounds all these factors, with poorer people buying more unhealthy foods with fewer healthy components while being exposed to circumstances that make such “choices” inevitable (Rudge et al., 2013 ). The proportion of adults considered overweight or obese in 2008 in the 19 EU member states for which data were available ranged between 37 and 57 percent for women and between 51 and 69 percent for men ( EUROSTAT ). English children from deprived areas are almost twice as likely to be obese than those in affluent areas, and adult obesity is also associated with deprivation, particularly in women (Public Health England, 2016 ; National Obesity Observatory, 2013 ).

The poor in developed countries are adept at sourcing cheap calories and are exposed to a large numbers of local outlets selling cheap, calorie-dense takeaway food (Saunders et al., 2015 ). These meals are often super-sized and contain high levels of fats, sugar, and salt. At the same time, many of these areas provide limited access to healthy food options, creating a highly compromised public health environment (Saunders et al., 2015 ).

In addition, environmental stressors seem to have a cumulative impact, exacerbating this inequality. It is evident that poorer people have multiple health, social, and environmental stressors. It is entirely plausible that these stressors modify the effect of exposure to pollutants, as is reflected in the increased vulnerability of obese people to the effects of exposure to air pollutants, including increased risk of diseases such as cardiovascular events and respiratory symptoms (WHO, 2013 ; Jung et al., 2014 ). Long-term exposure to airborne pollutants has also been reported to increase the risk of obesity, and being overweight or obese is associated with an increased susceptibility to indoor air pollution in urban children with asthma (Lu et al., 2013 ).

The responsibility for, and relative benefits and costs of, environmental contamination are also important components of inequality. Environmental contamination may be tolerated by communities living in the vicinity of dirty industrial processes if they perceive a benefit in terms of local employment, although that trade-off has largely broken down in developed countries as those industries have declined in the 20th and 21st centuries. On a wider scale, the environmental consequences of contemporary affluent nations’ fuel economies are borne by those populations least able to bear them and with little or no responsibility for their causation (Patz et al., 2005 ). UNICEF has projected that 75–250 million Africans will be exposed to increased water stress due to climate change by 2020 (UNICEF, 2008 ), a phenomenon overwhelmingly caused by the First World. This is a gross injustice. These are also the same people with limited powers to prevent the dumping of rich countries’ waste in their communities. One appalling example is that of the “disposal” of 500 tons of toxic waste in and around Abidjan, the capital of Cote D’Ivoire, in 2006 . This poisonous cocktail of waste oil and contaminants was the result of the trading in, and processing of, hydrocarbon fuels by multinational commodity and shipping companies, criminal levels of cost cutting, and local political corruption, which led to 17 deaths and over 30,000 injuries in one of the poorest communities in the world (Bohand et al., 2007 ) There are many other examples, including the export, often illegally, of hundreds of thousands of tons of e-waste from Western countries to Africa, China, and Asia for recycling or disposal—transferring the costs and dangerous consequences of exposure to workers, including children, and local communities in these countries that do not have the technical or regulatory systems to deal safely with these toxic materials (ILO, 2012 ). Inuit mothers in northern Canada have elevated levels of chemicals such as PCBs—generated many hundreds, if not thousands, of miles away—in their breast milk (Johansen, 2002 ).

The redistribution of the environmental injustices historically endured by the poor also perversely appears to be affecting more affluent communities in the West. The huge expansion of “fracking” in North America, for example, may be leading to an export of risks from traditional “national sacrifice zones” to areas with no previous experience of such industry, creating “profound social, cultural, and economic shocks for middle class communities losing control over their environments” (Lave & Lutz, 2014 ). Despite their relative affluence, this would nonetheless be an injustice given the constraints on local democratic input and highly questionable direct economic benefits to those communities (Kinnaman, 2011 ; Lave & Lutz, 2014 ; Sovacool, 2014 ).

During a period when environmental catalysts for distress migrations are becoming more frequent (Thomas-Hope, 2011 ), there is a moral as well as a professional duty for the Environmental Health community to tackle these inequalities, which otherwise are likely to both widen and deepen.

The Health-Promoting Environment: Green, Blue, and Natural Spaces

While human communities have long valued access to natural resources such as green spaces, the industrialization of the 19th and early 20th centuries saw millions of people deprived of this access. This era did witness some far-sighted philanthropic gifting of areas of open recreational space for the working classes driven by a moral rather than evidence-based imperative. Though welcome, the distribution of, and access to, such resources was limited, inconsistent, unplanned, and vulnerable to the insecurities of voluntary funding. Subsequent local municipal development of parks and other open spaces increased access, and a greater understanding of the benefits of such access blossomed during the late 20th century as research demonstrated and quantified the public health dividends. Access to good-quality green spaces not only makes the places in which we live, work, and play more attractive, but also has a demonstrable effect on improving health and well-being. Green space is linked to lower levels of several diseases and conditions, including lower rates of mortality (Villeneuve et al., 2012 ), increased longevity in older people (Faculty of Public Health, 2011 ), improved mental health (Faculty of Public Health, 2011 ), better outcomes in disease treatment, and reduced medication (Faculty of Public Health, 2011 ), and it also helps reduce health inequalities (Mitchell & Popham, 2008 ; CABE, 2010 ). Plausible mechanisms for these benefits include the provision of a venue for physical activity, promotion of social contact, and the direct impacts of green spaces on psychological and physical health. Natural spaces also promote greater community cohesion and reduce social isolation, providing a platform for community activities, social interaction, physical activity, and recreation (Public Health England, 2014 ). Research from the United States has identified powerful associations between green space and major reductions in aggressive behavior, domestic abuse, and other crime in deprived urban areas (Kuo et al., 2001a , 2001b ).

And yet, there remain great inequalities in the distribution, use, and quality of this empowering resource. People living in the most deprived areas are less likely to live in the greenest areas and therefore have less opportunity to gain the health benefits of green space compared with people living in the least deprived areas (Public Health England, 2014 ). Children living in poor areas, for example, are nine times less likely than those living in affluent areas to have access to green space and places to play (National Children’s Bureau, 2013 ). It is entirely plausible that that this contributes to the sobering reality that children from deprived communities are up to three times as likely to be obese than those children growing up in affluent areas (National Children’s Bureau, 2013 ).

Accessibility, however, is not the same as availability or utility, nor is it simply a function of proximity. It is strongly impacted by the cost of access, whether it is actually physically available, opening times, and the ease of being able to get to it, for example, walking and good public transport. Deprived communities in particular appreciate the value of such spaces, but they tend to underuse them due to concerns about the safety and quality of the spaces (CABE, 2010 ). Experience has shown that quality of the green space is just as important, if not more so, than its size. Post-World War II urban developments in many countries have included large grassy areas, and substantially derelict former industrial sites have often been entirely grassed over. The sterility and sheer size of these sites, the cost of maintenance, and the lack of facilities have often led to misuse and subsequent abandonment by both communities and local municipalities.

The provision, maintenance, and promotion of good-quality and safe , publicly available spaces is not a subsidy; it is an investment delivering economic, health, and regeneration benefits . Research on Philadelphia estimated that maintaining city parks could achieve huge annual savings in health care costs, stormwater management, air pollution mitigation, and social cohesion benefits (The Trust for Public Land, 2008 ). The improved social cohesion associated with natural spaces also has economic benefits. A 2009 Scottish study estimated a £7.36 dividend for every £1 invested in conservation volunteering projects (Greenspace Scotland, 2009 ). It is clear from the evidence that increasing the use of good-quality green space for all social groups is likely to improve health outcomes and reduce health inequalities.

The Reemergence of the Infectious Threat

Among the developments that, for Western societies, consigned environment to the periphery of medical and public health interest in the post–World War II era, we highlighted the epidemiological transition in the mid- 20th century . Indeed, for a period in the 1960s and 1970s it seemed that infectious disease in the developed world had effectively been conquered (Fauci, 2001 ). It was even tempting to suggest that the developing world might eventually follow suit. Yet, within a relatively few years, the twin threats of emerging infectious disease and antibiotic resistance would shatter the earlier confidence and reestablish infection as a live threat to individuals, communities, and populations and one that presented, increasingly, on a global scale.

The term “emerging infectious disease” (EID) denotes an infectious disease, newly recognized as occurring in humans; one that has been previously recognized but is appearing for the first time in a new population or a different geographic area; one that now affects many more people; and/or one that is displaying new attributes, for example, in terms of its resistance or virulence ( adapted from The US Government & Global Emerging Infectious Disease Preparedness and Response ). Although the return of infection was not necessarily anticipated by a confident global community, many predisposing factors were clearly present. Changes in land use, growth and movement of populations, contacts between people and animals, international trade and travel, and, often, an absence of a public health infrastructure all played a part. Where such influences coincided, as in sub-Saharan Africa or parts of Asia, hotspots were created that were conducive to the emergence of infectious disease. Several hundred new infectious diseases appeared across the globe in the period between 1940 and 2004 , with the greatest number emerging in the 1980s (Jones et al., 2008 ). The 1980s was also the decade that notoriously witnessed the late 20th century ’s most sentinel infection event, the first reported cases of Human Immunodeficiency Virus/Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (HIV/AIDS). By 2014 , AIDS alone would result in approximately 78 million cases worldwide . Although HIV/AIDS engendered particular alarm, the list of late- 20th-century EIDs of medical and public health significance is extensive. Variant Creutzfeldt-Jacob disease (vCJD), H5N1 Influenza and Ebola Virus Disease, the Northern Hemisphere debut of the mosquito-borne zoonotic viral disease, and West Nile Fever in New York City in 1999 were all public health and media events. The process continues unabated in the 21st century with the arrival of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS), H1N1 Influenza (“swine flu”), H7N9 Influenza (“bird flu”), and, despite having surfaced some 40 years earlier, Ebola revealed its potential as a global threat with the West African Outbreak of 2014–2015 . More recently still, the distressing incidence of microcephaly in South America putatively linked to the Zika virus simply emphasizes the abiding challenge posed by infection for public health and global economics (European Centre for Disease Control, 2016 ).

Antibiotic resistance has been a developing public health horror story over, perhaps, 50 years. The therapeutic use of antimicrobials and especially antibiotics was a key factor in slashing the burden of illness from infection in Western countries in the latter half of the 20th century . Yet all classes of organisms—fungi, protozoa, viruses, and bacteria—can develop antimicrobial resistance. Through their genetic processes, bacteria have derived multiple resistance mechanisms to antibiotics used in medicine and agriculture. The threat renders humankind vulnerable to a host of infections, notably in hospital settings where treatment options for many infections are now severely limited. As a consequence, even at the dawn of the 21st century , drug resistance was already being perceived as an increasing threat to global public health, involving all major microbial pathogens and antimicrobial drugs (Levy & Marshall, 2004 )

The challenges of EIDs and antimicrobial resistance are, unquestionably, game changers for medicine and public health in the 21st century . Importantly, they are among the factors that have revealed the true limitations of the biomedical model of health and disease in the 20th century and rekindled interest in the socioeconomic and environmental determinants of disease. HIV/AIDS merits special mention in this regard. Although it is believed to have origins in nonhuman primates in West Africa, it is not an environmental disease in the sense that there is a specific environmental reservoir. Medical sciences and epidemiology have shown transmission of the virus via unprotected sex, contaminated blood transfusions, hypodermic needles, and mother to child transmission during pregnancy, delivery, and breastfeeding. HIV (the infection) and AIDS (the disease) have shown the capacity to extend beyond the initially identified high-risk groups, potentially placing whole populations at risk. In some areas of sub-Saharan Africa where the infection is widespread, it impacts negatively on almost every aspect of society and the economy.

Over 30 years after it first emerged and despite concerted efforts, there is still no cure. In addition to banishing complacency, the infection and the disease call for a much wider perspective than that which took root in the postwar era of scientific positivism and medical paternalism. The failure to manage the threat stems in part from an incapacity to understand where to intervene to change behaviors and to see the disease in its social and environmental context.

Ecological Public Health

Earlier in this article, we identified five issues that helped reestablish awareness of the environment as a key component in the production of human health and well-being in the late 20th century . These issues, and our understanding of them, continue to evolve to challenge the public health community and wider society in the 21st century . In the most general terms, progress seems most likely where issues and challenges are framed with reference to a much wider range of pertinent factors by developing new approaches to evidence and its synthesis; by aligning institutional, physical, and educational infrastructures to the task; and by building governance structures in which all players are accountable and yet are encouraged to unite in common cause.

However, society must now embrace an additional and potentially more devastating threat to health and well-being. Human activity, including economic activity, is now directly and indirectly driving changes to the ecosystems and planetary processes on which we rely for health, well-being, and existence. For too long, human beings have lived, moved, consumed, and pursued health and well-being as if humankind is distinct and separate from nature rather than integral to it. The consequences of this disconnect for the natural world were graphically expressed by Rachel Carson in the 1960s and many others in the ensuing years (e.g., see Rockström et al., 2009 ; Steffen et al., 2015 ). However, developments in science and technology now reveal the true extent of the crisis, its accelerating nature, and its consequences both now and in the medium and longer term.

The term “ecological public health” is increasingly being used to encapsulate a need to build health and well-being, henceforth, on ecological principles. Rayner and Lang ( 2012 ) observe that, despite appearing difficult and complex, Ecological public health “is now the 21st century ’s unavoidable task.” Thus, the already complex challenge of navigating human social complexity to deliver health, well-being, and greater equity, which has defined public health in Western society for several decades, is made more challenging still. The relationship of the environment and human health and well-being must be understood and addressed on vastly extended temporal and spatial scales.

The notion that the planet is a finite resource on which human activity can place intolerable pressure and that the consequences of doing so are potentially catastrophic has been around for some time (e.g., see Carson, 1962 ; Meadows et al., 1972 ). A contemporary evolution of this thinking is expressed by Rockstrom and colleagues. Their sentinel paper, first published in 2009 (Rockström et al., 2009 ) and updated in 2015 (Steffen et al., 2015 ), lists the large earth system processes that are urgently in need of stewardship if humanity is to remain safe into the future. Where applicable, it proposes thresholds beyond which nonlinear, abrupt, and potentially catastrophic changes in these systems might be expected. This thinking is used as a basis for defining a “safe operating space for humanity.” The authors propose nine “planetary boundaries.” Three of these—climate change, ocean acidification, and stratospheric ozone depletion—are major planetary systems where evidence exists of large-scale thresholds in the history of the planet history of the planet. Also included are systems of a rather different sort. These are the slow variables that buffer and regulate planetary resilience. These slow variables comprise interference with the nitrogen and phosphorus cycles; land-use change; rate of biodiversity loss; and freshwater use. Two parameters, air pollution and chemical pollution, are especially difficult to quantify, meaning that thresholds cannot yet be defined. It is emphasized that, while for understandable reasons, the nine systems are often discussed independently, they are interrelated in ways meaning that changes in one system have profound implications for the others. Rockstrom and colleagues observe that in the preindustrial era, all nine parameters were within the safe operating boundaries, and yet by the 1950s, change was underway, most evidently in the nitrogen cycle. By 2009 , according to their analysis, three planetary boundaries had been transgressed: climate change; rate of biodiversity loss; and the nitrogen cycle.

An implicit challenge in limiting global ecosystem damage and its multiple implications is how to achieve recognition among the public and policymakers that the choices they make either directly or indirectly cause ecosystem damage and related environmental change (Morris et al., 2015 ). Climate change is simply the most striking example, but comparable challenges over communication exist in relation to other planetary process and systems. The fundamental rethink of society, the economy, and the environment, which is necessary if health and well-being are to be built on ecological principles, will happen only if the true implications for health and well-being of a “business as usual” approach are understood, communicated, and challenged. For any population, the environmental changes that may ultimately have profound implications may take place in countries and regions well beyond their borders or may not occur for some time, conferring a temporal and/or spatial remoteness that diminishes the sense of urgency. Appreciating the importance of these “distal” pathways of ecosystem damage to human health and well-being demands a greater understanding of ecosystem services (the benefits human beings get from the natural environment) and of why they matter. It also demands a much fuller appreciation of the global connectivity of social, economic, and ecological systems (Morris et al., 2015 ; Adger et al., 2009 ).

When initiating our discussion of the role of environment in health, we observed that the modern public health era was built on an environmental conceptualization of public health. It is now inconceivable that health, well-being, health care, and equity in any of these domains can be delivered without rediscovering an environmental conceptualization of public health for the 21st century .

For Western society, ecological public health is likely to require a rethink of society, the economy, and our stewardship of the natural environment (Rayner & Lang, 2012 ). At the very least, it will demand pursuit, through policy and action, of outcomes that recognize a ‘quadruple bottom line’ measured in health and well-being, environmental quality, equity, and sustainability. The extent to which we embrace ecological principles will be evidenced in policies that address how we live (for example, the energy efficiency of our homes), how we move (particularly our reluctance to substitute travel in fossil-fueled cars with more active forms of travel); how we consume (notably how we source and produce food) and, of course how we obtain and conserve energy.

Taking Stock

Despite being necessarily selective, this article has sought to illustrate how perspectives on the role of the environment in human health and well-being have evolved over the course of the modern public health era. Perspectives can be seen to shift owing to changes in the nature of environmental hazards and risks that are themselves products of the evolution of how societies live, move around, consume, source their energy, and so on. Our understanding of the health relevance of the built and natural environments is also shaped by advances in scientific understanding and technology and a much wider economic, social, cultural, and even political context. In structuring our account, we have adopted a loose framework based on the “epidemiological eras,” elegantly articulated by two of the 20th century ’s leading epidemiologists (Susser & Susser, 1996 ). These eras are differentiated according to the dominant paradigm of the time concerning the causes of disease, each underpinned by analytical approaches to understand and prioritize risk.

The importance accorded to the environment as a mainstream public health issue arguably reached its lowest point in the decades following World War II when the tendency to regard health and disease as characteristics of individuals, rather than communities or populations, gained prominence. This approach diverted attention from social and environmental factors, divorcing health from place. Notions that humans are self-contained and impervious to context have now been largely swept away, not least because denial of a socioecological perspective hugely undermined attempts to address the most serious contemporary health challenges. Also instrumental in challenging the notion of the self-contained body has been an environmentalist movement with a particular interest in pesticide and other chemical contamination of the biosphere. The toxic effects of chemical contamination reinforce the reality of a body that is permeable and invariably in a state of intimate exchange with its surroundings. As Nash ( 2006 ) has observed, “ the singular and self-contained body of the early 20th century came, by the end of that century to seem distressingly porous and vulnerable to the modern landscape” (p. 13). We would simply add that humans exhibit comparable porosity and vulnerability to the social and economic context in which they exist.

We recognize that our account contains only limited reference to the regulatory context that has been so central to controlling the environment for public health. We consider it appropriate to sound a warning in this regard. The processes through which environment is monitored and regulated to protect human health and well-being are sometimes taken for granted. Yet, since the 1980s, pressures have mounted in most Western nations to ‘deregulate’ markets to maximize profit. These pressures have led to environmental and public health regulation being increasingly perceived by governments and markets as “red tape” and a barrier to economic enterprise. Pressure to loosen or even abandon aspects of environmental regulation has weakened formal controls, leaving society vulnerable to corporate excess and irresponsibility, with often serious impacts on public health (Oldenkamp et al., 2016 ). This is not to argue that regulation should be static. Rather, it should adapt to changing technological, social, and economic circumstances and should be appropriately funded whether it relates to the quality of the air we breathe, the water we drink, the buildings we live, learn, and work in, or the nutritional aspects of the food we eat. Neither do we deny the potential to exploit citizen science and the power of new technology to supplement conventional regulation (e.g., enabling vulnerable individuals to avoid hazardous exposures and the opportunities for personal pollution monitoring to improve research).

Mainly anthropogenic damage to planetary resources and ecosystems demands that, wherever we are in the world, public health agencies must understand not just the proximal threats to health and well-being that have been the targets of public health intervention throughout the modern public health era. They must also understand and move to prevent, counteract, and contain more distal threats to health and well-being. The distal threats derive from changes to environments that appear remote in space or time or involve a complex interaction of social, environmental, and economic influences. These are no longer abstract considerations. The unprecedented global connectivity of economic and social systems and the growing understanding of ecosystem interdependencies demand that the implications of human activity for health and well-being be recognized, understood, and addressed on a vastly extended temporal and spatial scale.

Only by build health and well-being on ecological principles (Ecological Public Health) will society effectively address the more distal threats to health and well-being from global ecosystem damage; the socioecological complexity of the proximal environment and the interconnections between these.

Conclusions

In this necessarily brief and artificially linear account, our intention has been to reinforce the enduring importance of the environment for health and well-being. Along the way, we have identified three factors that have marginalized the environment as a component of health and disease. We suggest that they continue to represent clear and present threats, undermining public health and, in the case of the latter, an existential threat to humankind.

The Threat from Medical Reductionism

This tendency to think of disease almost exclusively in terms of pathogenic agents and organic dysfunction marginalizes any influence outside the crucible of the laboratory. This trend was most evident in the decades following World War II but remains an ever-present threat.

The Separation of Health from Place

Closely related to medical reductionism is the tendency to downplay the importance of local context for life. The idea that if local environment matters, it does not matter much and, that when it comes to health and disease, the real action is not out there in the neighborhood and among the community but “over here” in the laboratory and at the level of the individual. Such perspectives are divisive. They create artificial barriers between many academic disciplines, including some medical specialties, and those working to manage and improve the local social and environmental context within which “permeable” human beings live out their lives.

The Denial of Ecology

Science now permits humans to understand the true extent to which their activities are plundering natural resources and harming the planetary systems and processes on which they depend. The pace of change is such that health, well-being, heath care, or anything approaching equity in these things will not be sustained in the medium to longer term without radically rethinking society, the environment, and the economy. The global connectivity of social, economic, and environmental systems means, ultimately, that no one is insulated from the threat whether by distance or socioeconomic circumstance. Ecological public health, the pursuit of health and well-being on ecological principles, has been described as the 21st century ’s unavoidable task. It demands recognition of the dynamic interconnections between people and their environment. Manifestly, we depend on the environment we inhabit, and we powerfully affect it. Among the clearest impediments to delivering ecological public health and preserving a viable environment for future generations are the belief that we can manipulate and conquer the natural environment without consequence, and the irresponsible capitalist imperative that subverts regulatory standards and damages and exploits the environment for profit. Both are revealed as transparent absurdities by an ecological understanding and analysis.

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• Wei-Ta Fang   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4460-0652 4 ,
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• Ben A. LePage   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3155-7373 4 , 6  

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The concept of education is changing and that of the environment is also becoming different. Is environmental education: (1) a type of education to improve the environment; (2) education to improve the environment of education; or (3) a type of education to improve the education of people? In this chapter we focus on the ontology of the environment. In epistemology, we try to understand the nature and identity of the world around us and what environmental education is about. The purpose of environmental education is to cultivate citizens that: (1) have a working knowledge of environmental systems; (2) have concerns about environmental problems; and (3) have the capabilities to solve and actively participate in implementing solutions. Environmental problems must be solved through a root cause process, and environmental educators need to change the public’s mind on environmental issues using realistic and attainable education targets to establish environmentally friendly behaviors. Through outdoor, classroom, and nature-centered education programs, our goal is to establish important curriculum goals and novel learning methods for environmental education. Our goal is to have stakeholders consider environmental issues with open minds, understand the needs of other stakeholders, take a leadership role recognizing the existing and emerging environmental issues, and internalize them into specific environmental protective action plans.

All education is environmental education. By what is included or excluded, we teach students that they are part of or apart from the natural world. To teach economics, for example, without reference to the laws of thermodynamics or those of ecology is to teach a fundamentally important ecological lesson──that physics and ecology have nothing to do with the economy. That just happens to be dead wrong. The same is true throughout the curriculum. David W. Orr, What is Education for? 1991:52.

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Environmental Education

Learning Environments in Higher Education

1 introduction.

There are many definitions of education, but for education theory, Albert Einstein, who was a leader in pioneering educational reform point, had a unique point of view. He said: education is what remains after one has forgotten what one has learned in school (Fig.  1.1 ). Before the nineteenth century, education was the process of remembering or memorization. The  San Zi Jing  (Three-character Sutras) 《三字經》 that had been passed down to the people since the Southern Song Dynasty in China-proposed:

Education is what remains after one has forgotten what one has learned in school (Einstein 1879–1955) (Cheng-Jun Fang at the Busan National Science Museum, Busan, Republic of Korea, 2019) (Photo by Wei-Ta Fang)

Recite them with the mouth, and ponder over them in your hearts. Do this in the morning; do this in the evening.

Sun Zhu (孫洙) (1711–1778) of the Qing Dynasty once said:

After reading three hundred Tang poems, you can at least in tone poems even if you can’t write them.

It has always been the case that students learn as much as possible until they become familiar. However, there are other theories that have always been disgusted with learning. Einstein believed that real learning is the process of internalizing information. Wang Yangming (王陽明) (1472–1529) of the Ming Dynasty stated in the Book of Instructions for Practical Living and Other Neo-Confucian Writings 《傳習錄》 that the most important things reading requires is self-mindedness, understanding second, and finally memorization. A friend once asked him, “How can I read a book but I can’t remember,” Yangming’s response was:

As long as you know, how do you remember? To know that it is the second meaning, you need to know your own self-ontology. If you want to remember, you do not know; if you want to know, you don’t see your own identity in your mind.

In other words, the more a human learns, the more they have yet to learn. If the purpose of learning information is because of a test requirement, then the information stored in our short-term memory serves the purpose of taking the examination, but recalling the information is often not possible because the information is not true memory. As students we’ve all experienced memorizing an amazingly large amount of information for an exam and flushing these data from our minds as soon as the exam was over. However, there are instances where information can be recalled for no apparent reason. These remnants of information that we internalized is what was really learned. Therefore, education and learning were intended to convey human thought through books; however, history shows that we’ve endured at least seventeen global pandemics since the 1300’s (Piret and Boivin 2021 ) and two world wars in the twentieth century. Since then, all established education methods are constantly being recast. Recitation no longer has a place in the original meaning of education. Yuval N. Harari (1976–), the author of Sapiens : A Brief History of Humankind (2011), and Homo Deus: A Brief History of Tomorrow (2016), argued in 21 Lessons for the 21st Century (2018) that the existing education system should use critical thinking, problem solving, effective communication, collaboration, and creativity to replace the current emphasis on intellectual indoctrination (Harari 2018 ).

If the concept of education is changing, then the definition of the environment is also changing. David W. Orr (1944–), a professor of environmental and political studies at Oberlin College, once said: All education is environmental education (Fig.  1.2 ; Orr 1991 :52).

All education is environmental education (Cheng-Shun Fang at Fulong, New Taipei City, Taiwan, 2020) (Photo by Wei-Ta Fang)

When we teach environmental education, we often ask our students and ourselves: Is environmental education , the process to improve the environment , to improve the educational environment , or to improve the education of people? We need to understand the own body of human beings and to enhance the thinking from the original human engraved thinking. In the process of interpretation, we understand epistemology to understand the nature of matter and understand what the environment is.

1.1 The Environment is a Concept

The environment refers to the space in which human beings can perceive their surroundings. In space, you can perceive all things that change in structure and function over time. In other words, the true nature of all things must be in a certain environment, even a vacuum is regarded as an environment (Baggini and Fosl 2003 ). Therefore, the environment is a concept that is bounded by space. However, in phenomenology, the environment incorporates the concept of time. The Austrian philosopher Edmund Husserl (1859–1938) believes that the human impression of the environment and the world will not gradually disappear due to the evolution of time, and because of the memory function of the brain, the human impression of the deceased. Therefore, the existence of the deceased can persist in perpetuity in the world as long as the living still remembers those that came before because they are stored in the brain as a living impression. These existing memory phenomena gradually change the human imagination of the dead over time. The concept of the environment means different things to different people because every person has their own interpretation or understanding of their environment, which is based on the spatial and temporal elements that they’ve experienced. In an ideal world, the definition of environment would mean the same to everybody, but inevitably, each person’s view of the environment is different.

For phenomenon scholars, existence is a base on self-awareness of all phenomena. Therefore, the person’s environment is the perceptual medium of a living being to an external stimulus, including the systemic sum of space and time of the instinctive response to the external stimulus (Crowther and Cumhaill 2018 ). What a living organism understands about its environment includes the perception of elapsed time and distance in its space. Therefore, to understand the nature of things, we must also recognize or be cognizant of the changes in our environment through space and time (Baggini and Fosl 2003 ).

The definition of environment varies with context and discipline. For biological/ecological systems, the natural environment refers to the sunlight, climate, soil, hydrology, and other ecosystems in which animals and plants coexist and within which we live. The social environment refers to the constitutive state formed by the social, psychological, and cultural conditions associated with human life and culture. From the perspective of environmental protection, the environment refers to the earth on which human beings depend. Therefore, the effectiveness of achieved protection is a critical indicator for revealing environmental quality in a region (Huang et al. 2014 ). In addition, we also need to understand the definition of environment in terms of regulations.

1.2 Lost in Translation

As it turns out the words environment and education were originally considered nouns and verbs and later translated and adopted into Asian cultures about one hundred years after appearing in English culture. We began to think about the concept of environmental education after World War II. In their 1947 book Communitas , the Goodman brothers talked about the planning of urban space where they discussed the idea of establishing green belts around cities and the design of industrial spaces, which at the time were utopian concepts (Goodman and Goodman 1947 ). They believed that a large part of the environmental education of the children would be based on technology; whereas a child brought up in a modern suburb or city might not even know what work papa does at the office . They also criticized the idea of environmental education because they felt environmental education was very close to the construction education of a built environment. In fact, it was far from the concept of environmental education.

From 1965 to 1970, US industrial production grew at a rate of 18% and at the same time, it boosted the economies of its World War II allies. However, the over-emphasis on development led to increased environmental pollution and since the 1960s, environmental problems arising from industrial development continue to emerge (e.g., love canal, Fowlkes and Miller 1987 ). The green agricultural revolution widely used chemical fertilizers and pesticides and among them, Dichloro-Diphenyl-Trichloroethane (DDT) hindered the reproductive ability of birds and reduced biodiversity. The book, published by Rachel Carson’s book, Silent Spring ( 1962 ) pointed out the consequences associated with the use/abuse of pesticides, which become incorporated into food chains and webs, negatively impacting natural ecosystems and human health. Carson believed that human beings should treat the surrounding environment and animals with a life-loving vision. She said: The public must decide whether it wishes to continue on the present road, and it can do so only when in full possession of the facts (Carson 1962 :30). In the post 1960s, the slogan of environmental protection rang through the sky and the concept of the environmental protection movement gradually espoused the definition of environmental education in conservation.

2 Definition of Environmental Education

The term environmental education appeared in 1947. So, when did the earliest definition of environmental education come into being? The concept of environmental education in terms of modern pedagogy and its evolutionary history feels closely tied to our understanding and development of human psychology, sociology, and how humans learn. In this context, environmental education is a relatively recent field of study and predicated on the acceptance of our hypotheses by a small community of scholars.

If we look further back in time at the development of human cultures at a time when formal education systems did not exist, our ancestors then need to be recognized. In many/most indigenous cultures, the people learned about the environment within which they lived and passed their knowledge and skills to future generations, otherwise, they all died.

We, therefore, also need to identify several elements in indigenous cultures that are related to their knowledge base and resource management systems that could be of value to western science, but the semantic issues associated with Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) and Traditional Ecological Management (TEM) can be overwhelming (Song et al. 2021 ). We may regard that TEK and TEM should be considered to be an element of the environment associated with indigenous cultures that is defined by their relationship and interactions with the environment, including all of the other biotic, abiotic elements present in their habitats. So, let’s take the definition way back and show how we used TEK and TEM to develop our knowledge systems relative to western science.

2.1 Initial Definition of Environmental Education

In 1962, Carson explained the importance of environmental protection and hoped to learn the ecological balance of nature through human awakening would achieve the purpose of harmonious coexistence between human and nature. In 1965 at an education seminar at the University of Keele environmental education was proposed as a theme, becoming the first conference in the UK to use the term environmental education (Palmer 1998 ). The meeting participants agreed that environmental education should become an essential part of all citizens , not only because of the importance of understanding aspects of their environment , but because of its immense educational potential in assisting the emergence of a scientifically literate nation . The meeting emphasized that teachers’ participation in basic education research should be strengthened to accurately determine the teaching methods and content of environmental education that are most suitable for modern needs. Therefore, the United Kingdom held a Council for Environmental Education in 1968.

In 1969, William Stapp (1929–2001), a professor at the University of Michigan, School of Natural Resources and Environment (SNRE), first defined environmental education as a process producing a citizenry that is knowledgeable concerning the biophysical environment and its associated problems , aware of how to help solve these problems , and motivated to work toward their solution (Stapp et al. 1969 :30–31). According to Stapp, the purpose of environmental education was to cultivate citizens who had environmental knowledge, were concerned about environmental problems, and had the ability to solve and actively participate in the resolving the issues. Environmental problems should be resolved using root cause analyses and environmental educators should change the minds of the existing education targets and establish environmentally friendly behaviors.

Stapp is considered the father of environmental education in the United States of America (USA). He helped plan the first Earth Day in 1970, drafted the National Environmental Education Act, served as the first director of United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the first director of the Environmental Education at UNESCO, and promoted the first inter-governmental meeting of 146 countries and territories in Tbilisi, the former Soviet Union, in 1978. In 1984, Stapp assisted students to investigate cases of hepatitis infections from the Huron River, identify the cause of the problem, and worked with the local government to find a solution. In view of the importance of river surveys, he founded the Global Rivers Environmental Education Network (GREEN) in 1989. He cooperated with elementary schools in Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA and conducted many field trips with local elementary students and they investigated and taught students about problems in the natural environment and how to interact with them. He cared about academic research and more about social services, and led college students to promote environmental monitoring programs and successfully rehabilitate the Rouge River. In western science, the roots of environmental education can be traced back 1960s as early as the eighteenth century when Jean-Jacques Rousseau stressed the importance of an education that focuses on the environment (Rousseau and Bloom 1979 ).

2.2 The Extended Definition of Environmental Education

Stapp and his colleagues promoted the definition of environmental education, which was based on American pragmatism. They believed that emphasizing environmental knowledge could change reality through the power of action. Therefore, practical experience in environmental education was considered important because it emphasized taking knowledge and using that knowledge and/or experience to solve problems on natural resource management (Disinger 1985 ; 1990 ). Thus, environmental action or doing was better than dogma, and environmental experience was better than rigid principles. Therefore, the concept of environmental education had evolved to become a critical and creative clarification for research questions and value clarification (Harari 2018 ), interpreting environmental knowledge as a process of assessing the real environment, and scientific exploration (Fig.  1.3 ). The spirit of humanity, the standard of conduct was then incorporated into the real environment of human beings.

Academic institutions need to provide environmental education-related courses such as basic environmental research and environmental science such as a study camp, Taipei, Taiwan, 2019 (Photo by Yi-Te Chiang)

To promote environmental protection, academic institutions needed to provide environmental education-related courses such as basic environmental research, science, planning, management, economics, society, culture, and engineering. At the grade school level, the students should be taught the history of environmental protection and environmental protection measures. The aforementioned courses are meant to be broad because the environment and the associated issues are complicated. The environment and its associated ecosystems are not one size fits all. Not only are ecosystems different from one another the variation within each is vast. As such, Wals et al. ( 2014 ) considered the learning content of environmental education to be multi-disciplinary, based on environmental problem assessment, critical thinking, morality, creativity, and make judgments on environmental issues. The process of environmental education helps observation and problem-solving, with the opportunity for individuals to promote environmental improvement actions to ensure positive environmental behaviors (Fig.  1.4 ). Therefore, environmental education includes the social, abiotic, and biological aspects, of the environment including natural resource conservation, environmental management, ecological principles, environmental interactions and ethics, and sustainability (Fig.  1.5 ).

Environmental education helps develop observation and problem-solving skills and provides opportunities for individuals to promote environmental improvement actions to ensure positive environmental behaviors (Audubon Nature Center, Rhode Island, USA, 2015) (Photo by Wei-Ta Fang)

The target of environmental education should include a continuum from primary school to the university and include theoretical, practical, indoor, and outdoor experiences. This is a group of people enjoying nature in a Swiss environmental education program in 2009 (Matterhorn, Great north faces of the Alps, Valais, Switzerland) (Photo by Wei-Ta Fang)

Environmental Education is defined in many ways, but each definition considers it to be a discipline or process that teaches us how to behave in a manner that promotes the responsible management of our environment and resources. This then helps the environment function in a more natural way, rather than healing anthropogenic wounds. We detected the Environmental Education Act in Taiwan (Republic of China), there is. …as a discipline that enhance the environmental awareness , environmental ethics , and responsibility of the nation taking as a whole, so as to safeguard the ecological balance of the environment , respect lives, promote social justice , and cultivate environmental citizens and environmental learning communities (The Environmental Education Act) (Ministry of Justice 2017 ). Therefore, in terms of education content, environmental education was intended to integrate aspects of biology, chemistry, physics, ecology, earth science, atmospheric science, mathematics, and geography as an integrated discipline toward an education for sustainability (EfS) (Evans 2020 ). Methods of educational research include the applied social sciences such as psychology, sociology, culture, history, anthropology, economics, political science, and information science.

The First International Working Meeting on Environmental Education in the School Curriculum was organized by the UNESCO, and the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) in Nevada, USA in 1970. A participant resolution developed the statement that the elements of environmental education are not completely combined by any single discipline. It is the product of partnerships built on sound science, public awareness, environmental issues, and outdoor educational methods (Fig.  1.6 ). UNESCO specifically stated that environmental education programs taught students a respect for the nature and natural environments and raised citizens' environmental awareness (UNESCO 1970 ). Therefore, the organization emphasized the importance of environmental education in protecting the society’s quality of life in the future by protecting the environment, eradicating poverty, minimizing inequality, and ensuring sustainable development. Cerovsky ( 1971 , p. 4) defined environmental education as.

…a process of recognizing values and clarifying concepts in order to develop skills and attitudes necessary to understand and to appreciate the interrelatedness among man, his culture, and his biophysical surroundings. Environmental education is also entailed practice in decision-making and self-formulation of code behavior about issues concerning environmental quality.

Environmental education also includes the dissemination of environmental education with outdoor media (Wei-Ta Fang, Ben A. LePage, and their students at Dagouxi Riverside Park, Neihu, Taipei, Taiwan, 2021) (Photo by Yi-Te Chiang)

The target of environmental education includes education in the school system, and education from primary, middle, vocational, and technical schools, universities, and research institutes. However, environmental education also includes the dissemination of environmental education, including print, books, websites, and other media. In addition, aquaria, zoos, parks, and nature centers in social environmental education should all provide ways to teach citizens about the environment (Fig.  1.6 ) (see Box 1.1 ).

Box 1.1: The Legal Definition of Environmental Education, Republic of China (ROC)

The Article 3 of Republic of China’s Environmental Education Act stated as Environmental education : Referring to the adaptation of educational means by which to culminate the citizens to understand their ethnical relationship to the environment , enhance the citizens ’ environmental protection awareness, skills, attitudes and values , and steer the citizens to emphasize the environment and adopt actions to achieve a civility education process that harbors sustainable development .

2.3 The Goals of Environmental Education

The attendees of the Tbilisi Conference in 1977 endorsed goals for environmental education into five categories (UNESCO 1977 ). They are:

Awareness: to help social groups and individuals acquire an awareness of and sensitivity to the total environment and its allied problems;

Knowledge : to help social groups and individuals gain a variety of experiences in and acquire a basic understanding of the environment and its associated problems;

Attitudes : to help social groups and individuals acquire a set of values and feelings of concern for the environment and the motivations for actively participating in environmental improvement and protection;

Skills: to help social groups and individuals acquire the skills for identifying and solving environmental problems; and

Participation: to provide social groups and individuals with the opportunities to be actively involved at all levels in working toward resolving environmental problems (UNESCO 1977 , p. 71).

Hungerford et al. ( 1980 ) organized and suggested that these goals should be operationalized within the school curriculum and categorized into four (4) levels (Table 1.1 and Figs. 1.7 , 1.8 and 1.9 ).

Goals of environmental education (adapted and modified after Hungerford et al. ( 1980 ) and revised by Wei-Ta Fang)

Harold Hungerford (left), Trudi Volk (middle), Arba’at Hassan (right) (Photo by Arba’at Hassan)

Harold Hungerford (left), mentor and advisor of Arba’at Hassan (right) (Photo by Arba’at Hassan)

3 Approaches to Environmental Education

In this section we discuss various methods/pedagogies used in the field of environmental education. Environmental education, like science education, is interdisciplinary and offers a variety of learning strategies, which are determined by learning resources, learning time, learning space, learning curriculum, and student attributes. These differences all affect education approaches in some way. We briefly describe outdoor education, classroom education, and nature-centered education. We include the following seven methods, including: school environmental education, school nature education, place-based education, and projects curricula; and nature center education in social and environmental education, science and environmental education in zoos and museums (Falk 2009 ; Falk and Dierking 2014 , 2018 ; Ardoin et al. 2016 ) or environmental education using surveys, assessments and actions on environmental issues (Hsu et al. 2018), and science-technology-society (STS) (Winther et al. 2010 ). Each approach addresses important curriculum goals and novel learning methods for environmental education. Therefore, environmental educators should choose and apply the most effective methods for their students and environment. We also explore sustainable development education from the perspective of environmental education. We also understand that a well-rounded curriculum aims to strengthen environmental awareness and environmental sensitivity, environmental knowledge, environmental ethics and values, environmental action skills, and environmental action experience. We explore values, topics, and learning in the context of Bamberg and Moeser ( 2007 ), Winther et al. ( 2010 ) and Dillion and Wals ( 2006 ).

3.1 Outdoor Education

Outdoor education is based on a place-based education and project curricula in the United States that include: the Project Learning Tree, Project WILD, and Project WET. In addition, surveys, assessments, and actions on environmental issues, as well as environmental education in STS that can be used for exploration, included the following methods (Braus and Wood 1993 ; Engleson and Yockers 1994 ).

3.1.1 Uses of the Senses

Let the learners use their senses to experience nature directly using their eyes, ears, nose, tongue, and body to feel the environment over the four seasons (Fig.  1.10 ).

Use of the senses (Photos by Arba’at Hassan)

3.1.2 Physical Exercises and Explanations

By using real examples, objects that can be obtained, and through practical methods, the natural or scientific phenomena contained in the environment are directly explained by practical performance, allowing learners to observe directly or actual experience (Fig.  1.11 ).

Physical exercises and explanations (Photos by Arba’at Hassan)

3.1.3 Surveys and Experiments

Let learners think about environmental issues and environmental phenomena through the steps of generating a hypothesis, survey, data collection, experiments, data collection, analysis, writing of small papers, briefings, etc., and actually discuss what happens behind various environmental phenomena problem.

3.1.4 Attractions Travel

Let learners go to various attractions and actually visit forests, mountains, seashores, wetlands and other areas to observe and obtain first-hand tourism and observation experiences (Fig.  1.12 ). Each observation and survey is a purposeful activity, and learners can learn about certain topics in advance through books, the Internet, and scenic spot information.

Outdoor education is based on a place-based education and project. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA), North American for Environmental Education (NAAEE), and Environmental Protection Administration of the Executive Yuan, Republic of China (Taiwan EPA) are the key to promote environmental education as partnerships. They jointly launched the Global Environmental Education Partnership (GEEP) in 2014, with the vision of creating a sustainable future where people and the environment prosper together through the power of education. The GEEP established the Asia–Pacific Regional Center (APRC) in Taiwan as a network center for environmental education in Southeast Asia in 2019 (Toucheng Leisure Farm, Ilan, Taiwan, 2021; please see https://geepaprc.org/en ) (Photo by Wei-Ta Fang)

3.1.5 Research Questionnaires and Interviews

An issue questionnaire is performed through research methods for small papers. Through this approach, learners can obtain relevant environmental information. The perceptions and ideas of different interviewers, in addition to quantified research data, are to conduct interviews to understand qualitative information and to make more environmental issues for an in-depth discussion (Fig.  1.13 ).

Research questionnaire and interview (Photo by Arba’at Hassan)

3.1.6 Outdoor Observation of Nearby Places

Using the method of place-based education, selecting nearby places, conducting environmental surveys or observation activities, actually guiding learners to study in outdoor environments, and helping learners to understand the natural exploration, experience, and awareness (Fig.  1.14 ).

Outdoor observation at nearby mangrove places (Photos by Wei-Ta Fang)

3.1.7 Data Collection and Interviews

Let learners collect the data on specific environmental issues so that they can have a deeper understanding of related environmental issues or areas of study, through the library, Internet, photographs, and interview specific people to help clarify questions when facing environmental problems if more information is needed (Figs. 1.15 ).

Assembly photos. Left side: People need to help clarify questions when facing environmental problems (Yongchunpi Wetland Park, Taipei, Taiwan, 2021) (Photo by Yi-Te Chiang); Right side: Data collection and interview on the charcoal making from mangrove trees, 2008 (Photos by Arba’at Hassan)

3.2 Classroom Education

Classroom education in environmental education includes campus environmental education, which can develop place-based education, project curricula, and STS (Winther et al. 2010 ). During the learning process, teachers are encouraged to participate in professional learning sessions, and fully understand the learner’s learning role, that include:

3.2.1 Reading and Writing

In the classroom, students read environmental issues and events and write their thoughts and feelings in notebooks. Younger students can draw their thoughts and ideas (Fig.  1.16 ).

Reading and writing in the classroom (Photo by Arba’at Hassan)

3.2.2 Case Study

Let learners directly collect and integrate data on environmental issues or discuss and assess the environmental impact of related issues on our day-to-day lives and to think about how to deal with environmental damage (Fig.  1.17 ).

A case study of urban park (Photo by Wei-Ta Fang)

3.2.3 Value Clarification

Let learners use each other’s relationships between value and morality for discussion and communication. During the discussion, through mutual discussions, establish conclusions that everyone can accept to assist learners to establish correct environmental attitudes and values. That is, set up some ground rules so the environment remains safe.

3.2.4 Treemap and Brainstorming

Through brainstorming or treemap thinking, help learners connect different relationships, situations, ideas, and processes to understand the relationship of events (Figs. 1.18 and 1.19 ).

Value clarification (Photo by Arba’at Hassan)

Treemap and Brainstorming session (Photo by Arba’at Hassan)

3.2.5 Debate

Through debate activities, learners can learn from different topics facing the environment, and learn to use data collection, communication, and critical thinking skills (Fig.  1.20 ).

Debate on an environmental issue (Photo by Arba’at Hassan)

3.2.6 Group Learning

Through the process of group learning, in addition to being able to face environmental issues more effectively and conduct more in-depth discussions, learners can learn to establish team tacit understanding, self-social ethics norms, and know the thoughts deep inside themselves. This illustrates the importance of diversity and inclusion in the program (Fig.  1.21 ).

The group learning activity (Photo by Arba’at Hassan)

3.2.7 Environmental Arrangement

Through the environmental arrangement activities of the beginning of school, festivals, or parent-teacher talks, let learners participate in the creation and arrangement of teaching space. In addition, to help learners have a complete learning space, they can also learn to judge the overall environmental learning.

3.2.8 Comprehensive Discussions

Scout courses covering aspects of integrated geography, mathematics, nature, health and hygiene, or Chinese language learning areas, and in-depth research and discussion on environmental issues and issues (Fig.  1.22 ).

All students take part in comprehensive discussions (Photo by Arba’at Hassan)

3.2.9 Activity Workshop

Let learners guide the demonstration and teaching of personnel, learn to operate, or produce a kind of labor course that requires hands-on work, and use hands-on operations. The process of the drill included working experience in farming, forestry, fishing, insect hotel building, animal husbandry, and the creation of handicrafts (Figs.  1.23 and 1.24 ).

An activity workshop (Photo by Arba’at Hassan)

We are just another bug on this planet (Ben LePage at Taiwan Insect Hall, Taipei, Taiwan, 2022) (Photo by Swing Chan)

3.2.10 Game Learning

Game learning is different at different levels. This is important because it brings to mind what today’s youth think is important and fun. For example, we think memorization is boring and old school, what will the younger generation of student’s think about these new approaches in 50 years? 100 years? How do we keep our learning methods current in the face of rapidly changing technologies, norms, and values? In game learning, open-ended play is adopted. The rich teaching materials of games are the basis of learning. In modeled-play, learn using simulated creatures and playing with pets (Fig.  1.25 ). In purpose-framed play, games are used for experience and teacher-student interaction is used (Cutter-Mackenzie et al. 2014 ).

The outdoor game learning (Velsen Otte and the cat “Noodle”) (Photo by Wei-Ta Fang)

3.2.11 Environmental Action

Use STS learning methods to allow learners to participate in practical environmental actions such as ecological management, persuasion, consumerism, political action, and legal action, and work together to improve environmental issues (Fig.  1.26 ).

The Environmental action on wetland (Keita Furukawa, front person, and Jung-Chen Huang at Taijiang National Park, Tainan, Taiwan) (Photo by Wei-Ta Fang)

4 Development of Environmental Education

The implementation of environmental education is to adopt an infusion method and conduct integrated curriculum across learning areas to connect the relationship between the surrounding their environment. Environmental education professionals generally believe that the environmental education be integrated into the school curriculum of each school year, from kindergarten to grade 12 (K-12). However, discipline integration of environmental education has not occurred in countries around the world. How to integrate environmental education into the subject in the school curriculum requires the use of teaching materials and methods (Fig.  1.27 ). This may be related to the type of teaching in each subject (Simmons 1989 ). If the core of environmental education is to incorporate the behavioral decisions of governments, enterprises, families, and individuals into the education process, then the development of environmental education from kindergarten to grade 12 (K-12) needs to be considered and economic development, a parallel trend of environmental development that takes into account social development.

We have developed environmental education programs from kindergarten to grade 12 (K-12) from the supports of Ramsar Regional Center–East Asia and National Geographic Society during 2018 (Taipei, Taiwan, 2018) (Photo by Yi-Te Chiang)

The teaching model of traditional environmental education is centered on environmental issues. However, this kind of teaching method only focuses on knowledge transfer. It does not consider social emotional learning. At the same time, it does not consider the formation of environmental attitudes, and it is difficult to cultivate responsibility—environmental behavior students. Furthermore, environmental education places too much emphasis on analysis of issues, so that students learn learned helpless. It has a sense of despair and helplessness about the future development of the global environment. It is impossible to learn through a position of control—motivation and perseverance to change the world. In addition, emotional changes in environmental education are not easy to change through indoor courses, students are easily frustrated in the classroom, and it is difficult to learn the true meaning of pro-environmental behavior. If we say that the past education focused on one-way narrative transmission, we should then look at environmental issues with a healthy mindset. By caring about environmental protection issues, based on teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge and domain knowledge (Shulman 1986a , b ; 1987a , b ; Fig.  1.28 ), supporting the idea of ​​a sustainable worldview, strengthening the content of various disciplines in a common learning approach, and internalizing it into specific environmental protection actions.

The content of teaching content is a kind of comprehensive knowledge. It is the knowledge that teachers can use in teaching after integrating various kinds of knowledge (Illustrated by Wei-Ta Fang)

The so-called pedagogical content knowledge model, the content includes the teacher’s understanding of specific subject content, the teacher’s grasp and use of specific subject content representation, and the teachers ‘learning and learners’ understanding. The content of teaching content knowledge includes the content of subject knowledge and general teaching knowledge, and goes beyond the teaching material knowledge itself. The teaching content knowledge was proposed by an American educational psychologist, named Lee Shulman (1938–). He believes that the subject teaching knowledge goes beyond the scope of subject expertise and is subject matter expertise at the teaching level. Shulman pointed out that teachers’ knowledge can be divided into three categories, namely, pedagogical knowledge, subject matter knowledge, and pedagogical content knowledge (Shulman 1986a , b ; 1987a , b ). Teaching knowledge emphasizes the principles, methods, and strategies of teaching. Disciplinary content knowledge emphasized teachers’ knowledge on the facts, concepts, principles of the subject areas, and how they are organized. In addition, teaching content knowledge emphasizes that when teaching, teachers know how to use a systematic statement of their subject content knowledge, make it easy for students to understand the subject content through the most effective teaching method, and teachers can understand students’ previous concepts of the subject content, Reasons for learning difficulties and strategies for remedial teaching.

Shulman said: Teaching content knowledge means that teachers must be able to express what they are teaching. In the category of teaching content knowledge, teachers include the most taught topics and the most effective forms of expression in the subject.

They are the most powerful analogies, examples, illustrations, demonstrations, and clarifications. That is, teachers regroup in special subjects of the subject and behave in an appropriate way to promote students to understand the content of the teaching. Knowledge of teaching content also includes teachers understanding what factors make it difficult or easy for students to learn about specific concepts when learning, and to understand the concepts and prerequisite concepts held by students of different ages and backgrounds when studying these topics. (Shulman 1986b :9).

Communication environmental and educational concepts, goals, methods, and strategies are based on the concept of immersive environmental education. Explore the in-depth fields of environmental education according to the different cultural and social backgrounds of teachers (Fig.  1.29 ). Therefore, based on the critical analysis of the problem, the process of learning is more important than the outcome. Moreover, the limitations of environmental, social, and economic issues, are understood, thus the teaching content can be linked to the real world.

Exploring the in-depth fields of environmental education is crucial according to the different cultural and social backgrounds of teachers (Photo by Wei-Ta Fang)

Environmental education is not only about providing tools and technology but also necessary to cultivate students’ environmental literacy. Therefore, the teaching of environmental education, in addition to teaching knowledge, also needs to inspire students’ social responsibility. Therefore, environmental education needs to put forward values and strengthen the thinking of sustainable development in the curriculum. The main core lies in the fundamental values of “sustainable development education.” UNESCO defined the core according to the following topics:

Respect the dignity and human rights of all human beings worldwide and commit to social and economic justice for all;

Respect the human rights of future generations and promise intergenerational responsibilities (Kaplan et al. 2005 ; Liu and Kaplan 2006 );

Respect and care about the diversity of life in large communities, including the protection and restoration of the earth's ecosystem; and

Respecting cultural diversity and promising to build tolerance, non-violence, and a culture of peace locally and globally.

4.2 Exploration Topics

4.2.1 environmental orientation.

Environmentally oriented education needs to include attention on natural resources (like water, energy, agriculture, forestry, mining, air, waste disposal, toxic chemical treatment, and biodiversity), climate change, rural development, and sustainability. The purpose of mitigation and adaptation in the cities, disaster prevention, and mitigation are to strengthen the understanding of the fragility of resources and the natural environment, strengthen the understanding of the negative impact of human activities and decision-making on the environment, and include environmental factors. These factors must be considered in formulating socio-economic policies.

4.2.2 Economic Orientation

The Economic Oriented Education needs to focus on the issues of poverty eradication, strengthening the social responsibility of enterprises and universities, and strengthening the efficiency of the market economy. The purposes are to understand limitation, potential on an economic growth, and how they could affect the society, environment, and culture. The impact of environmental protection, culture, and social justice on the correct assessment of individual and social consumption behavior is consistent with the goal of sustainable development.

4.2.3 Social Orientation

Socially Oriented Education needs to include concerns about human rights, peace and human security, freedom, gender equality, cultural diversity, and cross-cultural understanding, as well as emphasis on social and personal health, and strengthening government management and people’s governance. Its purpose is to understand the role of social systems and environmental change in development and to strengthen models and institutions of democratic participation. The democratic participation system provides opportunities to express opinions, adjust conflicts, decentralize government, build consensus, and resolve differences. In addition, cultural assessments in society need to be strengthened to protect the values , practices, languages, and knowledge systems (Arenas et al. 2009 ). At the same time, the cultural foundations of social, environmental, economic, and the sustainable development, are seen as inter-connected. In other words, sustainable development emphasizes interrelationship through culture. In the process of sustainable development education, it is particularly necessary to pay attention to the diversity of culture and ethnic groups, and each ethnic group tolerates, respects, and understands each other in order to shape the values of equality and dignity.

We can know that the exploration of sustainable development education to embedding sustainability from environmental education can be an overlapping circle model, which is an intersecting system (Purvis et al. 2019 ). This model recognizes the intersection of economic, environmental, and social factors. Based on our research, we resized the circles to show that one factor has advantages over the other two. In the eyes of economists, economy is better than society and society is better than environment. This model means that economy can exist independently of society and environment. Therefore, we use the next more accurate system model for illustration (Fig.  1.30 ).

The environment-oriented, economic-oriented, and social-oriented rendezvous system (Illustrated by Wei-Ta Fang)

Because human beings cannot survive outside of their environment, they do not have an environment. It is just like a fish without water, which makes it difficult for them to survive. If we ask all the fishermen in the sea if overfishing the fisheries is a social disaster or an economic disaster, they will then say that it is all the above. Therefore, the nested dependency model reflects the reality of this common dependency. In other words, human society is a wholly owned subsidiary of the environment. An economic society, without food, clean water, fresh air, fertile soil, and other natural resources, we are “cooked.”

Environmental Education in the twenty-first century and Education for Sustainable Development have also regarded as the key to reconstructing ecologically responsible citizens to embrace a pedagogy grounded in ecosocialism (Arenas 2021 ). With the adoption of the 2030 Global Education Agenda, United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) is now using the United Nation’s recently developed Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) to strengthen the Global Action Follow-up Program on Education for Sustainable Development (i.e., GAP 2030). In general, the purpose of environmental education is to cultivate citizens who understand the biophysical environment and related issues, how to help solve problems, and actively understand the ways to solve problems (Stapp et al. 1969 ). Currently, we provided a wider range of services, strengthened appreciation of the multicultural and environmental systems around humanity, and ensure the sustainable development of human society. Shin Wang (1945–), the emeritus professor of the Department of Geographical Environmental Resources, National Taiwan University, once said: “Hometown is the beginning of learning. You need to be based on Taiwan to look at the world.” The transformation of social environment and silent environmental changes to the environmental protection of the aboriginal people has produced their own views of environmental redemption (Fang et al. 2016 ).

At the beginning of the writing of this book, we always told ourselves in the heart: “The environment and ecology are extremely vulnerable, and only those of us who are not fame and fortune environmentalists will help the speechless environment.”

In light of today’s social consumerism, inequality has occurred in three areas: environmental, social, and economic. We strengthen our creativity sharing our experiences within the education system with others to develop a shared social imagination. We communicate the concepts of the environment and education based on the concept of immersive environmental education. Therefore, the environmental education concepts, implementation processes, and education policies listed in this chapter have achieved the feasibility of environmental education in various fields through teaching, research, and practice. Environmental education is not just about providing tools and technologies, it is important to cultivate a learners’ environmental literacy. Therefore, the teaching of environmental education, in addition to teaching knowledge, also needs to inspire students’ social responsibility.

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Fang, WT., Hassan, A., LePage, B.A. (2023). Introduction to Environmental Education. In: The Living Environmental Education. Sustainable Development Goals Series. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-4234-1_1

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January 28, 2011

The Link between the Environment and Our Health

Would people care more about the environment if they had a better understanding of how it affects them personally?

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Dear EarthTalk : Aren’t environmental issues primarily about health? Detractors like to trivialize environmentalists as “tree huggers,” but the bottom line is that pollution makes us sick, right? Wouldn’t people care more if they had a better understanding of that?— Tim Douglas, Stowe, Vt. No doubt many of the ways we harm our environment come back to haunt us in the form of sickness and death. The realization that the pesticide-laced foods we eat, the smokestack-befouled air we breathe and the petrochemical-based products we use negatively affect our quality of life is a big part of the reason so many people have “gone green” in recent years. Just following the news is enough to green anyone. Scientific American reported in 2009 that a joint U.S./Swedish study looking into the effects of household contaminants discovered that children who live in homes with vinyl floors—which can emit hazardous chemicals called phthalates—are twice as likely to develop signs of autism as kids in other homes. Other studies have shown that women exposed to high levels of polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) flame retardants common in cushions, carpet padding and mattresses—97 percent of us have detectable levels of these chemicals in our bloodstreams—are more likely to have trouble getting pregnant and suffer from other fertility issues as a result. Cheaply produced drywall made in China can emit so much sulfur gas that it not only corrodes electrical wiring but also causes breathing problems, bloody noses and headaches for building occupants. The list goes on and on.... But perhaps trumping all of these examples is the potential disastrous health effects of global warming. Carbon dioxide emissions may not be directly responsible for health problems at or near their point of release, but in aggregate they can cause lots of distress. According to the Center for Health and the Global Environment at Harvard Medical School, climate change over the coming decades is likely to increase rates of allergies, asthma, heart disease and cancer, among other illnesses. Also, it is quite likely that, as global temperature rises, diseases that were previously found only in warmer areas of the world may show up increasingly in other, previously cooler areas, where people have not yet developed natural defenses against them. And the loss of rain forest that accompanies increases in temperature means less access to undiscovered medicines and degradation of the environment’s ability to sustain our species. Given the link between environmental problems and human health, more of us are realizing that what may seem like exorbitant up-front costs for environmental clean-up may well pay us dividends in the end when we see our overall health care costs go down and our loved ones living longer, healthier lives. To help bridge the understanding gap between environmental problems and human health, the nonprofit Environmental Health Sciences offers the free website, Environmental Health News , which features daily reports on research showing how man-made environmental problems correspond to a wide range of individual and public health problems. Even your local TV station or newspaper likely carries an occasional story about the health effects of environmental pollution. We don’t have to look very hard to find examples of environmental neglect leading to human suffering. But with newfound public awareness and the commitment of younger generations to a cleaner future, we are moving in a good direction. CONTACTS : Harvard Medical School Center for Health and the Global Environment, http://chge.med.harvard.edu ; Environmental Health News , www.environmentalhealthnews.org .

SEND YOUR ENVIRONMENTAL QUESTIONS TO: EarthTalk® , c/o E – The Environmental Magazine , P.O. Box 5098, Westport, CT 06881; [email protected] . E is a nonprofit publication. Subscribe : www.emagazine.com/subscribe ; Request a Free Trial Issue : www.emagazine.com/trial .

Just as climate change disproportionately impacts the most vulnerable, some people do not have equal access to the outdoors. 

“Nature is a reprieve—but what do you do when there is no nature around? BIPOC communities face this reality every day,” said Henderson. “Your zip code is one of the top indicators of your health outcomes.”

To bring more awareness to these experiences, NEEF and the USFS in December 2023 geared toward social and community health workers that focused on nature-based trauma-informed care in BIPOC (Black, Indigenous, and People of Color) communities. In addition to facing safety concerns in public spaces, BIPOC communities are disproportionately affected by climate-related weather events, which may lead to increased trauma and mental health disturbances.

During the webinar, eco-feminist Brenda Richardson shared success stories and practical tips from her work in southeast DC, where higher rates of violence and chronic disease are real concerns in many neighborhoods. The discussion highlighted opportunities for collaboration with law enforcement and local organizations to use green spaces as a tool for mental wellness. Building a sense of community and a feeling of togetherness is crucial.

This important conversation on environmental justice and improving health equity intersects with NEEF’s pediatric asthma initiative. The free online course helps healthcare providers integrate the environmental management of asthma into their work. 

“One in four Black children has asthma, and they are twice as likely to be hospitalized,” said Henderson. “This is another example of the often-stark difference in experiences between BIPOC and non-BIPOC families.”

Learn More About the Benefits of Environmental Education and Access to Nature 

Ready to experience the many health benefits of the outdoors for yourself? Remember: connecting with nature is not one-size-fits-all. 

“Even just looking at a photo of something nature-related can produce dopamine and reduce stress,” said Henderson. “Use what you have, until you have more.”

The following environmental education resources are full of useful information for incorporating the outdoors into lesson plans, health care regimens, and your daily life:

• Public Lands Engagement - Health & Wellness Guide : Experts from NEEF, the USFS, and NPS share strategies for planning and executing successful health and wellness activities on public lands of all types and sizes.
• Climate Change and Mental Health: Educating for Resilience Webinar Recording: Learn how to help students build resilience to the mental health impacts of climate change.
• Using Nature to Improve Mental Health and Well-Being Webinar Recording: Explore the mental and physical health implications of nature scarcity and how engaging in green spaces can be a source of healing and restoration for BIPOC communities.
• Benefits of Environmental Education: Environmental education is often lauded by educators as an ideal way to integrate academic disciplines, stimulate the academic and social growth of young people, and promote conservation of the natural environment.  This article cites specific academic sources to illustrate the many ways that environmental education benefits students.

IvyPanda . (2024) 'Environmental Health Practice'. 2 February.

IvyPanda . 2024. "Environmental Health Practice." February 2, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/environmental-health-practice/.

1. IvyPanda . "Environmental Health Practice." February 2, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/environmental-health-practice/.

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Safe and Healthy School Environments

Associate Professor

Associate Professor of Pediatrics

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School is the child's workplace. Children spend many of their waking hours at school, in circumstances that are often suboptimal. There may be excessive crowding, poor indoor air quality, unsatisfactory lighting, or exposure to hazardous chemicals. Violence may threaten children's safety. Outside the school, the playground may be dangerous, and on the way to school, children may face risks, whether they walk, bicycle, or ride the bus. Safe and healthy schools offer many benefits. They protect children's health. They enhance learning. They are pleasant places to be. Finally, safe and healthy schools are often environmentally friendly schools, which use less energy, produce fewer pollutants, and model environmental responsibility for teachers and students. This book provides an overview of the school environment, from the perspective of environmental public health. It includes chapters on the physical environment (such factors as crowding, lighting, and noise), air quality within and outside the school, toxic exposures, nutrition and physical activity, violence and disasters, and transportation. It also includes chapters on management issues and on health services at schools.

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Education and Environmental Health

Improving the health of all and reducing inequalities requires a renewed focus on the actual physical environment of schools. Two studies, conducted in North America, highlight the link between pollution in the school environment and educational success (reading and mathematics assessments, behavioural incidents and absence). These studies examine the influence of traffic pollution on the one hand and industrial sites on the other.

Educational success and the factors that influence it are major public health issues. Indeed, the research data show that the level of education strongly influences health. As the  OECD  report on health-related learning points out,

“This is not primarily a question of providing more specific health-based learning but of recognising and investing in the  wider impact of  general lear ning in education contexts through the lifecourse.” 

( http://www.oecd.org/education/innovation-education/37437718.pdf, page 176). The first priority for improving health and reducing inequalities is to ensure that all students are in school and that succed. Health goals are inseparable from educational goals; schools that promote health are first and foremost schools where the quality of education provided to students is high.

Alongside the issues of school management, family and community links, the availability of medical and social services in the school environment, and teaching (general knowledge and skills, health education pathways), the physical and social environment is a determinant of students’ educational success. Indeed, children and young people spend 40% of their awake time at school. Factors related to the surrounding air, ventilation, lighting, noise, sanitary facilities, cleanliness of the premises and catering are key elements of successful education.

Local and regional authorities are making considerable efforts in this area, particularly with regard to school canteens and sanitary facilities. As far as pollution is concerned, we are only just at the beginning of an ongoing process that ought to bring about a new way of thinking about the educational ecosystem. In fact, school spaces welcome children and young people, i.e. individuals in the process of development, people whose  nervous system and other biological systems are in the maturation state . The long-term impact of social and environmental factors is much greater than it is for adults. Approaches to the organization of schools must be based on research evidence on both exposure and impact on young people.

Promoting the health of children and young people means giving them the knowledge, skills and culture to take responsibility for their own health and to contribute collectively to social change for health. This can only be achieved if every student is provided with an appropriate school environment. This is all the more decisive as inequalities in housing already affect the most socially vulnerable children. It is therefore crucial to build an alliance (researchers, States, local authorities, professionals, associations, parents, students, etc.) to take action on the school environment and to prevent schools from contributing to an increase in the deleterious effects of some environmental factors on education and health.

Does Pollution Drive Achievement? The Effect of Traffic Pollution on Academic Performance (Jennifer Heissel, Claudia Persico et David Simon 2019)

The Effects of Local Industrial Pollution on Stu dents and Schools (Claudia Persico et Joanna Venator 2019)

Author: Didier Jourdan

Journal of Education in Science, Environment and Health

About the Journal

The Journal of Education in Science, Environment and Health (JESEH) is a peer-reviewed scholarly online journal. The JESEH is published quarterly in January, April, July and October. The language of the journal is English only. The JESEH welcomes any research papers on education in science, environment and health using techniques from and applications in any technical knowledge domain: original theoretical works, literature reviews, research reports, social issues, psychological issues, curricula, learning environments, and review articles. The articles should be original, unpublished, and not in consideration for publication elsewhere at the time of submission to the JESEH.

JESEH accepted articles in three different fields related to each other. These areas are science education, environmental education and health education. The following content is given priority in the articles in these three areas.Science Education: Scholarly papers that focus on the teaching and learning of science in school settings ranging from early childhood to university education and the integration of science education with other disciplines, in particular, STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, Mathematics), virtual laboratory, distance science and STEM education, research articles of the highest quality that address the intersection of science education and technology with implications for improving and enhancing science education at all levels across the world.Environmental Education: Papers and reports on all aspects of environmental education such as environmental issues such as air, water, soil pollution; acid rains, carbon footprints, climate change, greenhouse effect and global warming, and sustainable development. Manuscripts focus on enhancing understanding of outdoor and environmental education issues, environmental awareness, energy source and renewable energy, waste management, and consumption society through balanced and in-depth investigation of practices and theories relevant to outdoor and environmental education.Health Education: Manuscripts reporting on research conducted in health education in K-12 school settings, integrating information and communication technologies in health education, studies concentrate on technology related health issues addiction, nomophobia, cyber bullying and sharing new empirical findings and new ideas in the emerging field of health professions education, nursing education, medical education, sexual health education.

The JESEH is a non-profit journal and publication is completely free of charge.

The template is not mandatory for articles submitted for review. The template can be used for accepted papers.

                                                                                                        e-ISSN: 2149-214X

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Peer critiquing in scientific inquiry: enhancing preservice teachers' reasoning, epistemic knowledge, and scientific argumentation through innovative teaching strategies in an undergraduate science content course, exploring pedagogical strategies: integrating 21st-century skills in science classrooms, secondary school teachers’ conceptions of teaching science practical work through inquiry-based instruction, the relationship between science teachers’ self-efficacy perceptions towards 21st century skills and their stem attitudes, beyond the acronym: intersections of steam, cybernetics, and leadership nurturing, the mediating role of career futures between prospective teachers’ career calling and career adaptability, make a submission, article template.

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Environmental and Health Impacts of Air Pollution: A Review

Ioannis manisalidis.

1 Delphis S.A., Kifisia, Greece

2 Laboratory of Hygiene and Environmental Protection, Faculty of Medicine, Democritus University of Thrace, Alexandroupolis, Greece

Elisavet Stavropoulou

3 Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois (CHUV), Service de Médicine Interne, Lausanne, Switzerland

Agathangelos Stavropoulos

4 School of Social and Political Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom

Eugenia Bezirtzoglou

One of our era's greatest scourges is air pollution, on account not only of its impact on climate change but also its impact on public and individual health due to increasing morbidity and mortality. There are many pollutants that are major factors in disease in humans. Among them, Particulate Matter (PM), particles of variable but very small diameter, penetrate the respiratory system via inhalation, causing respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, reproductive and central nervous system dysfunctions, and cancer. Despite the fact that ozone in the stratosphere plays a protective role against ultraviolet irradiation, it is harmful when in high concentration at ground level, also affecting the respiratory and cardiovascular system. Furthermore, nitrogen oxide, sulfur dioxide, Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs), dioxins, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are all considered air pollutants that are harmful to humans. Carbon monoxide can even provoke direct poisoning when breathed in at high levels. Heavy metals such as lead, when absorbed into the human body, can lead to direct poisoning or chronic intoxication, depending on exposure. Diseases occurring from the aforementioned substances include principally respiratory problems such as Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD), asthma, bronchiolitis, and also lung cancer, cardiovascular events, central nervous system dysfunctions, and cutaneous diseases. Last but not least, climate change resulting from environmental pollution affects the geographical distribution of many infectious diseases, as do natural disasters. The only way to tackle this problem is through public awareness coupled with a multidisciplinary approach by scientific experts; national and international organizations must address the emergence of this threat and propose sustainable solutions.

Approach to the Problem

The interactions between humans and their physical surroundings have been extensively studied, as multiple human activities influence the environment. The environment is a coupling of the biotic (living organisms and microorganisms) and the abiotic (hydrosphere, lithosphere, and atmosphere).

Pollution is defined as the introduction into the environment of substances harmful to humans and other living organisms. Pollutants are harmful solids, liquids, or gases produced in higher than usual concentrations that reduce the quality of our environment.

Human activities have an adverse effect on the environment by polluting the water we drink, the air we breathe, and the soil in which plants grow. Although the industrial revolution was a great success in terms of technology, society, and the provision of multiple services, it also introduced the production of huge quantities of pollutants emitted into the air that are harmful to human health. Without any doubt, the global environmental pollution is considered an international public health issue with multiple facets. Social, economic, and legislative concerns and lifestyle habits are related to this major problem. Clearly, urbanization and industrialization are reaching unprecedented and upsetting proportions worldwide in our era. Anthropogenic air pollution is one of the biggest public health hazards worldwide, given that it accounts for about 9 million deaths per year ( 1 ).

Without a doubt, all of the aforementioned are closely associated with climate change, and in the event of danger, the consequences can be severe for mankind ( 2 ). Climate changes and the effects of global planetary warming seriously affect multiple ecosystems, causing problems such as food safety issues, ice and iceberg melting, animal extinction, and damage to plants ( 3 , 4 ).

Air pollution has various health effects. The health of susceptible and sensitive individuals can be impacted even on low air pollution days. Short-term exposure to air pollutants is closely related to COPD (Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease), cough, shortness of breath, wheezing, asthma, respiratory disease, and high rates of hospitalization (a measurement of morbidity).

The long-term effects associated with air pollution are chronic asthma, pulmonary insufficiency, cardiovascular diseases, and cardiovascular mortality. According to a Swedish cohort study, diabetes seems to be induced after long-term air pollution exposure ( 5 ). Moreover, air pollution seems to have various malign health effects in early human life, such as respiratory, cardiovascular, mental, and perinatal disorders ( 3 ), leading to infant mortality or chronic disease in adult age ( 6 ).

National reports have mentioned the increased risk of morbidity and mortality ( 1 ). These studies were conducted in many places around the world and show a correlation between daily ranges of particulate matter (PM) concentration and daily mortality. Climate shifts and global planetary warming ( 3 ) could aggravate the situation. Besides, increased hospitalization (an index of morbidity) has been registered among the elderly and susceptible individuals for specific reasons. Fine and ultrafine particulate matter seems to be associated with more serious illnesses ( 6 ), as it can invade the deepest parts of the airways and more easily reach the bloodstream.

Air pollution mainly affects those living in large urban areas, where road emissions contribute the most to the degradation of air quality. There is also a danger of industrial accidents, where the spread of a toxic fog can be fatal to the populations of the surrounding areas. The dispersion of pollutants is determined by many parameters, most notably atmospheric stability and wind ( 6 ).

In developing countries ( 7 ), the problem is more serious due to overpopulation and uncontrolled urbanization along with the development of industrialization. This leads to poor air quality, especially in countries with social disparities and a lack of information on sustainable management of the environment. The use of fuels such as wood fuel or solid fuel for domestic needs due to low incomes exposes people to bad-quality, polluted air at home. It is of note that three billion people around the world are using the above sources of energy for their daily heating and cooking needs ( 8 ). In developing countries, the women of the household seem to carry the highest risk for disease development due to their longer duration exposure to the indoor air pollution ( 8 , 9 ). Due to its fast industrial development and overpopulation, China is one of the Asian countries confronting serious air pollution problems ( 10 , 11 ). The lung cancer mortality observed in China is associated with fine particles ( 12 ). As stated already, long-term exposure is associated with deleterious effects on the cardiovascular system ( 3 , 5 ). However, it is interesting to note that cardiovascular diseases have mostly been observed in developed and high-income countries rather than in the developing low-income countries exposed highly to air pollution ( 13 ). Extreme air pollution is recorded in India, where the air quality reaches hazardous levels. New Delhi is one of the more polluted cities in India. Flights in and out of New Delhi International Airport are often canceled due to the reduced visibility associated with air pollution. Pollution is occurring both in urban and rural areas in India due to the fast industrialization, urbanization, and rise in use of motorcycle transportation. Nevertheless, biomass combustion associated with heating and cooking needs and practices is a major source of household air pollution in India and in Nepal ( 14 , 15 ). There is spatial heterogeneity in India, as areas with diverse climatological conditions and population and education levels generate different indoor air qualities, with higher PM 2.5 observed in North Indian states (557–601 μg/m 3 ) compared to the Southern States (183–214 μg/m 3 ) ( 16 , 17 ). The cold climate of the North Indian areas may be the main reason for this, as longer periods at home and more heating are necessary compared to in the tropical climate of Southern India. Household air pollution in India is associated with major health effects, especially in women and young children, who stay indoors for longer periods. Chronic obstructive respiratory disease (CORD) and lung cancer are mostly observed in women, while acute lower respiratory disease is seen in young children under 5 years of age ( 18 ).

Accumulation of air pollution, especially sulfur dioxide and smoke, reaching 1,500 mg/m3, resulted in an increase in the number of deaths (4,000 deaths) in December 1952 in London and in 1963 in New York City (400 deaths) ( 19 ). An association of pollution with mortality was reported on the basis of monitoring of outdoor pollution in six US metropolitan cities ( 20 ). In every case, it seems that mortality was closely related to the levels of fine, inhalable, and sulfate particles more than with the levels of total particulate pollution, aerosol acidity, sulfur dioxide, or nitrogen dioxide ( 20 ).

Furthermore, extremely high levels of pollution are reported in Mexico City and Rio de Janeiro, followed by Milan, Ankara, Melbourne, Tokyo, and Moscow ( 19 ).

Based on the magnitude of the public health impact, it is certain that different kinds of interventions should be taken into account. Success and effectiveness in controlling air pollution, specifically at the local level, have been reported. Adequate technological means are applied considering the source and the nature of the emission as well as its impact on health and the environment. The importance of point sources and non-point sources of air pollution control is reported by Schwela and Köth-Jahr ( 21 ). Without a doubt, a detailed emission inventory must record all sources in a given area. Beyond considering the above sources and their nature, topography and meteorology should also be considered, as stated previously. Assessment of the control policies and methods is often extrapolated from the local to the regional and then to the global scale. Air pollution may be dispersed and transported from one region to another area located far away. Air pollution management means the reduction to acceptable levels or possible elimination of air pollutants whose presence in the air affects our health or the environmental ecosystem. Private and governmental entities and authorities implement actions to ensure the air quality ( 22 ). Air quality standards and guidelines were adopted for the different pollutants by the WHO and EPA as a tool for the management of air quality ( 1 , 23 ). These standards have to be compared to the emissions inventory standards by causal analysis and dispersion modeling in order to reveal the problematic areas ( 24 ). Inventories are generally based on a combination of direct measurements and emissions modeling ( 24 ).

As an example, we state here the control measures at the source through the use of catalytic converters in cars. These are devices that turn the pollutants and toxic gases produced from combustion engines into less-toxic pollutants by catalysis through redox reactions ( 25 ). In Greece, the use of private cars was restricted by tracking their license plates in order to reduce traffic congestion during rush hour ( 25 ).

Concerning industrial emissions, collectors and closed systems can keep the air pollution to the minimal standards imposed by legislation ( 26 ).

Current strategies to improve air quality require an estimation of the economic value of the benefits gained from proposed programs. These proposed programs by public authorities, and directives are issued with guidelines to be respected.

In Europe, air quality limit values AQLVs (Air Quality Limit Values) are issued for setting off planning claims ( 27 ). In the USA, the NAAQS (National Ambient Air Quality Standards) establish the national air quality limit values ( 27 ). While both standards and directives are based on different mechanisms, significant success has been achieved in the reduction of overall emissions and associated health and environmental effects ( 27 ). The European Directive identifies geographical areas of risk exposure as monitoring/assessment zones to record the emission sources and levels of air pollution ( 27 ), whereas the USA establishes global geographical air quality criteria according to the severity of their air quality problem and records all sources of the pollutants and their precursors ( 27 ).

In this vein, funds have been financing, directly or indirectly, projects related to air quality along with the technical infrastructure to maintain good air quality. These plans focus on an inventory of databases from air quality environmental planning awareness campaigns. Moreover, pollution measures of air emissions may be taken for vehicles, machines, and industries in urban areas.

Technological innovation can only be successful if it is able to meet the needs of society. In this sense, technology must reflect the decision-making practices and procedures of those involved in risk assessment and evaluation and act as a facilitator in providing information and assessments to enable decision makers to make the best decisions possible. Summarizing the aforementioned in order to design an effective air quality control strategy, several aspects must be considered: environmental factors and ambient air quality conditions, engineering factors and air pollutant characteristics, and finally, economic operating costs for technological improvement and administrative and legal costs. Considering the economic factor, competitiveness through neoliberal concepts is offering a solution to environmental problems ( 22 ).

The development of environmental governance, along with technological progress, has initiated the deployment of a dialogue. Environmental politics has created objections and points of opposition between different political parties, scientists, media, and governmental and non-governmental organizations ( 22 ). Radical environmental activism actions and movements have been created ( 22 ). The rise of the new information and communication technologies (ICTs) are many times examined as to whether and in which way they have influenced means of communication and social movements such as activism ( 28 ). Since the 1990s, the term “digital activism” has been used increasingly and in many different disciplines ( 29 ). Nowadays, multiple digital technologies can be used to produce a digital activism outcome on environmental issues. More specifically, devices with online capabilities such as computers or mobile phones are being used as a way to pursue change in political and social affairs ( 30 ).

In the present paper, we focus on the sources of environmental pollution in relation to public health and propose some solutions and interventions that may be of interest to environmental legislators and decision makers.

Sources of Exposure

It is known that the majority of environmental pollutants are emitted through large-scale human activities such as the use of industrial machinery, power-producing stations, combustion engines, and cars. Because these activities are performed at such a large scale, they are by far the major contributors to air pollution, with cars estimated to be responsible for approximately 80% of today's pollution ( 31 ). Some other human activities are also influencing our environment to a lesser extent, such as field cultivation techniques, gas stations, fuel tanks heaters, and cleaning procedures ( 32 ), as well as several natural sources, such as volcanic and soil eruptions and forest fires.

The classification of air pollutants is based mainly on the sources producing pollution. Therefore, it is worth mentioning the four main sources, following the classification system: Major sources, Area sources, Mobile sources, and Natural sources.

Major sources include the emission of pollutants from power stations, refineries, and petrochemicals, the chemical and fertilizer industries, metallurgical and other industrial plants, and, finally, municipal incineration.

Indoor area sources include domestic cleaning activities, dry cleaners, printing shops, and petrol stations.

Mobile sources include automobiles, cars, railways, airways, and other types of vehicles.

Finally, natural sources include, as stated previously, physical disasters ( 33 ) such as forest fire, volcanic erosion, dust storms, and agricultural burning.

However, many classification systems have been proposed. Another type of classification is a grouping according to the recipient of the pollution, as follows:

Air pollution is determined as the presence of pollutants in the air in large quantities for long periods. Air pollutants are dispersed particles, hydrocarbons, CO, CO 2 , NO, NO 2 , SO 3 , etc.

Water pollution is organic and inorganic charge and biological charge ( 10 ) at high levels that affect the water quality ( 34 , 35 ).

Soil pollution occurs through the release of chemicals or the disposal of wastes, such as heavy metals, hydrocarbons, and pesticides.

Air pollution can influence the quality of soil and water bodies by polluting precipitation, falling into water and soil environments ( 34 , 36 ). Notably, the chemistry of the soil can be amended due to acid precipitation by affecting plants, cultures, and water quality ( 37 ). Moreover, movement of heavy metals is favored by soil acidity, and metals are so then moving into the watery environment. It is known that heavy metals such as aluminum are noxious to wildlife and fishes. Soil quality seems to be of importance, as soils with low calcium carbonate levels are at increased jeopardy from acid rain. Over and above rain, snow and particulate matter drip into watery ' bodies ( 36 , 38 ).

Lastly, pollution is classified following type of origin:

Radioactive and nuclear pollution , releasing radioactive and nuclear pollutants into water, air, and soil during nuclear explosions and accidents, from nuclear weapons, and through handling or disposal of radioactive sewage.

Radioactive materials can contaminate surface water bodies and, being noxious to the environment, plants, animals, and humans. It is known that several radioactive substances such as radium and uranium concentrate in the bones and can cause cancers ( 38 , 39 ).

Noise pollution is produced by machines, vehicles, traffic noises, and musical installations that are harmful to our hearing.

The World Health Organization introduced the term DALYs. The DALYs for a disease or health condition is defined as the sum of the Years of Life Lost (YLL) due to premature mortality in the population and the Years Lost due to Disability (YLD) for people living with the health condition or its consequences ( 39 ). In Europe, air pollution is the main cause of disability-adjusted life years lost (DALYs), followed by noise pollution. The potential relationships of noise and air pollution with health have been studied ( 40 ). The study found that DALYs related to noise were more important than those related to air pollution, as the effects of environmental noise on cardiovascular disease were independent of air pollution ( 40 ). Environmental noise should be counted as an independent public health risk ( 40 ).

Environmental pollution occurs when changes in the physical, chemical, or biological constituents of the environment (air masses, temperature, climate, etc.) are produced.

Pollutants harm our environment either by increasing levels above normal or by introducing harmful toxic substances. Primary pollutants are directly produced from the above sources, and secondary pollutants are emitted as by-products of the primary ones. Pollutants can be biodegradable or non-biodegradable and of natural origin or anthropogenic, as stated previously. Moreover, their origin can be a unique source (point-source) or dispersed sources.

Pollutants have differences in physical and chemical properties, explaining the discrepancy in their capacity for producing toxic effects. As an example, we state here that aerosol compounds ( 41 – 43 ) have a greater toxicity than gaseous compounds due to their tiny size (solid or liquid) in the atmosphere; they have a greater penetration capacity. Gaseous compounds are eliminated more easily by our respiratory system ( 41 ). These particles are able to damage lungs and can even enter the bloodstream ( 41 ), leading to the premature deaths of millions of people yearly. Moreover, the aerosol acidity ([H+]) seems to considerably enhance the production of secondary organic aerosols (SOA), but this last aspect is not supported by other scientific teams ( 38 ).

Climate and Pollution

Air pollution and climate change are closely related. Climate is the other side of the same coin that reduces the quality of our Earth ( 44 ). Pollutants such as black carbon, methane, tropospheric ozone, and aerosols affect the amount of incoming sunlight. As a result, the temperature of the Earth is increasing, resulting in the melting of ice, icebergs, and glaciers.

In this vein, climatic changes will affect the incidence and prevalence of both residual and imported infections in Europe. Climate and weather affect the duration, timing, and intensity of outbreaks strongly and change the map of infectious diseases in the globe ( 45 ). Mosquito-transmitted parasitic or viral diseases are extremely climate-sensitive, as warming firstly shortens the pathogen incubation period and secondly shifts the geographic map of the vector. Similarly, water-warming following climate changes leads to a high incidence of waterborne infections. Recently, in Europe, eradicated diseases seem to be emerging due to the migration of population, for example, cholera, poliomyelitis, tick-borne encephalitis, and malaria ( 46 ).

The spread of epidemics is associated with natural climate disasters and storms, which seem to occur more frequently nowadays ( 47 ). Malnutrition and disequilibration of the immune system are also associated with the emerging infections affecting public health ( 48 ).

The Chikungunya virus “took the airplane” from the Indian Ocean to Europe, as outbreaks of the disease were registered in Italy ( 49 ) as well as autochthonous cases in France ( 50 ).

An increase in cryptosporidiosis in the United Kingdom and in the Czech Republic seems to have occurred following flooding ( 36 , 51 ).

As stated previously, aerosols compounds are tiny in size and considerably affect the climate. They are able to dissipate sunlight (the albedo phenomenon) by dispersing a quarter of the sun's rays back to space and have cooled the global temperature over the last 30 years ( 52 ).

Air Pollutants

The World Health Organization (WHO) reports on six major air pollutants, namely particle pollution, ground-level ozone, carbon monoxide, sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, and lead. Air pollution can have a disastrous effect on all components of the environment, including groundwater, soil, and air. Additionally, it poses a serious threat to living organisms. In this vein, our interest is mainly to focus on these pollutants, as they are related to more extensive and severe problems in human health and environmental impact. Acid rain, global warming, the greenhouse effect, and climate changes have an important ecological impact on air pollution ( 53 ).

Particulate Matter (PM) and Health

Studies have shown a relationship between particulate matter (PM) and adverse health effects, focusing on either short-term (acute) or long-term (chronic) PM exposure.

Particulate matter (PM) is usually formed in the atmosphere as a result of chemical reactions between the different pollutants. The penetration of particles is closely dependent on their size ( 53 ). Particulate Matter (PM) was defined as a term for particles by the United States Environmental Protection Agency ( 54 ). Particulate matter (PM) pollution includes particles with diameters of 10 micrometers (μm) or smaller, called PM 10 , and extremely fine particles with diameters that are generally 2.5 micrometers (μm) and smaller.

Particulate matter contains tiny liquid or solid droplets that can be inhaled and cause serious health effects ( 55 ). Particles <10 μm in diameter (PM 10 ) after inhalation can invade the lungs and even reach the bloodstream. Fine particles, PM 2.5 , pose a greater risk to health ( 6 , 56 ) ( Table 1 ).

Penetrability according to particle size.

Multiple epidemiological studies have been performed on the health effects of PM. A positive relation was shown between both short-term and long-term exposures of PM 2.5 and acute nasopharyngitis ( 56 ). In addition, long-term exposure to PM for years was found to be related to cardiovascular diseases and infant mortality.

Those studies depend on PM 2.5 monitors and are restricted in terms of study area or city area due to a lack of spatially resolved daily PM 2.5 concentration data and, in this way, are not representative of the entire population. Following a recent epidemiological study by the Department of Environmental Health at Harvard School of Public Health (Boston, MA) ( 57 ), it was reported that, as PM 2.5 concentrations vary spatially, an exposure error (Berkson error) seems to be produced, and the relative magnitudes of the short- and long-term effects are not yet completely elucidated. The team developed a PM 2.5 exposure model based on remote sensing data for assessing short- and long-term human exposures ( 57 ). This model permits spatial resolution in short-term effects plus the assessment of long-term effects in the whole population.

Moreover, respiratory diseases and affection of the immune system are registered as long-term chronic effects ( 58 ). It is worth noting that people with asthma, pneumonia, diabetes, and respiratory and cardiovascular diseases are especially susceptible and vulnerable to the effects of PM. PM 2.5 , followed by PM 10 , are strongly associated with diverse respiratory system diseases ( 59 ), as their size permits them to pierce interior spaces ( 60 ). The particles produce toxic effects according to their chemical and physical properties. The components of PM 10 and PM 2.5 can be organic (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, dioxins, benzene, 1-3 butadiene) or inorganic (carbon, chlorides, nitrates, sulfates, metals) in nature ( 55 ).

Particulate Matter (PM) is divided into four main categories according to type and size ( 61 ) ( Table 2 ).

Types and sizes of particulate Matter (PM).

Gas contaminants include PM in aerial masses.

Particulate contaminants include contaminants such as smog, soot, tobacco smoke, oil smoke, fly ash, and cement dust.

Biological Contaminants are microorganisms (bacteria, viruses, fungi, mold, and bacterial spores), cat allergens, house dust and allergens, and pollen.

Types of Dust include suspended atmospheric dust, settling dust, and heavy dust.

Finally, another fact is that the half-lives of PM 10 and PM 2.5 particles in the atmosphere is extended due to their tiny dimensions; this permits their long-lasting suspension in the atmosphere and even their transfer and spread to distant destinations where people and the environment may be exposed to the same magnitude of pollution ( 53 ). They are able to change the nutrient balance in watery ecosystems, damage forests and crops, and acidify water bodies.

As stated, PM 2.5 , due to their tiny size, are causing more serious health effects. These aforementioned fine particles are the main cause of the “haze” formation in different metropolitan areas ( 12 , 13 , 61 ).

Ozone Impact in the Atmosphere

Ozone (O 3 ) is a gas formed from oxygen under high voltage electric discharge ( 62 ). It is a strong oxidant, 52% stronger than chlorine. It arises in the stratosphere, but it could also arise following chain reactions of photochemical smog in the troposphere ( 63 ).

Ozone can travel to distant areas from its initial source, moving with air masses ( 64 ). It is surprising that ozone levels over cities are low in contrast to the increased amounts occuring in urban areas, which could become harmful for cultures, forests, and vegetation ( 65 ) as it is reducing carbon assimilation ( 66 ). Ozone reduces growth and yield ( 47 , 48 ) and affects the plant microflora due to its antimicrobial capacity ( 67 , 68 ). In this regard, ozone acts upon other natural ecosystems, with microflora ( 69 , 70 ) and animal species changing their species composition ( 71 ). Ozone increases DNA damage in epidermal keratinocytes and leads to impaired cellular function ( 72 ).

Ground-level ozone (GLO) is generated through a chemical reaction between oxides of nitrogen and VOCs emitted from natural sources and/or following anthropogenic activities.

Ozone uptake usually occurs by inhalation. Ozone affects the upper layers of the skin and the tear ducts ( 73 ). A study of short-term exposure of mice to high levels of ozone showed malondialdehyde formation in the upper skin (epidermis) but also depletion in vitamins C and E. It is likely that ozone levels are not interfering with the skin barrier function and integrity to predispose to skin disease ( 74 ).

Due to the low water-solubility of ozone, inhaled ozone has the capacity to penetrate deeply into the lungs ( 75 ).

Toxic effects induced by ozone are registered in urban areas all over the world, causing biochemical, morphologic, functional, and immunological disorders ( 76 ).

The European project (APHEA2) focuses on the acute effects of ambient ozone concentrations on mortality ( 77 ). Daily ozone concentrations compared to the daily number of deaths were reported from different European cities for a 3-year period. During the warm period of the year, an observed increase in ozone concentration was associated with an increase in the daily number of deaths (0.33%), in the number of respiratory deaths (1.13%), and in the number of cardiovascular deaths (0.45%). No effect was observed during wintertime.

Carbon Monoxide (CO)

Carbon monoxide is produced by fossil fuel when combustion is incomplete. The symptoms of poisoning due to inhaling carbon monoxide include headache, dizziness, weakness, nausea, vomiting, and, finally, loss of consciousness.

The affinity of carbon monoxide to hemoglobin is much greater than that of oxygen. In this vein, serious poisoning may occur in people exposed to high levels of carbon monoxide for a long period of time. Due to the loss of oxygen as a result of the competitive binding of carbon monoxide, hypoxia, ischemia, and cardiovascular disease are observed.

Carbon monoxide affects the greenhouses gases that are tightly connected to global warming and climate. This should lead to an increase in soil and water temperatures, and extreme weather conditions or storms may occur ( 68 ).

However, in laboratory and field experiments, it has been seen to produce increased plant growth ( 78 ).

Nitrogen Oxide (NO 2 )

Nitrogen oxide is a traffic-related pollutant, as it is emitted from automobile motor engines ( 79 , 80 ). It is an irritant of the respiratory system as it penetrates deep in the lung, inducing respiratory diseases, coughing, wheezing, dyspnea, bronchospasm, and even pulmonary edema when inhaled at high levels. It seems that concentrations over 0.2 ppm produce these adverse effects in humans, while concentrations higher than 2.0 ppm affect T-lymphocytes, particularly the CD8+ cells and NK cells that produce our immune response ( 81 ).It is reported that long-term exposure to high levels of nitrogen dioxide can be responsible for chronic lung disease. Long-term exposure to NO 2 can impair the sense of smell ( 81 ).

However, systems other than respiratory ones can be involved, as symptoms such as eye, throat, and nose irritation have been registered ( 81 ).

High levels of nitrogen dioxide are deleterious to crops and vegetation, as they have been observed to reduce crop yield and plant growth efficiency. Moreover, NO 2 can reduce visibility and discolor fabrics ( 81 ).

Sulfur Dioxide (SO 2 )

Sulfur dioxide is a harmful gas that is emitted mainly from fossil fuel consumption or industrial activities. The annual standard for SO 2 is 0.03 ppm ( 82 ). It affects human, animal, and plant life. Susceptible people as those with lung disease, old people, and children, who present a higher risk of damage. The major health problems associated with sulfur dioxide emissions in industrialized areas are respiratory irritation, bronchitis, mucus production, and bronchospasm, as it is a sensory irritant and penetrates deep into the lung converted into bisulfite and interacting with sensory receptors, causing bronchoconstriction. Moreover, skin redness, damage to the eyes (lacrimation and corneal opacity) and mucous membranes, and worsening of pre-existing cardiovascular disease have been observed ( 81 ).

Environmental adverse effects, such as acidification of soil and acid rain, seem to be associated with sulfur dioxide emissions ( 83 ).

Lead is a heavy metal used in different industrial plants and emitted from some petrol motor engines, batteries, radiators, waste incinerators, and waste waters ( 84 ).

Moreover, major sources of lead pollution in the air are metals, ore, and piston-engine aircraft. Lead poisoning is a threat to public health due to its deleterious effects upon humans, animals, and the environment, especially in the developing countries.

Exposure to lead can occur through inhalation, ingestion, and dermal absorption. Trans- placental transport of lead was also reported, as lead passes through the placenta unencumbered ( 85 ). The younger the fetus is, the more harmful the toxic effects. Lead toxicity affects the fetal nervous system; edema or swelling of the brain is observed ( 86 ). Lead, when inhaled, accumulates in the blood, soft tissue, liver, lung, bones, and cardiovascular, nervous, and reproductive systems. Moreover, loss of concentration and memory, as well as muscle and joint pain, were observed in adults ( 85 , 86 ).

Children and newborns ( 87 ) are extremely susceptible even to minimal doses of lead, as it is a neurotoxicant and causes learning disabilities, impairment of memory, hyperactivity, and even mental retardation.

Elevated amounts of lead in the environment are harmful to plants and crop growth. Neurological effects are observed in vertebrates and animals in association with high lead levels ( 88 ).

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons(PAHs)

The distribution of PAHs is ubiquitous in the environment, as the atmosphere is the most important means of their dispersal. They are found in coal and in tar sediments. Moreover, they are generated through incomplete combustion of organic matter as in the cases of forest fires, incineration, and engines ( 89 ). PAH compounds, such as benzopyrene, acenaphthylene, anthracene, and fluoranthene are recognized as toxic, mutagenic, and carcinogenic substances. They are an important risk factor for lung cancer ( 89 ).

Volatile Organic Compounds(VOCs)

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), such as toluene, benzene, ethylbenzene, and xylene ( 90 ), have been found to be associated with cancer in humans ( 91 ). The use of new products and materials has actually resulted in increased concentrations of VOCs. VOCs pollute indoor air ( 90 ) and may have adverse effects on human health ( 91 ). Short-term and long-term adverse effects on human health are observed. VOCs are responsible for indoor air smells. Short-term exposure is found to cause irritation of eyes, nose, throat, and mucosal membranes, while those of long duration exposure include toxic reactions ( 92 ). Predictable assessment of the toxic effects of complex VOC mixtures is difficult to estimate, as these pollutants can have synergic, antagonistic, or indifferent effects ( 91 , 93 ).

Dioxins originate from industrial processes but also come from natural processes, such as forest fires and volcanic eruptions. They accumulate in foods such as meat and dairy products, fish and shellfish, and especially in the fatty tissue of animals ( 94 ).

Short-period exhibition to high dioxin concentrations may result in dark spots and lesions on the skin ( 94 ). Long-term exposure to dioxins can cause developmental problems, impairment of the immune, endocrine and nervous systems, reproductive infertility, and cancer ( 94 ).

Without any doubt, fossil fuel consumption is responsible for a sizeable part of air contamination. This contamination may be anthropogenic, as in agricultural and industrial processes or transportation, while contamination from natural sources is also possible. Interestingly, it is of note that the air quality standards established through the European Air Quality Directive are somewhat looser than the WHO guidelines, which are stricter ( 95 ).

Effect of Air Pollution on Health

The most common air pollutants are ground-level ozone and Particulates Matter (PM). Air pollution is distinguished into two main types:

Outdoor pollution is the ambient air pollution.

Indoor pollution is the pollution generated by household combustion of fuels.

People exposed to high concentrations of air pollutants experience disease symptoms and states of greater and lesser seriousness. These effects are grouped into short- and long-term effects affecting health.

Susceptible populations that need to be aware of health protection measures include old people, children, and people with diabetes and predisposing heart or lung disease, especially asthma.

As extensively stated previously, according to a recent epidemiological study from Harvard School of Public Health, the relative magnitudes of the short- and long-term effects have not been completely clarified ( 57 ) due to the different epidemiological methodologies and to the exposure errors. New models are proposed for assessing short- and long-term human exposure data more successfully ( 57 ). Thus, in the present section, we report the more common short- and long-term health effects but also general concerns for both types of effects, as these effects are often dependent on environmental conditions, dose, and individual susceptibility.

Short-term effects are temporary and range from simple discomfort, such as irritation of the eyes, nose, skin, throat, wheezing, coughing and chest tightness, and breathing difficulties, to more serious states, such as asthma, pneumonia, bronchitis, and lung and heart problems. Short-term exposure to air pollution can also cause headaches, nausea, and dizziness.

These problems can be aggravated by extended long-term exposure to the pollutants, which is harmful to the neurological, reproductive, and respiratory systems and causes cancer and even, rarely, deaths.

The long-term effects are chronic, lasting for years or the whole life and can even lead to death. Furthermore, the toxicity of several air pollutants may also induce a variety of cancers in the long term ( 96 ).

As stated already, respiratory disorders are closely associated with the inhalation of air pollutants. These pollutants will invade through the airways and will accumulate at the cells. Damage to target cells should be related to the pollutant component involved and its source and dose. Health effects are also closely dependent on country, area, season, and time. An extended exposure duration to the pollutant should incline to long-term health effects in relation also to the above factors.

Particulate Matter (PMs), dust, benzene, and O 3 cause serious damage to the respiratory system ( 97 ). Moreover, there is a supplementary risk in case of existing respiratory disease such as asthma ( 98 ). Long-term effects are more frequent in people with a predisposing disease state. When the trachea is contaminated by pollutants, voice alterations may be remarked after acute exposure. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) may be induced following air pollution, increasing morbidity and mortality ( 99 ). Long-term effects from traffic, industrial air pollution, and combustion of fuels are the major factors for COPD risk ( 99 ).

Multiple cardiovascular effects have been observed after exposure to air pollutants ( 100 ). Changes occurred in blood cells after long-term exposure may affect cardiac functionality. Coronary arteriosclerosis was reported following long-term exposure to traffic emissions ( 101 ), while short-term exposure is related to hypertension, stroke, myocardial infracts, and heart insufficiency. Ventricle hypertrophy is reported to occur in humans after long-time exposure to nitrogen oxide (NO 2 ) ( 102 , 103 ).

Neurological effects have been observed in adults and children after extended-term exposure to air pollutants.

Psychological complications, autism, retinopathy, fetal growth, and low birth weight seem to be related to long-term air pollution ( 83 ). The etiologic agent of the neurodegenerative diseases (Alzheimer's and Parkinson's) is not yet known, although it is believed that extended exposure to air pollution seems to be a factor. Specifically, pesticides and metals are cited as etiological factors, together with diet. The mechanisms in the development of neurodegenerative disease include oxidative stress, protein aggregation, inflammation, and mitochondrial impairment in neurons ( 104 ) ( Figure 1 ).

Impact of air pollutants on the brain.

Brain inflammation was observed in dogs living in a highly polluted area in Mexico for a long period ( 105 ). In human adults, markers of systemic inflammation (IL-6 and fibrinogen) were found to be increased as an immediate response to PNC on the IL-6 level, possibly leading to the production of acute-phase proteins ( 106 ). The progression of atherosclerosis and oxidative stress seem to be the mechanisms involved in the neurological disturbances caused by long-term air pollution. Inflammation comes secondary to the oxidative stress and seems to be involved in the impairment of developmental maturation, affecting multiple organs ( 105 , 107 ). Similarly, other factors seem to be involved in the developmental maturation, which define the vulnerability to long-term air pollution. These include birthweight, maternal smoking, genetic background and socioeconomic environment, as well as education level.

However, diet, starting from breast-feeding, is another determinant factor. Diet is the main source of antioxidants, which play a key role in our protection against air pollutants ( 108 ). Antioxidants are free radical scavengers and limit the interaction of free radicals in the brain ( 108 ). Similarly, genetic background may result in a differential susceptibility toward the oxidative stress pathway ( 60 ). For example, antioxidant supplementation with vitamins C and E appears to modulate the effect of ozone in asthmatic children homozygous for the GSTM1 null allele ( 61 ). Inflammatory cytokines released in the periphery (e.g., respiratory epithelia) upregulate the innate immune Toll-like receptor 2. Such activation and the subsequent events leading to neurodegeneration have recently been observed in lung lavage in mice exposed to ambient Los Angeles (CA, USA) particulate matter ( 61 ). In children, neurodevelopmental morbidities were observed after lead exposure. These children developed aggressive and delinquent behavior, reduced intelligence, learning difficulties, and hyperactivity ( 109 ). No level of lead exposure seems to be “safe,” and the scientific community has asked the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) to reduce the current screening guideline of 10 μg/dl ( 109 ).

It is important to state that impact on the immune system, causing dysfunction and neuroinflammation ( 104 ), is related to poor air quality. Yet, increases in serum levels of immunoglobulins (IgA, IgM) and the complement component C3 are observed ( 106 ). Another issue is that antigen presentation is affected by air pollutants, as there is an upregulation of costimulatory molecules such as CD80 and CD86 on macrophages ( 110 ).

As is known, skin is our shield against ultraviolet radiation (UVR) and other pollutants, as it is the most exterior layer of our body. Traffic-related pollutants, such as PAHs, VOCs, oxides, and PM, may cause pigmented spots on our skin ( 111 ). On the one hand, as already stated, when pollutants penetrate through the skin or are inhaled, damage to the organs is observed, as some of these pollutants are mutagenic and carcinogenic, and, specifically, they affect the liver and lung. On the other hand, air pollutants (and those in the troposphere) reduce the adverse effects of ultraviolet radiation UVR in polluted urban areas ( 111 ). Air pollutants absorbed by the human skin may contribute to skin aging, psoriasis, acne, urticaria, eczema, and atopic dermatitis ( 111 ), usually caused by exposure to oxides and photochemical smoke ( 111 ). Exposure to PM and cigarette smoking act as skin-aging agents, causing spots, dyschromia, and wrinkles. Lastly, pollutants have been associated with skin cancer ( 111 ).

Higher morbidity is reported to fetuses and children when exposed to the above dangers. Impairment in fetal growth, low birth weight, and autism have been reported ( 112 ).

Another exterior organ that may be affected is the eye. Contamination usually comes from suspended pollutants and may result in asymptomatic eye outcomes, irritation ( 112 ), retinopathy, or dry eye syndrome ( 113 , 114 ).

Environmental Impact of Air Pollution

Air pollution is harming not only human health but also the environment ( 115 ) in which we live. The most important environmental effects are as follows.

Acid rain is wet (rain, fog, snow) or dry (particulates and gas) precipitation containing toxic amounts of nitric and sulfuric acids. They are able to acidify the water and soil environments, damage trees and plantations, and even damage buildings and outdoor sculptures, constructions, and statues.

Haze is produced when fine particles are dispersed in the air and reduce the transparency of the atmosphere. It is caused by gas emissions in the air coming from industrial facilities, power plants, automobiles, and trucks.

Ozone , as discussed previously, occurs both at ground level and in the upper level (stratosphere) of the Earth's atmosphere. Stratospheric ozone is protecting us from the Sun's harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays. In contrast, ground-level ozone is harmful to human health and is a pollutant. Unfortunately, stratospheric ozone is gradually damaged by ozone-depleting substances (i.e., chemicals, pesticides, and aerosols). If this protecting stratospheric ozone layer is thinned, then UV radiation can reach our Earth, with harmful effects for human life (skin cancer) ( 116 ) and crops ( 117 ). In plants, ozone penetrates through the stomata, inducing them to close, which blocks CO 2 transfer and induces a reduction in photosynthesis ( 118 ).

Global climate change is an important issue that concerns mankind. As is known, the “greenhouse effect” keeps the Earth's temperature stable. Unhappily, anthropogenic activities have destroyed this protecting temperature effect by producing large amounts of greenhouse gases, and global warming is mounting, with harmful effects on human health, animals, forests, wildlife, agriculture, and the water environment. A report states that global warming is adding to the health risks of poor people ( 119 ).

People living in poorly constructed buildings in warm-climate countries are at high risk for heat-related health problems as temperatures mount ( 119 ).

Wildlife is burdened by toxic pollutants coming from the air, soil, or the water ecosystem and, in this way, animals can develop health problems when exposed to high levels of pollutants. Reproductive failure and birth effects have been reported.

Eutrophication is occurring when elevated concentrations of nutrients (especially nitrogen) stimulate the blooming of aquatic algae, which can cause a disequilibration in the diversity of fish and their deaths.

Without a doubt, there is a critical concentration of pollution that an ecosystem can tolerate without being destroyed, which is associated with the ecosystem's capacity to neutralize acidity. The Canada Acid Rain Program established this load at 20 kg/ha/yr ( 120 ).

Hence, air pollution has deleterious effects on both soil and water ( 121 ). Concerning PM as an air pollutant, its impact on crop yield and food productivity has been reported. Its impact on watery bodies is associated with the survival of living organisms and fishes and their productivity potential ( 121 ).

An impairment in photosynthetic rhythm and metabolism is observed in plants exposed to the effects of ozone ( 121 ).

Sulfur and nitrogen oxides are involved in the formation of acid rain and are harmful to plants and marine organisms.

Last but not least, as mentioned above, the toxicity associated with lead and other metals is the main threat to our ecosystems (air, water, and soil) and living creatures ( 121 ).

In 2018, during the first WHO Global Conference on Air Pollution and Health, the WHO's General Director, Dr. Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus, called air pollution a “silent public health emergency” and “the new tobacco” ( 122 ).

Undoubtedly, children are particularly vulnerable to air pollution, especially during their development. Air pollution has adverse effects on our lives in many different respects.

Diseases associated with air pollution have not only an important economic impact but also a societal impact due to absences from productive work and school.

Despite the difficulty of eradicating the problem of anthropogenic environmental pollution, a successful solution could be envisaged as a tight collaboration of authorities, bodies, and doctors to regularize the situation. Governments should spread sufficient information and educate people and should involve professionals in these issues so as to control the emergence of the problem successfully.

Technologies to reduce air pollution at the source must be established and should be used in all industries and power plants. The Kyoto Protocol of 1997 set as a major target the reduction of GHG emissions to below 5% by 2012 ( 123 ). This was followed by the Copenhagen summit, 2009 ( 124 ), and then the Durban summit of 2011 ( 125 ), where it was decided to keep to the same line of action. The Kyoto protocol and the subsequent ones were ratified by many countries. Among the pioneers who adopted this important protocol for the world's environmental and climate “health” was China ( 3 ). As is known, China is a fast-developing economy and its GDP (Gross Domestic Product) is expected to be very high by 2050, which is defined as the year of dissolution of the protocol for the decrease in gas emissions.

A more recent international agreement of crucial importance for climate change is the Paris Agreement of 2015, issued by the UNFCCC (United Nations Climate Change Committee). This latest agreement was ratified by a plethora of UN (United Nations) countries as well as the countries of the European Union ( 126 ). In this vein, parties should promote actions and measures to enhance numerous aspects around the subject. Boosting education, training, public awareness, and public participation are some of the relevant actions for maximizing the opportunities to achieve the targets and goals on the crucial matter of climate change and environmental pollution ( 126 ). Without any doubt, technological improvements makes our world easier and it seems difficult to reduce the harmful impact caused by gas emissions, we could limit its use by seeking reliable approaches.

Synopsizing, a global prevention policy should be designed in order to combat anthropogenic air pollution as a complement to the correct handling of the adverse health effects associated with air pollution. Sustainable development practices should be applied, together with information coming from research in order to handle the problem effectively.

At this point, international cooperation in terms of research, development, administration policy, monitoring, and politics is vital for effective pollution control. Legislation concerning air pollution must be aligned and updated, and policy makers should propose the design of a powerful tool of environmental and health protection. As a result, the main proposal of this essay is that we should focus on fostering local structures to promote experience and practice and extrapolate these to the international level through developing effective policies for sustainable management of ecosystems.

Author Contributions

All authors listed have made a substantial, direct and intellectual contribution to the work, and approved it for publication.

Conflict of Interest

IM is employed by the company Delphis S.A. The remaining authors declare that the present review paper was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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Ee: essay on environmental education (757 words).

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EE: Essay on Environmental Education !

Environmental education (EE) refers to organized efforts to teach about how natural environments function and, particularly, how human beings can manage their behavior and ecosystems in order to live sustainably.

The term is often used to imply education within the school system, from primary to post secondary. However, it is sometimes used more broadly to include all efforts to educate the public and other audiences, including print materials, websites, media campaigns, etc. Related disciplines include outdoor education and experiential education.

Environmental education is a learning process that increases people’s knowledge and awareness about the environment and associated challenges, develops the necessary skills and expertise to address the challenges, and fosters attitudes, motivations, and commitments to make informed decisions and take responsible action (UNESCO, Tbilisi Declaration, 1978).

Environmental education generally refers to curriculum and programs which aim to teach people about the natural world and particularly about ways in which ecosystems work. Environmental education programs often aim to change people’s perceptions about the value of the natural world and to teach how to change environmental behavior, such as getting people to recycle or how to build eco-friendly dwellings.

Environmental education programs often aim to (i) help students develop factual knowledge about the natural environment, particularly with regard to how ecosystems work and human impacts on the natural environment; (ii) foster more positive perceptions about the value of the natural world (iii) develop eco-friendly habits, (iv) engage students in environmental rejuvenation projects and (v) develop students’ psychological and spiritual relationship with nature.

The components of environmental education are:

(i) Awareness and senility about the environment and environmental challenges

(ii) Knowledge and understanding about the environment and environmental challenges

(iii) Attitude concern for the environment and help to maintain environmental quality

(iv) Skills to mitigate the environmental problems

(v) Participation for exercising existing knowledge and environmental related programmes

Environmental Education helps ensure the health and welfare of any Nation by the following basic environmental concerns. The environmental concerns are: protecting human health, advancing quality education, creating jobs in the environmental field, promoting environmental protection along with economic development, encouraging stewardship of natural resources

Protecting Human Health :

The link between environmental challenges and human health is a major cause of public concern about the environment. Lead poisoning from paint and pipes, air pollution, pesticides in water and food supplies, increased threats of skin cancer from depletion of the ozone layer, and other environmental and health issues are of growing concern to Americans, especially effects on children and future generations.

Environmental education can help to prevent or mitigate environmental human health problems by providing the public with information on the causes of environmental pollution. It also gives knowledge on how pollutants may affect health, how to assess real versus exaggerated risks, and how to make informed and responsible decisions that prevent or mitigate the effects of pollution on health.

Advancing Quality Education:

Educators and public officials generally believe that improvements are needed in the nation’s public education system to enhance student learning. Many educational scholars and practitioners agree that students are not doing well at thinking, reasoning, analyzing, or problem solving.

Many goals of education reform emphasize the need to strengthen core subjects such as math’s, science, and geography; teach across subject areas; improve critical- thinking and problem-solving skills; and relate learning in the classroom to the needs and issues of the community. Environmental education has a tremendous potential to contribute to these goals of education reform.

For example, it can strengthen teaching in many core subjects, especially science, because science is the basis for solving many of our environmental challenges. At the same time, environmental education can promote interdisciplinary teaching because environmental topics can be addressed from many different perspectives, including scientific, historical, and cultural. Environmental education can also bring local environmental challenges into the classroom to improve analysis and problem- solving skills.

The final aspect of environmental education policies, but certainly not least important, is training individuals to thrive in a sustainable society. In addition to building a strong relationship with nature, American citizens must have the skills and knowledge to succeed in a 21st century workforce. Thus, environmental education policies fund both teacher training and worker training initiatives.

Teachers must be trained to effectively teach and incorporate environmental studies in their curricula. On the other hand, the current workforce must be trained or re-trained so that they can adapt to the new green economy. Environmental education policies that fund training programs are critical in educating citizens to prosper in a sustainable society.

Related Articles:

• Importance of Environmental Education in India
• Environmental Education System in India

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Essay on Environmental Sustainability

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100 Words Essay on Environmental Sustainability

Understanding environmental sustainability.

Environmental sustainability is about making decisions that do not harm the environment. It’s about preserving nature for future generations.

Importance of Environmental Sustainability

Our survival depends on the environment. If we don’t sustain it, we risk losing resources like water and air. It’s crucial for our health and economy.

Ways to Achieve Sustainability

We can achieve sustainability by reducing waste, recycling, and using renewable energy. It’s about changing our lifestyles to protect the environment.

Environmental sustainability is crucial for our future. We all need to play our part to ensure our planet remains healthy.

Also check:

• Advantages and Disadvantages of Environmental Sustainability

250 Words Essay on Environmental Sustainability

Introduction to environmental sustainability.

Environmental sustainability is an integral aspect of our existence, intertwined with the notion of preserving the natural world for future generations. It encapsulates the concept of stewardship, wherein we are responsible for managing the Earth’s resources responsibly and efficiently.

The Imperative of Sustainable Practices

The current environmental crisis, characterized by climate change, deforestation, and biodiversity loss, underscores the urgency of sustainable practices. These practices aim to minimize the environmental footprint by reducing waste, conserving energy, and promoting recycling. They are not merely an ethical obligation, but a necessity for human survival.

Role of Innovation in Sustainability

Innovation plays a pivotal role in environmental sustainability. Technological advancements like renewable energy, green architecture, and waste management systems pave the way for a sustainable future. They provide practical solutions to environmental problems, enabling us to balance economic growth with ecological preservation.

Individual Responsibility and Collective Action

Environmental sustainability demands individual responsibility and collective action. Each of us can contribute by adopting sustainable lifestyles, such as minimizing waste, conserving water, and reducing energy consumption. Collective action, on the other hand, involves policy changes, corporate responsibility, and international cooperation.

In conclusion, environmental sustainability is a multidimensional concept, involving the careful management of natural resources, innovative technologies, and concerted human effort. As stewards of the Earth, we must strive to ensure the sustainability of our planet for future generations.

500 Words Essay on Environmental Sustainability

Environmental sustainability is a concept that has grown in prominence as the world grapples with the effects of climate change. It refers to the practice of using resources in a way that preserves the environment for future generations. This includes reducing waste, promoting renewable energy, and maintaining biodiversity.

The Importance of Environmental Sustainability

The significance of environmental sustainability cannot be overstated. As the world’s population continues to grow, so does the demand for resources. This increased demand, coupled with unsustainable practices, has led to environmental degradation, loss of biodiversity, and climate change. By practicing environmental sustainability, we can help ensure that future generations inherit a planet that is as rich and diverse as the one we enjoy today.

Principles of Environmental Sustainability

Environmental sustainability is underpinned by several key principles. First, we must recognize the finite nature of our planet’s resources and strive to use them sparingly. Second, we must work towards reducing waste and promoting recycling. Third, we must strive to reduce our carbon footprint and promote renewable energy. Lastly, we must value and protect our biodiversity, recognizing the intrinsic worth of all living things.

Challenges to Environmental Sustainability

Despite its importance, achieving environmental sustainability is not without its challenges. There is often a conflict between economic development and environmental protection, with many arguing that the latter hampers the former. Additionally, there is a lack of awareness and understanding about environmental issues, leading to apathy and inaction. Lastly, there is a lack of political will to implement and enforce environmental regulations.

Role of Individuals and Institutions in Promoting Environmental Sustainability

Individuals and institutions have a crucial role to play in promoting environmental sustainability. Individuals can make a difference by making sustainable choices in their daily lives, such as reducing waste, recycling, and choosing renewable energy. Institutions, on the other hand, can implement sustainable practices in their operations and advocate for environmental sustainability at the policy level.

In conclusion, environmental sustainability is not just a buzzword; it is a necessity for our survival and the survival of future generations. It requires a collective effort from individuals, institutions, and governments alike. By understanding the importance of environmental sustainability and the principles that underpin it, we can all play a part in preserving our planet for future generations.

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• Essay on Environmental Issues
• Essay on Environmental Hygiene
• Essay on Environmental Hazards

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Press Releases

On this page you will find the latest press releases and statements from the Office of Governor Walz and Lieutenant Governor Flanagan.

Governor Walz Announces Eden Prairie Schools Receives Federal Recognition for Sustainability and Reducing Environmental Impact

4/26/2024 4:23:28 PM

[ST. PAUL] – Governor Tim Walz today announced that Eden Prairie Schools is among the 2024 U.S. Department of Education Green Ribbon honorees for leading the way in reducing environmental impact, promoting health, and ensuring high-quality environmental education programming that prepares students with sustainability skills and concepts.

“I am proud to announce the recognition of Eden Prairie Schools as one of the 2024 U.S. Department of Education Green Ribbon Schools,” said Governor Walz. “From harnessing clean energy to harvesting locally grown foods, Minnesota schools and students continue to pave the way in addressing climate change. As the state continues to invest in our climate future, the next generation, with their deep commitment to developing sustainable climate solutions, is a driving force in meaningful change. Their impact cannot be understated, and I am grateful for this recognition of their hard work.”

“Eden Prairie Schools demonstrates what it means to be a good steward of its environment and to build students’ knowledge about sustainable practices. Eden Prairie students also learn about the impact they can make on the environment and in their community,” said Commissioner Willie Jett. “I congratulate Eden Prairie Public Schools on this prestigious recognition. Thank you for all your efforts in making Minnesota a better place for your students, your staff, your community—and for us all.”

Eden Prairie Schools is among 41 schools, 10 districts, three postsecondary institutions and one early learning center across the country to receive this honor, with Eden Prairie Schools earning the District Sustainability Award.

About 85% of the energy Eden Prairie Schools uses comes from solar panels, many of which are part rooftop solar arrays on district buildings. The district also recently upgraded its facilities to energy saving technology including LED lighting, occupancy sensors, high-efficiency restrooms and kitchen sinks to preserve water and clean diesel engines in buses.

A full service bakery and farm-to-school program is part of a robust plan for environmental health, which includes a focus on mental and emotional health. The district also maintains a focus on sustainability education, weaving sustainability and outdoor education into each student’s school experience.

The honorees were named from a pool of candidates nominated by 24 states.

The list of all selected schools, districts, colleges, and universities, as well as their nomination packages, can be found on the U.S. Department of Education website along with resources for all school to move toward sustainable practices . A report with highlights of each of the honorees is also available .

For more information, visit the Minnesota Department of Education Green Ribbon Schools webpage or the U.S. Department of Education Green Ribbon Schools website .

Find your Senator and share your views on important issues.

Senate Passes 2024-25 Budget Addressing Critical Priorities for New Yorkers & Enacting Key Majority Proposals

April 20, 2024

• 2024-2025 Budget

File New York State Senate Majority Passes SFY 2024-25 Budget Addressing Critical Priorities for New Yorkers & Enacting Key Senate Ma

(Albany, NY) — The New York State Senate is proud to announce the successful passage and enactment of the New York State budget, a testament to the dedication and tireless efforts of the Senate Majority in delivering meaningful relief and progress for the people of New York. This comprehensive budget reflects the Senate Majority’s commitment to addressing the pressing needs of working individuals and families, safeguarding public education, and implementing a holistic approach to housing reform and affordability.

Senate Majority Leader Andrea Stewart-Cousins said, “The enactment of this budget represents a significant step forward in advancing the Senate Majority’s vision for a fairer and more prosperous New York. By prioritizing the needs of working families and investing in critical areas such as affordability, education, housing, environment and healthcare, the Senate Majority remains steadfast in its commitment to delivering tangible results and building a brighter future for all New Yorkers. I thank Governor Hochul, Speaker Heastie and all of my colleagues for their dedication and collaboration in delivering this vital budget. I am confident that this budget will make a meaningful difference in the lives of New Yorkers across the state.”

Senate Majority Deputy Leader Mike Gianaris said, “The State Senate worked hard to build a budget that serves our communities and delivers tangible benefits for New Yorkers. I am proud we achieved important policy priorities, including my proposals to provide additional funding for school security to combat increasing hate crimes, and improved reliability on public transit and express bus routes. The restoration of education aid was also a victory for students throughout the state. Though this budget reflects progress in tackling the decades-long housing crisis, that work remains unfinished and more remains to be done to further protect tenants and find comprehensive solutions to our affordability crisis.”

Finance Committee Chair Senator Liz Krueger said, “As is always the case, we did not get everything we wanted in this final budget, but it represents progress for the people of New York across many important areas. We have defended schools across the state against drastic cuts while laying the groundwork for long-term solutions on school funding and mayoral control; we have taken steps toward protecting all tenants in the state and supporting new affordable housing development; we have eased the tax burden and the child care burden for working families; we have given localities new tools to stop illegal cannabis shops; and we have successfully restored clean water and environmental funding. I thank Leader Stewart-Cousins and my colleagues for their dedication and collaboration, and I particularly thank all our staff for their tireless work throughout this extended budget process.”

Carrying on the proud legacy of being the “education conference,” the Senate Democratic Majority ensured that no cuts would be made to school funding, and that kids across the state would still receive the investments that they both need and deserve. Thanks to the Democratic Conference’s advocacy, this year’s budget will also include transformative investments in higher education to make continued learning more accessible These wins include: 

School Funding

• Rejecting the Executive’s proposal to eliminate Hold Harmless and also increasing Foundation Aid for the poorest 63 districts in the State. This is a Foundation Aid increase of $934 million, or 3.9 percent, over the current school year, which is an increase of $430 million, or 1.8 percent, over the Executive’s Foundation Aid proposal.
• A Comprehensive Study by The Rockefeller Institute and NYS Department of Education to develop a modernized school funding formula.
• $180 million to continue our historic commitment to providing universal school meals for thousands of New York children.
• Extending Mayoral Control for two years. 
• An additional $100 million for Universal Pre-K to allow school districts throughout the state to serve at least 90% of eligible four year olds.
• A study to work towards a pathway for expanded afterschool across New York State.

Higher Education

• The Enacted Budget increases SUNY Operating Aid by $60 million, Capital by $60 million and Community College Support by $6 million over the Executive’s proposal. 
• Increases CUNY Operating Aid by $40 million, Capital by $40 million and Community College Support by $4 million over the Executive’s proposal.
• The Senate also provided significant support for the SUNY Hospitals, providing operating assistance to cover their debt service and $150 million in capital. 
• Increasing the household income limit for dependent students from $80,000 to $125,000
• Increase the married, no children income ceiling from $40,000 to $60,000 (Net Taxable Income) 
• Increasing the max income limit from $10,000 to $30,000

Amidst the ongoing housing crisis in New York, the Senate Democratic Conference put forward and secured a transformative housing deal that targets both the affordability and supply of the current market through meaningful tenant and homeowner protections, along with real incentives to replenish the stock. This historic deal includes: 

Hard fought Senate Majority proposals in final package:

• Housing Opportunities for the Future - a new $150 million program to build affordable homes and rentals across New York State. 
• A new opt-in construction or commercial conversion tax exemption for affordable housing outside the City of New York.
• Authorization for municipalities to adopt a local tax exemption to make it easier for individuals to build accessory dwelling units.

Historic Tenant and Homeowner Protections: 

• A rent increase is presumptively unreasonable if it is greater than the annual change in CPI plus 5%, or 10%, whichever is lower. 
• A lease can only be terminated for one of the good causes lined out within the bill. 
• Takes effect immediately in New York City, while localities in the rest of the state may opt in and provides for flexibility in defining the small landlord and high-rent exemptions. 
• Sunsets in ten years. 
• The SFY 2024-25 Enacted Budget also establishes the crime of Deed Theft, to protect homeowners from having someone steal the title to their home through fraudulent or deceptive practices, often which are targeted towards elderly homeowners. This provision would allow for the prosecution of individuals who intentionally alter, falsify, forge, or misrepresent property documents unlawfully transfer ownership rights of real property.
• $140 million in capital funding for NYCHA, 
• $80 million to support Mitchell-Lamas and $75 million to support public housing authorities outside of New York City.
• $40 million in the Homeowner Protection Program (HOPP)
• A total of $10 million in Eviction Protection Funding in New York City and $40 million for outside New York City 

Needed New York City Specific Housing Advances:

• The Enacted Budget includes an extension of the 421a construction completion deadline until 2031 to ensure that vested projects that had started construction prior to the expiration of 421a are able to continue. 
• It also implements 485x, a new version of 421a, to build new multifamily buildings across New York City with stronger labor and wage standards and requires levels of affordability.  It also lifts the Floor Area Ratio (FAR) cap to allow for higher density buildings.
• This budget includes a pilot program to legalize basement and cellar apartments within identified geographic locations in the City of New York and to ensure those apartments are brought up to code to allow individuals to live in them safely. 
• And, it builds on previous conference wins to include a tax incentive program for Commercial Conversions with higher affordability requirements. 

In this year’s state budget, the Senate Democratic Conference continued its efforts to ensure New York remains affordable and opportunity-filled for working and middle class families to put down roots. This year, those measures included:

• A historic $350 million for a new supplemental tax credit for families eligible for the Empire State Child Tax Credit to provide direct support to working families, and continues to implement the lowest Middle-Class Tax rate in over 70 years, saving average New Yorkers millions of dollars. 
• Allowing children ages 0-6 to remain continuously enrolled in Medicaid or Child Health Plus without having to redetermine eligibility, to ensure children have stable and affordable health insurance for their first years. 
• Advances $50 million for customers enrolled in the NYSERDA EmPower+ Program to electrify their homes, providing subsidies to guarantee customers don’t spend more than 6% of their income on an electric bill.   
• Thanks to the Senate’s efforts, this budget will also include long overdue and critical Tier 6 reform by changing the final average salary calculation window for Tier 6 members from five to three years to help incentivize workforce retention. 
• The successful Senate inclusion of a 2.84% COLA for Human Services includes a 1.7% target salary increase for specific support, direct care, clinical, and non-executive administrative staff. This represents a notable increase over the Executive’s 1.5% COLA proposal.
• $50 million in transformative new funding for Anti-Poverty Efforts in Rochester, Syracuse and Buffalo. 

Access to Affordable Child Care: 

• The Enacted Budget includes $1.78 billion for the New York State Child Care Block Grant, an increase of $754.4 million, which will provide subsidies for 119,000 eligible children. 
• It further includes $280 million in underutilized federal pandemic funds to continue the Workforce Retention Grant program and provide another round of bonus payments to employees at 14,000 programs statewide. 
• The Enacted Budget will also continue $6.25 million for the Child Care Facilitated Enrollment program in New York City and $5.6 million to the rest of the state. This program is designed to help qualifying working parents get access to child care in New York City.  

In ongoing efforts to bolster New York’s economy from the ground up, New York State Democrats are continuing to invest in small businesses and development at all levels of the economy. This year’s state budget includes:

• Empire AI, a pioneering consortium to develop and inaugurate a cutting-edge artificial intelligence computing center in Buffalo, with statewide partners to ensure New York’s leadership in the burgeoning AI space. 
• It will create a personal income and corporate franchise tax credit for certain qualifying, independently owned print media or broadcasting entities, including those that have experienced workforce or circulation decline in the last five years.  
• It places a total cap on the credit per entity of $300,000, and an annual cap of $30 million. It sets aside $4 million to provide a $5,000 credit for the hiring of new employees, and $26 million set aside for the retention of current staff. Half of the funds will be set aside specifically for those with 100 or fewer employees.
• This budget adds $365,000 over the Executive proposal in additional funding for the Minority and Women-Owned Business Development lending program, for a total of $1 million.
• It also increases the grant amounts for Entrepreneurial Assistance Centers from $175,000 to $250,000 to support small businesses and MWBEs across the state and help establish EACs in unserved areas. 
• This budget successfully enacts the Retail Security Tax Credit, which helps small businesses make the investments needed to keep employees safe.
• The Senate Majority successfully added its investment of $1 million for beginning farmers, along with $1 million for socially and economically disadvantaged farmers.
• Language to lower the medical cannabis tax rate from 7% to 3.15%  and direct revenue to counties in order to keep them whole. 
• $100,000 for the Cannabis Farmers Alliance, and $50,000 for the Cannabis Association of New York.
• Increased enforcement powers for the Office of Cannabis Management (OCM) to enable cities and counties to crack down on illegal cannabis shops.

In a continued effort to support the wellbeing of all New Yorker’s at every stage of life, the Senate Majority fought to bolster health care resources and continue investing in mental health services for everyone throughout the state. The SFY 2024-25 budget includes:

• $7.5 billion invested in New York’s health care system through modifications to the state's 1115 Medicaid Waiver to be used for promoting health equity, diminishing health disparities, and enhancing access to primary and behavioral health care.
• $800 million in support for distressed and safety-net hospitals.
• Continuing to increase the minimum wage for home care workers.
• Establishing minimum collection policies for medical debt, increasing eligibility for hospital financial assistance, a uniform financial assistance application for all hospitals, prohibiting hospitals from using immigration status as a criterion for financial assistance eligibility, requiring reporting on users of financial assistance, and clarifying that the notice requirements on medical credit cards apply to hospitals as well as other health care providers. 
• Eliminating cost-sharing for insulin in commercial insurance for thousands of New Yorkers.
• Requiring commercial insurance to reimburse outpatient behavioral and substance use disorder treatment services at no less than the Medicaid rate.  

Mental Health  

• Providing $55 million to establish 200 new inpatient psychiatric beds at State-run facilities.
• Investing $33 million to enhance mental health services targeting first responders and aiding individuals with mental illnesses involved in the criminal justice system.
• Allocating $19 million for mental health services for school-aged children.
• $75.8 million increase for Crisis Services, which includes improving public safety by addressing serious mental illness, and providing critical care to young people.
• $8 million increase to the Judiciary to support Mental Health Court operations. 
• Extending the Mental Health Support and Workforce Reinvestment Program for an additional three years, allowing Office of Mental Health to reinvest savings from the closure of State-operated inpatient facilities for workforce development activities and community mental health services

As New York continues to be a beacon for the nation amidst ongoing attacks on reproductive rights, the Senate Democrats used this year’s State Budget to advance greater protections and resources for those who utilize these services, ensuring that they remain available to all who need them. This includes:

• Passing First in the Nation Paid Prenatal Leave, providing 20 hours of paid sick time for pregnant employees to use for their prenatal care visits.
• Codifying the Reproductive Freedom and Equity Grant Program to provide funding for abortion providers and non-profit entities to support increased access to abortion.
• Enacting the Community Doula Expansion Grant Program to provide funding to community-based organizations for recruitment and retention and startup and administrative costs to increase the number of community doulas.
• Allowing the Health Commissioner to issue a statewide, non-patient specific order to provide doula services for any pregnant, birthing, or postpartum individual.
• Requiring Paid Breaks for Breast Milk Expression in the Workplace for 30 minutes.

The New York Senate Democrats have always understood that a brighter future starts with investments into our youth. Through this advocacy, the SFY 2024-25 Budget includes vital funding for youth programming and intervention services, with:

• $103.2 million for After School Programs, an increase of over $20 million from last year’s budget 
• $10 million for the Youth Sports Initiative. 
• $1.5 million in additional funding for the Youth Development Program, for a total of $15.6 million.
• $1 million in additional funding for the Runaway and Homeless Youth Act program, for a total of $8.1 million.
• $2 million in additional funding for Child Advocacy Centers, for a total of $7.2 million.

The SFY 2024-25 Enacted Budget continues the Senate Democratic Majority’s commitment to meeting New York’s climate goals by forging ahead on key investments and advancing modern policy to address the needs of the moment so we can not only stop, but also reverse the effects of climate change. This includes:

• Adding $250 million over the Executive proposal for the Clean Water Infrastructure Act for a total of  $500 million.
• Successfully reversing cuts to the Environmental Protection Fund for an investment of  $400 million to support climate priorities across New York State.
• Expediting the siting and construction of electrical transmission and commercial energy storage through the RAPID Act, with the addition of Senate Majority proposals to preserve prime agricultural land, incorporate greater community input in the siting process, and improve labor standards. 
• $300 million in Capital for enhancing and improving parks statewide and $150 million for the New York Statewide Investment in More Swimming (NYSWIMS) program to improve pools and build new ones in communities across the State. 

The New York State Senate Majority is building on record investments to infrastructure and local municipalities by restoring roads funding and putting more money into local government. This includes: 

• $50 million increase in AIM funding for local governments, the first increase in AIM in over a decade for a total of $765.2 million.
• The Senate’s successful inclusion of Sammy’s Law, which will authorize citywide speed limits to be reduced at DOT’s discretion, upon authorization from the New York City Council, allowing for the speed limits to be changed from 25 mph to 20 mph, and to lower special traffic-calming zones from 15 mph to 10 mph. 
• $2.5 million added by the Senate Democrats to establish and support the Dr. John L. Flateau Voting Rights and Elections Database of New York to assist in efforts to enforce the John R. Lewis Voting Rights Act of New York, increasing both accountability and transparency in New York’s elections system, and $5 million in assistance for Local Boards of Elections.
• $10 million in additional funds for Upstate STOA funding, for a total of $333.2 million.
• $4.2 billion for the MTA, an increase of $140 million or 3.4 percent from SFY 2023-24. 
• $551 million for non-MTA downstate systems, a 5.4 percent increase in funding. 
• $60 million in additional funding for CHIPS, for a total of $598 million.
• $40 million in additional funding for State Touring Routes, for a total of $140 million.
• $200 million per year for BRIDGE NY
• $150 million per year for PAVE NY
• $200 million for Pave our Potholes
• $100 million for Extreme Winter Recovery

The SFY 2024-25 Enacted Budget puts meaningful resources into public safety and the protection of all New Yorkers, of all backgrounds. This year’s funding builds on previous Senate Majority efforts by: 

• Expanding the range of offenses that can be prosecuted as hate crimes.
• Investing an additional $35 million in the Securing Communities Against Hate Grant to safeguard houses of worship, religious schools, and other vulnerable locations.
• Allocating $347 million to continue efforts to reduce and prevent gun violence in New York.
• Providing $35.7 million to combat and prosecute domestic violence crimes.
• Investing $7.1 million to provide more intensive supervision for individuals on parole through the Supervision Against Violent Engagement (SAVE) program
• Expanding transitional housing and college programming across all state prisons.
• $1 million for transportation for visitors to and from State Correctional Facilities.
• Implementing measures to combat toll evasion on roads and fare evasion on subways, commuter rails, and buses, including cracking down on vanish plates and fraudulent paper plates. 
• Creates a Class E felony for assaulting a retail worker. 
• Allowing for aggregation of retail theft crimes to make it easier to prosecute repeat offenders. 
• This budget creates a new Class A misdemeanor, Aggravated Harassment in the Second Degree, which would make it a crime for an individual to intentionally subject a transit worker to unlawful physical contact.
• Protecting against Sexually explicit Artificial Intelligence- expands the existing statutory right to privacy, which says that it is unlawful to use a person’s name, portrait, or picture for commercial advertising without consent, by adding “likeness and voice” to the list of protected characteristics. 
• Combatting the use of Deep fakes in Elections- the legislation requires distributors or publishers of “materially deceptive” political communications to disclose the use of digitization. It also gives candidates a private right of action to seek injunctive relief and court and attorneys’ fees.
• The Senate fought to include $30 million for AAPI Equity Coalition priorities for crisis intervention initiatives and community-based programs to combat bias crimes.
• The Senate fought to enact the Limousine Passenger Safety Task Force’s recommendations, including increasing the minimum fine for operating a stretch limousine that has been suspended with an out-of-service defect, requiring stretch limos to be equipped with a window break tool as well as a fire extinguisher, equipping stretch limos with anti-intrusion and roll-over protections, improving safety data reporting and requiring a pre-trip safety briefing for limo passengers.

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As Solar Capacity Grows, Some of America's Most Productive Farmland Is at Risk

As Solar Capacity Grows, Some of America's Most Productive Farmland Is at Risk

Solar panels stand on sandy soil located on Dave Duttlinger's farmland, Wheatfield, Indiana, April 5, 2024. REUTERS/Jim Vondruska

By P.J. Huffstutter and Christopher Walljasper

JASPER COUNTY, INDIANA (Reuters) - Dave Duttlinger's first thought when he saw a dense band of yellowish-brown dust smearing the sky above his Indiana farm was: I warned them this would happen.

About 445 acres of his fields near Wheatfield, Indiana, are covered in solar panels and related machinery – land that in April 2019 Duttlinger leased to Dunns Bridge Solar LLC, for one of the largest solar developments in the Midwest.

On that blustery spring afternoon in 2022, Duttlinger said, his phone rang with questions from frustrated neighbors: Why is dust from your farm inside my truck? Inside my house? Who should I call to clean it up?

According to Duttlinger's solar lease, reviewed by Reuters, Dunns Bridge said it would use "commercially reasonable efforts to minimize any damage to and disturbance of growing crops and crop land caused by its construction activities" outside the project site and "not remove topsoil" from the property itself. Still, sub-contractors graded Duttlinger's fields to assist the building of roads and installation of posts and panels, he said, despite his warnings that it could make the land more vulnerable to erosion.

Crews reshaped the landscape, spreading fine sand across large stretches of rich topsoil, Duttlinger said. When Reuters visited his farm last year and this spring, much of the land beneath the panels was covered in yellow-brown sand, where no plants grew.

"I'll never be able to grow anything on that field again," the farmer said. About one-third of his approximately 1,200-acre farm – where his family grows corn, soybeans and alfalfa for cattle – has been leased.

The Dunns Bridge Solar project is a subsidiary of NextEra Energy Resources LLC, the world's largest generator of renewable energy from wind and solar. Duttlinger said when he approached NextEra about the damage to his land, the company said it would review any remedial work needed at the end of its contract in 2073, as per the terms of the agreement.

NextEra declined to comment on the matter or on what future commitments it made to Duttlinger, and Reuters could not independently confirm them. Project developer Orion Renewable Energy Group LLC directed questions to NextEra.

The solar industry is pushing into the U.S. Midwest, drawn by cheaper land rents, access to electric transmission, and a wealth of federal and state incentives. The region also has what solar needs: wide-open fields.

A renewable energy boom risks damaging some of America's richest soils in key farming states like Indiana, according to a Reuters analysis of federal, state and local data; hundreds of pages of court records; and interviews with more than 100 energy and soil scientists, agricultural economists, farmers and farmland owners, and local, state and federal lawmakers.

Some of Duttlinger's farm, including parts now covered in solar panels, is on land classified by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) as the most productive for growing crops, according to a Reuters analysis.  

For landowners like Duttlinger, the promise of profits is appealing. Solar leases in Indiana and surrounding states can offer $900 to $1,500 an acre per year in land rents, with annual rate increases, according to a Reuters review of solar leases and interviews with four solar project developers. In comparison, farmland rent in top corn and soybean producers Indiana, Illinois and Iowa averaged about $251 per acre in 2023, USDA data shows.

    Farmland Partners Inc, a publicly traded farmland real estate investment trust (REIT) has leased about 9,000 acres nationwide to solar firms. Much of that ground is highly productive, said Executive Chairman Paul Pittman.

"Do I think it's the best use of that land? Probably not. But our investors would kill us if we didn't pursue this," he said.

    Some renewable energy developers said not all leases become solar projects. Some are designing their sites to make it possible to grow crops between panels, while others, like Doral Renewables LLC, said they use livestock to graze around the panels as part of their land management. Developers also argue that in the Midwest, where more than one-third of the U.S. corn crop is used for ethanol production, solar energy is key for powering future electric vehicles.

Some agricultural economists and agronomists counter that taking even small amounts of the best cropland out of production for solar development and damaging valuable topsoil impacts future crop potential in the United States.

Common solar farm construction practices, including clearing and grading large sections of land, also can lead to significant erosion and major runoff of sediment into waterways without proper remediation, according to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and the Justice Department.

Solar development comes amid increasing competition for land: In 2023, there were 76.2 million - or nearly 8% - fewer acres in farms than in 1997, USDA data shows, as farmland is converted for residential, commercial and industrial use.

In response to Reuters' findings, USDA said that urban sprawl and development are currently bigger contributors to farmland loss than solar, citing reports from the Department of Energy and agency-funded research.

BUILDING ON PRIME CROPLAND

No one knows how much cropland nationwide is currently under solar panels or leased for possible future development. Land deals are typically private transactions. Scientists at the United States Geological Survey and the U.S. Department of Energy's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory have been compiling a database of existing solar facilities across the country. While that project is incomplete and ongoing, Reuters found that around 0.02% of all cropland in the continental U.S. intersected in some way with large-scale, ground-based solar panel sites they had identified as of 2021.

The total power capacity of the solar operations tracked in the data set represents over 60 gigawatts of electric power capacity. In the following two years, solar capacity has nearly tripled, according to a Dec. 2023 report from the Solar Energy Industries Association (SEIA) and Wood Mackenzie.

To better understand future land-use patterns, Reuters analyzed federal government data to identify cropland that USDA classified as prime, unique, or of local or statewide importance. Reuters also reviewed more than 2,000 pages of solar-related documents filed at local county recorders' offices in a small sample of four Midwestern counties – Pulaski, Starke and Jasper counties in Indiana, and Columbia County in Wisconsin.

The counties, representing an area of land slightly bigger than the state of Delaware, are where some of the nation's largest projects are being developed or built. The sample is not necessarily representative of the broader United States but gives an idea of the potential impact of solar projects in farm-heavy counties.

Reuters found the percentage of these counties' most productive cropland secured by solar and energy companies as of end of 2022 was as follows: 12% in Pulaski, 9% in Starke, 4% in Jasper and 5% in Columbia.

Jerry Hatfield, former director of USDA Agricultural Research Service's National Laboratory for Agriculture and the Environment, said Reuters' findings in the four counties are "concerning."

"It's not the number of acres converting to solar," he said. "It's the quality of the land coming out of production, and what that means for local economies, state economies and the country's future abilities for crop production." 

More than a dozen agronomists, as well as renewable energy researchers and other experts consulted by Reuters, said the approach to measuring solar's impact was fair. The news agency also shared its findings with six solar developers and energy firms working in these counties. Three said Reuters' sample size was too small, and the range of findings too wide, to be a fair portrayal of industry siting and construction practices.

By 2050, to meet the Biden Administration's decarbonization targets, the U.S. will need up to 1,570 gigawatts of electric energy capacity from solar.

While the land needed for ground-based solar development to achieve this goal won't be even by state, it is not expected to exceed 5% of any state's land area, except the smallest state of Rhode Island, where it could reach 6.5%, by 2050, according to the Energy Department's Solar Futures Study, published in 2021.

Researchers at American Farmland Trust, a non-profit farmland protection organization which champions what it calls Smart Solar, forecast last year that 83% of new solar energy development in the U.S. will be on farm and ranchland, unless current government policies changed. Nearly half would be on the nation's best land for producing food, fiber, and other crops, they warned.

FUEL DEBATE

    Five renewable developers and solar energy firms interviewed by Reuters counter that the industry's use of farmland is too small to impact domestic food production overall and should be balanced with the need to decarbonize the U.S. energy market in the face of climate change.

    Doral Renewables, the developer behind the $1.5 billion Mammoth Solar project in Pulaski and Starke counties, does not consider corn or soybean yields in its siting decisions.

Instead, the company looks at the land's topography, zoning and closeness to an electrical grid or substation – and tries to avoid wooded areas, ditches and environmentally sensitive areas, said Nick Cohen, Doral's president and CEO.

    Shifting corn acres for solar? "I don't see it as replacing something that is vital to our society," Cohen said. Solar can make farmland "more productive from an economic perspective," he added.

Indiana farmer Norm Welker says he got a better deal leasing 60% of his farmland to Mammoth than he would have growing corn, with prices dipping to three-year lows this year.

"We've got mounds of corn, we're below the cost of production, and right now, if you're renting land to grow corn – you're losing money," Welker said. "This way, my economic circumstances are very good."

(Reporting by P.J. Huffstutter in Chicago, Columbia County, Wisconsin, and Jasper, Starke and Pulaski Counties, Indiana. Reporting by Christopher Walljasper in Chicago; Editing by Caroline Stauffer and Claudia Parsons)

Copyright 2024 Thomson Reuters .

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